Summary of measurand and light parameters of different sensor structures.
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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Effective visual features are made possible through the rapid developments in \r\nappropriate sensor equipments, novel filter designs, and viable information processing \r\narchitectures. While the understanding of human-brain cognition process broadens the way \r\nin which the computer can perform pattern recognition tasks. The present book is intended \r\nto collect representative researches around the globe focusing on low-level vision, filter \r\ndesign, features and image descriptors, data mining and analysis, and biologically inspired \r\nalgorithms. The 27 chapters coved in this book disclose recent advances and new ideas in \r\npromoting the techniques, technology and applications of pattern recognition.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-7619-24-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5793-9",doi:"10.5772/90",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"pattern_recognition_techniques_technology_and_applications",numberOfPages:638,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"776a1270a14ebea65bf567dd6dfea1de",bookSignature:"Peng-Yeng Yin",publishedDate:"November 1st 2008",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5687.jpg",numberOfDownloads:116347,numberOfWosCitations:145,numberOfCrossrefCitations:144,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:275,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:6,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:564,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 24th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:null,dateEndThirdStepPublish:null,dateEndFourthStepPublish:null,dateEndFifthStepPublish:null,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"5693",title:"Prof.",name:"Peng-Yeng",middleName:null,surname:"Yin",slug:"peng-yeng-yin",fullName:"Peng-Yeng Yin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5693/images/2062_n.png",biography:"Peng-Yeng Yin received his B.S., M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Computer Science from National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan. From 1993 to 1994, he was a visiting scholar at the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, and the Department of Radiology, Georgetown University, Washington D.C. In 2000, he was a visiting Professor in the Visualization and Intelligent Systems Laboratory (VISLab) at the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of California, Riverside (UCR). From 2006 to 2007, he was a visiting Professor at Leeds School of Business, University of Colorado. From 2001 to 2003, he was a Professor at the Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Ming Chuan University, Taoyuan, Taiwan. Since 2003, he has been a Professor of the Department of Information Management, National Chi Nan University, Nantou, Taiwan, and is currently the Dean of Research and Development. Dr. Yin received the Overseas Research Fellowship from Ministry of Education in 1993, Overseas Research Fellowship from National Science Council in 2000. He is a member of the Phi Tau Phi Scholastic Honor Society and listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in Science and Engineering, and Who’s Who in Asia. Dr. Yin has published more than 100 academic articles in reputable journals and conferences including IEEE Trans. on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, IEEE Trans. on Knowledge and Data Engineering, IEEE Trans. on Education, Pattern Recognition, Annals of Operations Research, IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, etc. He is the Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Applied Metaheuristic Computing and is on the Editorial Board of International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, Journal of Education, Informatics and Cybernetics, Journal of Pattern Recognition Research, Artificial Intelligence Research, ISRN Signal Processing, The Open Artificial Intelligence Journal, The Open Signal Processing Journal and served as a program committee member in many international conferences. He has also edited two books in the pattern recognition area. 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The inclusion of optical fibers in bio-sensing applications was started by two different, but interrelated discoveries, such as the laser light and optical fibers. The theoretical work of C. H. Townes and A. L. Schawlow was used by T. H. Maiman to develop the first laser. A optical signal obtained through laser is highly collimated, inherently coherent, and quasi monochromatic with the data transfer capability. The optical signal propagates in optical fiber by obeying the principle of total internal reflection (TIR) with very low losses and the first working model of optical fiber was proposed in 1965 [1]. The working model of optical fiber was put forwarded 100 years after the demonstration of concept of light. Since, then the main focus was to improve the transmission of optical signal through fibers. Nowadays, the key focus is on long distance high speed communication with low transmission losses such as 2 dB/km [2]. The unique properties of optical fibers such as immunity to electromagnetic (EM) interference and miniature footprints, the optical fiber has found niche application in sensing [3].
A schematic of conventional single mode fiber (SMF) used in the field of telecommunication is shown in Figure 1, consisting of three layers such as a silica core having diameter of in order of several microns (∼ 2–9 μm) and doped with germanium to boost up its refractive index (RI), a silica cladding of diameter of 125 μm and a coating of plastic jacket. Although, the plastic coating does not play any role in light propagation but provides the mechanical strength to the fiber. The optical fibers can be fabricated by using some other materials such as chalcogenide [4], plastic [5], and composites, with different composite materials in core and cladding. Based on the core size, operating wavelength, and RI difference of core and cladding, an optical fiber can work in the regime of single or multimode. In single mode fibers, the distribution of optical signal profile in core is Gaussian, while in multimode signal profile is more complex [2].
Schematic of single mode optical fiber [
The optical sensors detect the variation in optical properties of propagating signal, that occurs due to the physiochemical change in targeted environment. The optical fiber based sensors classified into two categories on the basis of sensing region such as extrinsic or intrinsic sensors. The sensors directing or collecting optical signal to and from external environment are termed as extrinsic sensors [6]. The sensors in which the properties of optical signal vary within the fiber are known as intrinsic sensors [7]. In general, extrinsic sensors being used for the detection of external stimuli such as physical or biochemical parameters. The optical fiber based measurement techniques have received a great attention especially in the field of structural monitoring, railway and aerospace, chemical and biological sensing, medical diagnosis and environmental monitoring.
Since, the key application of SMF were in the field of telecommunication, and hence, fabricated in such a way that the influence of external field can be minimized on propagating signal. However, for the efficient operation of optical fiber sensors, the interaction of optical signal with external environment should need to be maximized. This can be attained by adopting different optical fiber processing schemes which frequently utilizes the interaction of leaking fields with external environment. The commonly used geometry of optical fiber in sensing applications are discussed in following subsections.
The easiest way to increase the interaction of evanescent waves (EW) with external medium is removal of cladding, and a schematic of cladding less optical fiber sensor is illustrated in Figure 2. The changes in propagation of optical signals due to variation in external environment facilitates the EW spectroscopy [8]. The facilitation of EW spectroscopy is highly sensitive and powerful technique to quantitatively and qualitatively investigate the environment present in the vicinity of sensing region of sensor. The EW leaks from core to cladding and the distance is termed as penetration depth. The penetration depth of EW can be evaluated as [9]:
Schematic of cladding less optical fiber sensor structure [
where,
The absorption spectrum of surrounding medium attenuates the EW which hindered the propagating mode. This can be understood from Lambert–Beer Law which is given as:
where, c is the concentration of absorption substance,
An access to EW can also be obtained by tapering the optical fiber structure. The tapering of optical fiber usually done within the dimensions varying from submillimeter to several millimeters. The tapered region of the optical fiber maintains the uniform diameter with conical ends to merge it with unaltered part of optical fiber as illustrated in Figure 3. The tapering of fiber is done by heating the fiber structure by using flame or CO2 laser beam. The properties of tapered optical fiber sensor is based on the diameter of conical ends, diameter of tapered region, and RI of surroundings. The proportion of EW power in tapered fiber structure, increases with decrease in diameter of tapered region and with decreasing RI difference of external environment and of fiber [13]. The tapered optical fiber provides numerous advantages to the sensors such as compactness, higher sensitivity and flexibility. The tapered optical fiber classified into categories such as adiabatic and non-adiabatic. When the tapered transition region is small in such a way that maximum optical power confines within the core, then such structure are termed as adiabatic tapered fibers [13]. However, in non-adiabatic one the diameter of tapered region is less than 10 μm and the propagating modes couples into higher order modes [14]. The tapered optical fibers have been utilized in various sensing applications [15, 16, 17]. In case of tapered fiber structures, the interaction of EW with surrounding medium can be analyzed by two different.
Schematic of tapered optical fiber structure [
approaches. In first approach, the attenuation of signal is to be measured which is propagating through tapered region and depends on the RI of surrounding medium [18]. In second one, the variation in surrounding medium affects the RI of modes propagating in the tapered section of fiber and works interferometrically, by using mode theory [19].
The optical fiber interferometers provide very high sensitivity because of their unique operational mechanism and usually known as modal interferometers (MI). In MI basically, the propagating modes splits into two modes at sensing region which are traveled in different RI regime that causes a difference in their phase and wavelength. The different properties of propagating modes lead to the interference in fundamental and higher order modes and results into a transmission spectrum with fringes. The phase of the fringes ca be given as:
where, L is the center to center distance between two modes and
Schematic of SMF and TCF fiber based Mach-Zehnder interferometer [
The optical fiber based Michelson interferometers were also proposed and a schematic is illustrated in Figure 5. In Michelson interferometer, the core modes distributed into higher order modes at tapered section and after striking to gold film reflects back and recombined at the tapered section. Therefore, an interference between the modes occurs at the tapered region that causes the generation of fringes. The presence of external medium in the region separating the taper and gold films introduces the interfering features in the received signal. In similar physical length, Michelson interferometer provides higher sensitivity because the twice interaction of optical signal with sensing region. These interferometers works on the basis of measurement of wavelength or amplitude of the spectrum.
Schematic of optical fiber based Michelson interferometer [
received at the output. An another type of optical fiber based interferometer is Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI). The FPI is consisting of a cavity between two reflectors and illustrated in Figure 6. Alternatively, a FPI can be developed by coating a thin metallic layer at the tip of the fiber which acts as a mirror and the distance between metallic layer and surrounding medium as an another mirror. A change in the RI of cavity or its length can modulate the signal. The modulated signal will be further used to measure the targeted measurand that modulates the signal.
Schematic of optical fiber based FPI sensor [
An optical fiber grating is consisting of slots placed periodically with an equal proportion. The slots in optical fiber structure leads to the modulation of the propagating optical signal. The grating can be incorporated by exposing the fiber structure to the ultra-violent or femtosecond laser with desired geometry [23]. The optical fiber based grating structure were also found to be a good candidate for the sensing applications [23]. A schematic of FBG sensor with its measurement setup is illustrated in Figure 7. The grating structure couples the forward and backward propagating modes of the core at the particular wavelength that satisfies the Bragg condition. A Bragg grating is considered as reflector which reflects a specific wavelength band along the optical fiber and transmitted all others. The reflected Bragg wavelength is governed by a mathematical expression which can be given as [23]:
Schematic of measurement setup of FBG sensor [
In Bragg grating based sensors, the interaction of EW with surroundings can be maintained or enhanced by modifying the fiber geometry such as tapering, etching of cladding of sensing region. Therefore, to overcome this limitation, tilted Bragg grating can be utilized in which the gratings are designed at a specific angle with respect to the axis of the core. The interaction of cladding modes with EW changes the wavelength of propagating cladding modes [25]. The interaction of EW with surrounding medium leads to the induction of inherent sensitivity to the external RI and to the nano-coatings placed over the cladding layers. While considering the fact long periodic (LPG) grating structures were come into origin. The LPG are generally created with in the length of 100 microns to 1 mm as illustrated in Figure 8. LPG usually couples the light form the core modes to the co-propagating modes of the structure [27]. The cladding mode suffers higher attenuation, therefore, the transmission spectrum of LPG can be analyzed by using the series of resonance bands.
Schematic of NP coated LPG sensor structure [
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that optical fiber based sensors have wide applications in bio-sensing applications. A short summary of above discussed different geometries of optical fiber sensor structures is tabulated in Table 1. The tabulated form is easy enough to get a brief introduction to the required geometry of sensor.
Sensor type | Measurand | Light parameters | Units |
---|---|---|---|
Cladding less | Absorption, concentration | Intensity | dB, % |
Tapered | RI, absorption, concentration, pressure, temperature, strain | Wavelength shift, intensity | dB, %, nm |
Interferometers | RI, absorption, concentration, pressure, temperature, strain | Intensity, wavelength shift, phase | dB, %, nm, degrees |
FBG | pressure, temperature, strain | Intensity, wavelength shift | dB, %, pm |
LPG | RI, absorption, concentration, pressure, temperature, strain | Intensity, wavelength shift | dB, %, nm |
Summary of measurand and light parameters of different sensor structures.
The optimum properties of optical fibers such as higher sensitivity and low limit of detection are the crucial parameters, but in addition, the selectivity is also an important concept in biochemical measurement. The selectivity or specificity is important to avoid the interference of other biomolecules or biomarkers presented in targeted analytes. There are two approaches based on which the selectivity of biosensor can be attained. The first approach is to use special material fibers such as chalcogenide glasses, fluoride or silver halide glasses [28]. These fibers are transparent to IR wavelength, and on the contrary, biomolecules pursue the highly absorption features [29, 30]. However, the use of chalcogenide fibers is not useful because of their potential toxicity and still an effort is required to improve their responses towards biomolecules [28]. In second approach, there is indirect sensing of analytes by placing a biochemical layer over the sensing region. The biochemical layer changes the optical properties on the basis of surrounding RI. Such biosensors provide the quantitative and qualitative information of the chemical reagent under examinations. The chemical layer over the sensing region means the wavelength of output optical signal is managed by the properties of biochemical layer instead of absorption spectra. The sensitivity of such biosensors is depends on the length of sensing area, amount of EW and optical properties of the coated biochemical layer [31].
The diagnosis of biomolecules present in human bodies can be detected in two phase such as in gases or in liquid. In gas phase, the analysis can be done by analyzing the gases exhaled from skin or breath. In liquid phase, the analysis of biomolecules can be done by testing the samples such as urine, saliva, blood, sweat and tears.
The biomarkers released from human bodies are useful to develop the non-invasive techniques. The diagnosis of these biomarkers is important to find the presence of disease [32, 33]. The breath sniffing method is useful to analyze the patient suffering from renal failure in rats [34] and lung cancer detection [35]. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are the two gases that are routinely checked in clinical applications. The detection of these two gases was also performed by using optical fiber sensor by using pH indicator separated with well separated with emission bands [36]. Ammonia is one of the major component that affects the body metabolism and can disturb the functioning of kidney and liver [37, 38]. In normal conditions, the ammonia releases from body skin from slight alkaline blood and its detection is used to diagnose the disease related to kidney and liver [39]. The ammonia diagnosis was carried out by using optical fiber sensors. Initially, the detection was done by employing pH detector based on indications [40]. Since then, reflector sensor tips [41], EW based fiber grating [42], and lossy mode resonance (LMR) [43] were reported. The sensitivity and limit of detection of such optical fiber sensor was extremely good in comparison of existing works.
The diagnosis of various organic compound is hardly done at clinical level, but number of studies were reported. Although, the optical fiber sensors for the detection of organic compounds are not very sensitive [44]. An EW based optical fiber sensor was put forwarded for the detection of gas exhaled from human skin [45]. The proposed sensor is also capable of analyzing the physiological changes by applying a pattern recognition technique. The optical fiber sensors have also been utilized for the diagnosis of humidity, which is one of the important factor in case of critical conditions [46]. The increase in humidity in human bodies leads to the dryness in mucosa and cause difficulties in breathing. However, instead of such critical need, the optical fiber based humidity sensors cannot be used in medical applications because of slow response and recovery time.
The diagnosis of biomarkers present in human bodies can be done by measuring the pH of liquid. The pH of liquid present in stomach is varies from 1.3 to 3.5, and of urine and pancreas is from 8.0 to 8.8 [47]. A tilted FBG based sensor structure was reported to detect the pH of human body fluids [48]. The sensor is working on the basis of coated polymer films whose thickness varies according to the variation of body fluid concentration and leads to the change in optical properties of the signal. Despite of reported articles, the pH sensors have been utilized
The pH detection in bio-fluids is also useful to detect the presence of drugs which will be helpful for pharmaceuticals and could be a milestone to develop therapeutic aids for human and animals [51]. The detection of antibiotics in human blood stream can be a useful step to prevent the overdose or to provide the effective dose for specific disorder. A LPG based vancomycin sensor was reported which can be used to treat some severe gram-positive infections [52]. The sensor is capable of detecting the very low concentration of antibiotics present in blood stream which were at the concentration of 10 nM with high specificity towards other biomolecules. Similarly, propofol is an anesthetic usually used in surgery and in regular use in intensive care units. Therefore, the detection of presence of propofol in human body is also an important factor, and a work was put forwarded for its detection while employing the optical fibers [53]. The reported work demonstrated a strong linearity with whole blood samples of human bodies.
The different geometries of optical fiber sensors should need to be characterized before involving them in sensing of biomolecules. The development of optical fiber biosensors involves four different process such as fiber geometries, used nanoparticles, detection of biomolecules and sensing analysis of developed sensor probes. Therefore, this section presents a brief discussion of about the necessary characterization of optical fiber sensors at all the steps.
The validation of drawn fiber sensor geometry such as tapered fiber, MZI etc. can be done by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). SEM is a kind of electron microscopy which employs a focused beam of the electron to analyze the surface of optical fibers. The SEM image of a tapered optical fiber probe is illustrated in Figure 9. In Figure 9, there are two SEM images where the first one is representing an image of tapered optical fiber sensor and another image such as Figure 9(b) is representing the distribution of nanoparticles coated over the sensing region of fiber structure. In some other cases, the diameter analysis of tapered optical fiber sensor structure was measured directly by using the fabricating machine, but the accuracy of the measured diameter was not up to the mark, and illustrated in Figure 10 [55].
SEM image of SERS probe of a tapered optical fiber sensor structure: (A) tapered optical fiber, and (B) distribution of nanoparticles over the fiber [
Analysis of tapered optical fiber sensor structure: (a) diameter analysis, and (b) transmitted spectra [
The optical fiber sensor structures also utilize the immobilization of nanoparticles over the sensing region to enhance the sensitivity by means of introducing the concept of localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) phenomenon. The characterization of nanoparticles can be done by using UV-spectrophotometer and by observing their distribution through transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images. TEM is also a technique that employs a focused beam of electrons to visualize the distribution of particles in nanometer dimensions. The UV-spectrophotometer provides the resonance peak of the nanoparticles through the absorbance spectrum and is useful to confirm their initial synthesis. The resonance peak of all the nanoparticle is different and usually falls in the visible spectrum of white light. The peak resonance wavelength in absorbance spectrum of gold and zinc oxide nanoparticles appears at 519 nm and 370 nm for the particles size of less than 15 nm and 50 nm, respectively, and illustrated in Figure 11. The initial confirmation of nanoparticles can be carried forward to analyze their distribution which usually done by using capturing the microscopic image by using TEM. The TEM images of gold and zinc nanoparticles are illustrated in Figure 12. From the TEM images it can be concluded that the distribution of nanoparticles is uniform and easily visible. Further, the morphology of the nanoparticles or layered nanomaterials is also an important factor to assure the synthesis of nanoparticles, and can be done by taking the images by using atomic force microscopy (AFM). An AFM image of zinc oxide nanoparticles is illustrated in Figure 13.
Absorbance spectrum of nanoparticles: (a) gold, and (b) zinc oxide [
TEM images of nanoparticles: (a) gold, and (b) zinc oxide [
AFM image of zinc oxide nanoparticles [
The preparation of samples of targeted biomolecules is also an important factor which helps in increase the performance of sensor probe. The analysis of samples of the targeted biomolecules can be done by preparing them in different pH base solutions. The similar kind of approach has been used to analyze the validity of ascorbic acid (AA) samples and illustrated in Figure 14. The performed test was basically done to check the solubility of artificial samples of AA [55]. The analysis was done by dissolving the artificial sample of AA in different pH solutions and the samples of lowest and highest concentration were prepared. Then, the peak resonance wavelength was measured for the highest and lowest sample concentration and their difference is plotted with respect to each pH solution. For the reported work, it was concluded that the AA samples are highly soluble in phosphate buffer solution (PBS) whose pH is about 7.4.
Solubility test of ascorbic acid samples in different pH solutions [
The sensing analysis of the sensor probe can be done in several steps. The first step is to sense all the samples through the sensor probe. For each measurement respective peak resonance wavelength can be recorded which is useful to plot the autocorrelation coefficient of the sensor probe. The autocorrelation curve is used to evaluate the linearity, regression coefficient, sensitivity and resolution of the sensor. Then, the analysis of sensor can be done in terms of stability, reusability, reproducibility and selectivity.
The stability of any optical fiber biosensor can be evaluated by measuring the base solution through a sensor probe more than 10 times. The results can be plotted in terms of number of measurements and peak resonance wavelength. Then, the standard deviation (SD) can be evaluated to observe the stability and for a good sensor SD is usually less than 0.1.
The reusability is an another important parameter to analyze the performance of optical fiber sensor. Reusability can be evaluated by measuring two different concentration of bio-molecules through the same sensor probe. The measurement of any concentration should need to be performed three times to attain higher accuracy. The sensor head must need to be rinsed properly after all the measurements by using base solution. Then, the results can be plotted in terms of recorded spectra or in terms of peak absorbance wavelength. The resonance wavelength for similar concentration should be same for each measurement to attain the higher reusability.
The reproducibility is also an another important factor to analyze the performance of any optical fiber sensor. The reproducibility test can be done by measuring the similar concentration of bio-samples through one sensor probe. The measurement must need to be done at least 5 times to attain the higher accuracy. The outcome of the measurements can be plotted in terms of recorded spectra and in terms of peak resonance wavelengths. The higher reproducibility of the probe can be claimed if the peak resonance wavelength for all the measurements is similar.
The selectivity or specificity of the optical fiber sensor is a crucial factor of an optical fiber biosensor which helps in to remove the interference of other biomolecules present in real liquid samples of human bodies. The higher specificity of any optical fiber sensor can be attained by functionalizing the sensor head with appropriate enzyme which oxidize only in the presence of targeted bio-samples. For instance, the AA oxidized only in the presence of ascorbate oxidase.
This book chapter presents a brief discussion about the different optical fiber geometries which have been utilized for the development of different optical fiber sensors and biosensors. The mostly common used geometry of optical fibers is cladding less, tapered, interferometers, and gratings. The second section of the chapter presents the brief discussion about the presence of biochemical markers usually used in bio-sensing applications. The detection of biochemical markers is generally done in two phases such as in gas phase and in liquid phase. The third section of the chapter presents a brief discussion of the characterization and sensing process of the optical fiber based biosensors. The characterization of optical fiber sensor is done by capturing the images through TEM, SEM and AFM. The analysis of nanoparticles can be done by recording the absorbance spectrum by using UV-spectrophotometer. The sensing analysis of the optical fiber sensor can be done by performing the stability, reusability, reproducibility and selectivity test of the sensor probe. The optical fiber based biosensors are emerging in current era and can be employed in various health care applications.
On the behalf of all the authors, I Dr. Lokendra Singh would like to thank the Dr. S.P. Gupta, Hon’ble Vice Chancellor, University of Engineering and Technology Roorkee (UETR) and Dr. Brij Mohan Singh, Director, College of Engineering Roorkee for their continuous support and motivation while writing this book chapter.
Synthetic polymers appeared at the end of the nineteenth century around the 1860s, but it was not until after World War II that the “rise of plastics” really began [1]. Plastic has become one of the most ubiquitous materials since its inception as a phenol-formaldehyde resin (i.e., bakelite) [2]. Basically, plastic was designed to improve the conditions of human life, but today it is becoming a real environmental concern [1].
Nowadays, plastic is ubiquitous in all environmental compartments (air, water, and soil) [3]. Simonneau et al., [4] report that rain and snow contain a significant number of MP, invisible to the naked eye and less than 5 mm in size. The presence of MP in soil ecosystems has been detected [5, 6]. Scientific literature reports the environmental occurrence of MP in surface waters [7], coastal sediments [8], beach sands [9], freshwater sediments [10], and deep-sea environments [11]. Indeed, the intensive exploitation of plastic associated with poor performance of waste management systems, including end-of-life collection and capture, have resulted in a massive accumulation of plastic waste in the environment [12]. The release of plastic materials into the environment is recognized as an important pollution related issue [13, 14, 15].
The proliferation of MP in the environment causes serious pollution all over the world [16]. According to their characteristics, namely, synthetic materials with a high content of polymers, solid particles, less than 5 mm, insoluble in water, and not degradable, they are easily introduced into the environment and persist there due to their low solubility [17]. Food chains are subject to significant pollution from the release of hydrophobic organic chemicals [18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. Being present in different aquatic ecosystems (surface water, oceans, estuarine waters, etc.), organisms are directly or indirectly exposed to microplatiscs [17]. Scientific literature reports negative impacts of microplastics on benthic organisms [23, 24]. The toxic effects of these pollutants have been studied on the feeding habits, growth and reproductive systems of several aquatic species [25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. Human beings are therefore exposed through the consumption of seafood, fish and crustaceans [30].
The purpose of this paper is: (i) to do a bibliographical review of the physical and chemical properties, as well as the toxicological profile of MP, (ii) to identify the environmental hazards associated with MP contained in urban waste in the metropolitan area of Port-au-Prince.
Scientific and technical information from several world-wide documentation databases was used. Academic social networks, scientific databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, academia.edu, researchgate.net, academic presses (springer.com, sciendirect.com, Wiley Online Library, ACS Publications, etc.) were consulted in this way as electronic data available on the sites of certain research universities. The search equations launched on the various sites consulted were implemented from the crossing of the following keywords: “Microplastics”, “Microplastics (and) definition”, “Microplastics (and) plastics”, “Microplastics (and) thermodynamics”, “Microplastics (and) Epidemiology”, “Microplastics (and) physical and chemical properties”, “Toxicological profile of microplastics”, “Microplastics (and) Human health effects” , “Microplastics (and) Environment” , “Microplastics (and)) partition coefficient” , “Microplastics (and) Haiti”, “Haiti (and) solid waste” , “Fate and Microplastics” , “Microplastics (and) Ocean” , etc.
The results obtained have been the subject of a critical examination. Each article read, referred the authors of this study for the reading of another article cited in the list of his references. We considered articles that were published from 2005 to 2021. The number of times cited (citations analysis).
The term plastic refers to “a material which contains as an essential ingredient a high polymer and which, at some stage of its transformation into finished products, can be shaped by flow,” [31]. However, elastomeric materials (also shaped by flow) are generally not considered plastics [32, 33].
Plastics are mainly produced from non-renewable substances, extracted from petroleum and natural gas [1, 34, 35], or renewable like sugar cane, starch, or vegetable oil or even of mineral origin like salt [36]. The evolution of plastic, correlated with its major strengths, makes it a substitute material, to the detriment of metals, for example [37]. Thus, the increase in plastic, and its multiple applications, place it at the forefront of market share, ahead of traditional materials [38].
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) [31] recommends the use of the term “macromolecule” for individual molecules, the term “polymer” being reserved for a substance consisting of macromolecules, further stipulating that the term “high polymer” or more generally “polymer” denotes a product consisting of molecules characterized by a large number of repeats of one or more species of atoms or groups of atoms (constitutional units), linked in sufficient quantity to lead to a set of properties which hardly vary with the addition or elimination of a single or a small number of constituent motifs [31]. The denomination of “plastics” comes from the characteristic plasticity property of many polymer materials which can be deformed at will under the effect of temperature (the notion of temperature is relative here: certain plastics are deformable at room temperature) [39]. Thus, most of the plastic materials placed on the market result from complex formulation steps intended to give the macromolecules the desired properties of use. Adjuvants such as stabilizers and additives will be used to limit the degradation of the chains under the effect of heat, radiation, abrasion (antioxidants, mineral fillers, etc.) and give them specific properties (plasticizers, dyes, flame retardants, reinforcements …) [39].
A main classification of plastics is based on the durability or non-durability of their shapes, or whether they are thermosets or thermoplastics [40]. According to Plastics Europe [36], plastics can be classified into various types. A typology of plastic as well as their applications and benefits are published on the website of this institution, which is an association of plastic manufacturers in Europe (Table 1).
Jiang et al. [40] note that the degradation of plastic waste generates microplastic (MP) or nanoplastic particles (NP); this division is based on the diameter of the plastic fragments or particles, MP being less than 5 mm in diameter and NP being 1 to 100 or 1000 nm in diameter [40]. The scientific literature on the diameter of plastic particles provides several information and divisions of microplastics. Arthur et al. [41] report when it was reported in 2004, the term microplastics was used to describe fragments of plastic approximately 20 μm in diameter. However, while these early reports referred to truly microscopic particles, they did not provide a specific definition of microplastic. In 2008, the United States National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA) hosted the first International Microplastics Workshop in Washington and, as part of that meeting, formulated a broader working definition to include all particles. Less than 5 mm in diameter [41]. Other authors consider that particles>5 mm are macroplastics, mesoplastics 5 to>1 mm, microplastics 1 mm to>0.1 μm and nanoplastics as 0.1 μm [5].
Microplastics samples are usually sorted into different shapes according to observed morphology. The Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection (GESAMP) [42] recommends five general categories of recommends, including fragment, foam, film, line, and pellet. Figure 1 presents the standardized size and color sorting system (SCS) for categorizing microplastics [43]. It is recommended the original data in these finer subdivisions with the recognition that subdivisions can be combined for ease of harmonizing and comparing data [42].
The standardized size and color sorting (SCS) system [
According to Crawford et al. [43], the SCS system generates unique codes to process microplastic abundance data, requiring an efficient categorization system. Table 2 presents a categorization of plastic according to size, while the Table 3 gives the categorization of microplastics according to morphology.
Plastics | Description |
---|---|
Fluoropolymers | |
Type of plastics [plastic Europe – Online].
Category | Abbreviation | Size | Size definition |
---|---|---|---|
Macroplastic | MAP | ≥25 mm | Any piece of plastic equal to or larger than 25 mm in size along its longest dimension |
Mesoplastic | MEP | <25 mm–5 mm | Any piece of plastic less than 25 mm–5 mm in size along its longest dimension |
Plasticle | PLT | <5 mm | All pieces of plastic less than 5 mm in size along their longest dimension |
Microplastic | MP | <5 mm–1 mm | Any piece of plastic less than 5 mm–1 mm in size along its longest dimension |
Mini-microplastic | MP | <1 mm–1 μm | Any piece of plastic less than 1 mm–1 μm in size along its longest dimension |
Nanoplastic | NP | <1 μm | Any piece of plastic less than 1 μm in size along its longest dimension |
Categorization of pieces of plastic based on size [43].
Abbreviation | Type | Size | Definition |
---|---|---|---|
PT | Pellet | <5 mm–1 mm | A small spherical piece of plastic less than 5 mm to 1 mm in diameter |
MBD | Microbead | <1 mm–1 μm | A small spherical piece of plastic less than 1 mm to 1 μm in diameter |
FR | Fragment | <5 mm–1 mm | An irregular shaped piece of plastic less than 5 mm to 1 mm in size along its longest dimension |
MFR | Microfragment | <1 mm–1 μm | An irregular shaped piece of plastic less than 1 mm to 1 μm in size along its longest dimension |
FB | Fiber | <5 mm–1 mm | A strand or filament of plastic less than 5 mm to 1 mm in size along its longest dimension |
MFB | Microfibre | <1 mm–1 μm | A strand or filament of plastic less than 1 mm to 1 μm in size along its longest dimension |
FI | Film | <5 mm–1 mm | A thin sheet or membrane-like piece of plastic less than 5 mm to 1 mm in size along its longest dimension |
MFI | Microfilm | <1 mm–1 μm | A thin sheet or membrane-like piece of plastic less than 1 mm to 1 μm in size along its longest dimension |
FM | Foam | <5 mm–1 mm | A piece of sponge, foam, or foam-like plastic material less than 5 mm to 1 mm in size along its longest dimension |
MFM | Microfoam | <1 mm–1 μm | A piece of sponge, foam, or foam-like plastic material less than 1 mm to 1 μm in size along its longest dimension |
Categorization of microplastics based on morphology [43].
There are many hundreds of different types of polymer and mixtures of polymer in commercial production, but the market is dominated by: polyethylene (as both high-density HDPE, and low-density LDPE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyurethane (PUR), polystyrene (PS), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). These six polymers make up about 80% of plastics production and are likely to form a large proportion of most marine litter (GESAMP, 2019). The most common human-produced and petroleum-derived polymers found in microplastics are listed in Table 4.
Main polymers found in microplastics [32].
According to Lambert, et al. [16], “Microplastic” is an umbrella term that covers many particle shapes, sizes, and polymer types, and as such the physical and chemical properties of environmental microplastics will differ from the primary microbeads commonly used for ecotoxicity testing. In the Figure 2 is presented the physical and chemical properties of MP, by concentrating particle size, particle shape, surface area and crystallinity, as well as chemical composition, while considering the type of polymer, additive compounds, and changes in surface properties) [16].
Different microplastic physical and chemical properties to be considered in a prioritization framework [
Microplastics are subdivided into two groups: primary microplastics and secondary microplastics [26]. The distinction between primary and secondary microplastics is based on whether the particles were originally manufactured to be that size (primary) or whether they have resulted from the breakdown of larger items (secondary) [44]. It is a useful distinction because it can help to indicate potential sources and identify mitigation measures to reduce their input to the environment. Primary microplastics include industrial ‘scrubbers’ used to blast clean surfaces, plastic powders used in molding, micro-beads in cosmetic formulation, and plastic nanoparticles used in a variety of industrial processes [44, 45]. In addition, spherical or cylindrical virgin resin pellets, typically around 5 mm in diameter, are widely used during plastics manufacture and transport of the basic resin ‘feedstock’ prior to production of plastic products. Secondary microplastics result from the fragmentation and weathering of larger plastic items. This can happen during the use phase of products such as textiles, paint, and tires, or once the items have been released into the environment [44]. The rate of fragmentation is controlled by several factors [46].
Plastics can be lost to the environment across their entire value chain [47], which creates different opportunities (and challenges) to prevent leakage into technical and natural systems [48]. In this context, it is useful to frame the separate but interconnected issues of plastic pollution, which are nestled into one another [47]. A list of microplastic sources entering the environment is presented in Figure 3.
Environmental sources of pollution by microplastic [
Some sources and pathways are interconnected (e.g., mechanical stress, plastic waste, plasticulture) and some sources are stand-alone (e.g., primary microplastics in products, targeted applications, or transportation losses), but collectively all sources are part of the puzzle of how microplastic enters the environment.
Microplastics in the environment are generally supposed to be a heterogeneous aggregate of particles, which can be of both primary and/or secondary origins. However, whatever the group to which they belong, depending on their physical and chemical properties, the size and shape of the particles, the crystallinity, the surface chemistry and the composition of the polymers and additives, the toxicity of microplastics can be crucial for the environment [49]. In a critical review on the sources and instruments of microplastics in marine ecosystems, Wang & al [50] present a figure in which the landbased origins of primary and secondary MP are well explained (Figure 4).
Sources of microplastics in natural ecosystems [
Although there is no specific international marine legislation regarding microplastics so far, many proactive countermeasures have been taken – voluntary or legally binding practices at international, regional, and national levels [47]. Indeed, the available literature on marine pollution reports the existence of three global international conventions that deal with the problem of plastic waste in the marine environment at the beginning of the 1970s: (i) the United Nations Convention (UN) on the Law of the Sea [51], (ii) the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (1973) as amended by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78) [52] and (iii) the Convention for the Prevention of Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention or LC, 1972) [53].
Table 5 shows an overview of current legislation, regulations and instruments related to microplastics. Considering the abundance of microplastics in the environment, their ability to absorb pollutants, their impact on living organisms, the health and environmental authorities in several countries have applied the precautionary principle by adopting a legal framework on MP. However, uncertainties and gaps in the evidence regarding the effects of microplastics on the environment and on human health prevent the adoption of more restrictive measures, with the precautionary principle - in line to the World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations on international trade - only playing a minor role [54]. Available information on current regional and national instruments related to microplastics is discussed in Wang & al. [50].
International instruments | Period | Specific contents |
---|---|---|
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea | 1982 | Part XII (Articles 192–237): protection and control of marine pollution from sea−/ land-based sources |
MARPOL 73/78 | 1973 | Annex V prohibits “the disposal into the sea of all plastics, cargo residues, fishing gear including but not limited to synthetic ropes, synthetic fishing nets and plastic garbage bags”. (revised in 2011 and come into force in 2013) |
London Convention | 1972 | To prevent the “deliberate disposal at sea of wastes and other matter from vessels, aircraft and other structures, including the vessels themselves”. (Annex I, paragraph 2) |
London Protocol | 1996 | To prohibit the dumping of any wastes or other matter including the export of waste to countries for dumping and incineration at sea except for the materials listed in Annex I. (Article 4.1.1, 5 and 6) |
Basel Convention | 1989 | Include plastic waste and microplastics issues into the Basel Convention workstream at COP 13 (Plastic waste in Annex II Y 46 (Household wastes) and Annex VIII (Non-hazardous wastes)) |
United Nations Environment Programme – Regional Seas Programme and Global Programme of Action | 2003 | Regional activities in 12 regional seas |
Manila Declaration | 2012 | Prevent marine litter from land-based sources and agree to establish a Global Partnership on Marine Litter (GPML) |
G7 Summit | 2014 | G7 Marine Litter Action Plan |
G20 Summit | 2017 | G20 Marine Litter Action Plan |
United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) I | 2014 | Resolutions 1/6: put forward the issue of “Marine plastic debris and microplastics”. |
UNEA II | 2016 | Resolutions 2/11: measures to reduce marine plastic litter and microplastics |
UNEA III | 2017 | Resolutions 3/7: combating the spread of marine plastic litter and microplastics. |
Overview of current legislation, regulations and instruments related to microplastics [50].
The global plastics production has increased from 1.5 million tons in the 1950s to 335 million tons in 2016, with plastics discharged into virtually all components of the environment [55]. The MPs present in the environment result from the successive breakdown of larger plastic pieces or from the direct input of micro- and nano-sized particles used in various industries and products available to consumers [56]. Indeed, during their production, industrial and domestic use, and after such processes, a considerable part of the plastics produced globally end up in the environment. Moreover, Plastics rarely biodegrade but through different processes they fragment into microplastics and nanoplastics, which have been reported as ubiquitous pollutants in all marine environments worldwide [55]. In fact, plastics represent one of the fastest-growing portions of the urban waste contributing to environmental contamination and pollution, with plastic debris accounting for approximately 60–80% of all marine litter, reaching 90–95% in some areas [55, 57, 58, 59].
According to Lambert et al. [5] “Upon their release to the environment MPs are transported and distributed to various environmental compartments. The distances that an individual item will travel depends on its size and weight. Lightweight materials can be readily transported long distances via a windblown route or carried by freshwater to eventually accumulate in the oceans. During heavy rainfall events, roadside litter can be washed into drains and gullies, and, where the topography is favorable for it, can be carried to the sea”. Figure 5 shows a conceptual model illustrating degradation pathways for polymer materials [5].
Conceptual model illustrating degradation pathways for polymer materials [
Once in the environment MPs are degraded through abiotic or biotic factors working together or in sequence; these processes cause the polymer matrix to disintegrate, resulting in the formation of fragmented particles of various sizes and leached additives [5]. According to Lambert et al. [5] “there is a broad literature dealing with the degradation of various polymer types under various conditions. Most of these studies were performed in the laboratory and had a major focus on samples exposed to high-energy UV irradiation”.
In the environment, MPs constitute a matrix of pollutants, composed of several monomers and polymers (PE, PP, EPS, PET, PMMA, PTFE, PA, PU, etc.), metal catalysts, additives: phthalates, retardants. Flame, bisphenols A and F, etc.), loading materials (talc, Ti dioxide), adsorbed environmental pollutants (organic and inorganic, pathogenic agents, etc. The exposure of living organisms to MPs leads to consider the interactions between the combined effects of different pollutants. The characterization of exposure to microplastics will depend on: (i) the number of particles; (ii) size distribution, shape, surface properties, polymer composition and particle density; (iii) the duration of the exposure; (iv) the kinetics of absorption and desorption of contaminants, vis-à-vis the plastic and the organism; and (v) the biology of the organism [44].
Microplastics have been detected in sediments, surface waters, estuarine and marine waters [60, 61, 62]. The negative effects of microplastics on algae, mussels, fish, and other organisms have been the subject of several studies and have shown [20, 63, 64, 65, 66]. Given the difficulty for large filter-feeding organisms (fins, whales, ..) and zooplankton to differentiate between microplastics and food itself [27, 67], cellular intoxication has been documented by ingestion by inadvertently adhered microplastics with other pollutants [26, 25]. Flame retardants (chemicals derived from plastics) have been found in birds [29] and phthalates in whales and filter-feeding sharks [27]. Microplastics can affect growth and reproduction in daphnids [28].
Alimba and Faggio [55] observed effects of MPs on marine vertebrates and invertebrates, including asphyxiation by drowning, restricted diet and increased starvation, skin abrasions and skeletal injuries (which are the basis of intestinal mucosal damage, morbidity, and mortality), oxidative stress, altered immunological responses, genomic instability, endocrine disruption, neurotoxicity, reproductive abnormalities, embryotoxicity and transgenerational toxicity [55].
Present in an environment, MPs can mimic the natural food sources of living species [5]. 135 species of marine vertebrates and 8 species of invertebrates susceptible to entanglement, and 111 species of seabirds have been identified, among others, among the species that ingest plastic objects [67]. Other studies have shown that MPs wrapping loops are a threat to sea lions in California and fur seals in Australia, respectively [68, 69]. Plastic bags have been identified as the main type of debris ingested by sea turtles [70]. Figure 6 shows a conceptual model illustrating the potential effects produced during the degradation of polymer-based materials [5].
Conceptual model illustrating the potential effects produced during the degradation of polymer-based materials [
The primary route of human exposure to MPs is the ingestion of foodstuffs, in particular seafood which has ingested microplastics [30], processed commercial fish [71], sea salt [72], honey [73], beer, food components [73]. Most of these food products are sometimes contaminated by the presence of impurities in processing materials and contaminants in packaging [74]. The second route of exposure is inhalation of air and dust containing MPs [30]. Due to their nutritional value, seafood plays an important role in human nutrition. Indeed, the consumption of seafood represents 6.7% of all protein and about 17% of animal protein in 2015 [75]. The risk of exposure is therefore great and increases with small fish eaten whole [46].
Several studies have highlighted the evidence for the presence of microplastics in several commercial aquatic species such as mussels, oysters, crabs, sea cucumbers and fish [76, 77, 78]. The results of this work suggest that humans are exposed to microplastics through their diet and the presence of microplastics in seafood could pose a threat to food safety [76]. The potential accumulation of microplastics in the food chain, especially in fish and shellfish (species of mollusks, crustaceans, and echinoderms) could have consequences for the health of human consumers [44]. In this trophic context, the fate and toxicity of microplastics in humans constitutes a major lack of knowledge which deserves special attention. The potential accumulation of microplastics in food chains, particularly in fish and crustaceans (mollusks, crustaceans, and echinoderms), appears to be the main source of human exposure to microplastics [44]. Contamination of food products with MP could have consequences for the health of human consumers. In this trophic context, the fate and toxicity of microplastics in humans constitutes a major lack of knowledge which deserves special attention.
The translocation of microplastics from the intestine to the circulatory system and various tissues and cells in humans has been studied by several authors [44]. Indeed, Hussain et al. [79] have shown the absorption of PE particles captured in the lymph and the circulatory system from the gastrointestinal tract. Exposure of human macrophages to fluorescent microspheres of PS (1, 0.2 and 0.078 μm), demonstrated particle capture driven by non-endocytic processes (diffusion or adhesive interactions) [44].
Urban cleanliness and its variations over time reflect the aspects of each civilization, […], the capacity of societies to legislate, to mobilize techniques and to organize the complexity of urban services [80]. In developing countries (DCs), however, the issue of urban cleanliness a priori highlights the weakness of urban managers and institutions in terms of their capacity to manage the growing and very heterogeneous flow of waste produced [81].
In Port-au-Prince, the capital of Haiti, solid waste management is practiced in a context of rapid population growth and extreme urban poverty [82]. Indeed, urban cleanliness and its variations over time highlight a clear discrepancy between the objective of the waste management service (making and maintaining the city clean) and the realities on the ground. The combination of the low rate of garbage collection and high human densities accentuates unsanitary conditions in the city and represents a risk factor not only in terms of human health but also of the environment. Also, vacant spaces, voids in the urban fabric of Port-au-Prince very quickly become public landfill spaces [81]. In this urban space, notes Lacour [83], urban cleanliness is established in the mix of most urban waste management systems where state and private services coexist, as well as public funds and international funding, through development organizations. In addition, the negative impacts (pollution, nuisance, proliferation of rodents and insects, risk of disease, etc.), linked to the size, nature, and unsuitable management methods of organic waste (landfill with other categories, combustion, etc.), are generally very pronounced [83].
The characteristics of the waste management system in Haiti have been defined as follows [84]:
“At source, the general behavior tends to immediately remove unsorted waste. Consequently, the nearest (common) public space becomes the preferred outlet. This reflex is particularly predominant in rural and peri-urban areas and the precarious neighborhoods of so-called “low-standing” urban areas.
The existence of an informal circuit, said to be rather pragmatic, compensates for the absence of an institutional waste management service in rural areas or the dysfunction of this service in urban areas. This circuit is characterized by a pre-collection by voluntary contribution, an individual (rural and peri-urban) or private (urban “medium standing” and “high standing”) collection, waste disposal in non-dedicated spaces (vacant lots, gullies, etc.) spontaneously transformed into wild dumps.
The total absence of a landfill site that meets environmental standards, in terms of waste categorization, development work for the control of discharges and the recovery of leachate and biogas, odor management, animal control, etc.
The practices of recycling organic waste, by feeding pets and livestock (free and rope) are quite frequent at the level of pre-collection and collection points.
The lack of information relating to the deposits of waste, in terms of their masses, their compositions and their bio-physico-chemical characteristics, through the seasons and rural, peri-urban and urban spaces, constitutes an obstacle to the implementation, the monitoring and anticipation of management strategies” [84].
According to the World Bank (2019) [85], in the Caribbean and elsewhere in the world, marine pollution is linked to poor waste management on land: illegal dumping, open burning or dumping of waste in streams. In addition, the quantity of plastics reaches a concentration of 200,000 pieces of debris per square kilometer in the northeast of the Caribbean. In this region of the world, about 85% of wastewater is discharged into the ocean without having been previously treated; and, in island countries more particularly - Bahamas, Greater Antilles (Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica and Puerto Rico) and Lesser Antilles - approximately 52% of households are not connected to sewers. However, 14 Caribbean countries (more than a third) have banned single-use plastic bags and / or styrofoam containers (Figure 7).
Caribbean countries that have banned single-use plastic bags and/or expanded polystyrene containers [
In Haiti, the government issued on August 9, 2012, a decree prohibiting the production, import, marketing, and use, in any form whatsoever, of polyethylene bags and expanded polystyrene objects (PSE or PS or Styrofoam) for single food use, such as trays, trays, bottles, sachets, cups and plates. On July 10, 2013, a second decree was issued to ban once again “the importation, production or sale of expanded polystyrene articles for food use”. In support of the second decree, the ministries of the Environment, Justice and Public Security, Trade, and Industry as well as Economy and Finance announced in a note published in January 2018 that brigade’s specialists will be deployed on the territory to force the application of the said decree.
To better approach the problem of plastic and microplastic waste management in Port-au-Prince, it is important to look at the waste management system. In Haiti, the National Solid Waste Management Service (
In the agglomeration of Port-au-Prince, there is a single space that has been officially designated to receive any type of waste. Due to the insufficient capacity of public actors to collect all waste, it ends up in different types of space according to different logics [86]. The uncontrolled presence of waste induces a certain number of potential nuisances. It is therefore necessary to consider the health risk classically associated with waste [87], as a vector of pathology and contamination of natural resources [86]. Beyond the environmental dangers generated by chemical substances and pathogenic microorganisms present in solid waste, the latter not only obstruct traffic routes, but are also a source of flooding by blocking irrigation canals and gullies (Figure 8).
Uncontrolled presence of waste in public spaces in Port-au-Prince. (left illustration - unauthorized deposit of household waste along a road [
Port-au-Prince’s marine ecosystem is liable to suffer locally profoundly serious damages caused by the direct discharge of urban effluents [88]. Indeed, the discharge of contaminants in natural ecosystems, by example water bodies pose a significant concern to water quality and to the health of aquatic organism because of not only the varied types of pollutants that impact these systems, also because of the many ways pollutants can affect the health of aquatic organism [89].
With the tropical temperature of Haiti and the average daily duration (12 hours / day), the plastics present in the urban water canals could degrade more quickly by generating microplastics. Their discharge in the bay of Port-au-Prince exposes this ecosystem to environmental dangers [90], that of pollutants contained in wastewater, and that of climatic hazards, in particular the acidification of the oceans. The stress of benthic organisms (coral reefs, bivalves) should then be observed and monitored.
The presence of microplastics in the environment first and foremost generates environmental health hazards, which need to be increasingly identified and assessed. Most of the research in the field of environmental pollution from microplastics has been carried out on aquatic ecosystems. There then arises the need to initiate research programs on terrestrial ecosystems.
The future of MPs in the environment represents real research challenges. Indeed, there is a lack of knowledge at the local and national level of the different flows. At the global level, the toxicological reference values have not yet been obtained. Human dose–response relationships need to be investigated on the basis of still possible animal species exposures.
The field of environmental assessment of MPs, in the Caribbean for example, a priori calls for transdisciplinary approaches. Indeed, this region of the world, thanks to its tropical climate and the Caribbean Sea, makes tourism one of its main development niches. Pollution from plastic waste exposes its economy to a risk of economic imbalance. In the case of Haiti, beyond the urgent need to review its public policies in terms of urban water and solid waste management, the pollution of ecosystems by MPs highlights the need to initiate real research work. in the field of marine ecotoxicology.
The authors are thankful to the “One Health” University Space of Quisqueya University, FOKAL-Open Society Foundation Haiti, the Agence universitaire de la Francophonie (AUF), the Representation of the Institute of Research for Development (IRD) in Mexico, Cuba, and Haiti, the SCAC (Service de Coopération et d’Action Culturelle) of the France Embassy in Haiti, and the AOG (Association Communautaire Paysanne des Originaires de Grande Plaine), for their support in carrying out this study.
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Jovandaric",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8158.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"268043",title:null,name:"Miljana Z.",middleName:"Z",surname:"Jovandaric",slug:"miljana-z.-jovandaric",fullName:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9722",title:"Milk Substitutes",subtitle:"Selected Aspects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc91d4cfca40c9ba47bbe34b2f8e8a3e",slug:"milk-substitutes-selected-aspects",bookSignature:"Małgorzata Ziarno",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9722.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"303881",title:"Prof.",name:"Małgorzata",middleName:null,surname:"Ziarno",slug:"malgorzata-ziarno",fullName:"Małgorzata Ziarno"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:73,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"42000",doi:"10.5772/53159",title:"Valorisation of Cheese Whey, a By-Product from the Dairy Industry",slug:"valorisation-of-cheese-whey-a-by-product-from-the-dairy-industry",totalDownloads:6987,totalCrossrefCites:56,totalDimensionsCites:121,abstract:null,book:{id:"3424",slug:"food-industry",title:"Food Industry",fullTitle:"Food Industry"},signatures:"Chiara Mollea, Luca Marmo and Francesca Bosco",authors:[{id:"93865",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca",middleName:null,surname:"Bosco",slug:"francesca-bosco",fullName:"Francesca Bosco"},{id:"96159",title:"Dr.",name:"Chiara",middleName:null,surname:"Mollea",slug:"chiara-mollea",fullName:"Chiara Mollea"},{id:"166295",title:"Prof.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Marmo",slug:"luca-marmo",fullName:"Luca Marmo"}]},{id:"29151",doi:"10.5772/32358",title:"Hydrocolloids in Food Industry",slug:"hydrocolloids-in-food-industry",totalDownloads:30583,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:109,abstract:null,book:{id:"2082",slug:"food-industrial-processes-methods-and-equipment",title:"Food Industrial Processes",fullTitle:"Food Industrial Processes - Methods and Equipment"},signatures:"Jafar Milani and Gisoo Maleki",authors:[{id:"91158",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jafar",middleName:"Mohammadzadeh",surname:"Milani",slug:"jafar-milani",fullName:"Jafar Milani"},{id:"124058",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Gisoo",middleName:null,surname:"Maleki",slug:"gisoo-maleki",fullName:"Gisoo Maleki"}]},{id:"41694",doi:"10.5772/53172",title:"Seaweeds for Food and Industrial Applications",slug:"seaweeds-for-food-and-industrial-applications",totalDownloads:8243,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:96,abstract:null,book:{id:"3424",slug:"food-industry",title:"Food Industry",fullTitle:"Food Industry"},signatures:"Berna Kılınç, Semra Cirik, Gamze Turan, Hatice Tekogul and Edis Koru",authors:[{id:"88972",title:"Dr.",name:"Edis",middleName:null,surname:"Koru",slug:"edis-koru",fullName:"Edis Koru"},{id:"161688",title:"Dr.",name:"Berna",middleName:null,surname:"Kılınç",slug:"berna-kilinc",fullName:"Berna Kılınç"}]},{id:"40180",doi:"10.5772/50568",title:"Plant Tissue Culture: Current Status and Opportunities",slug:"plant-tissue-culture-current-status-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:66291,totalCrossrefCites:42,totalDimensionsCites:87,abstract:null,book:{id:"3568",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture"},signatures:"Altaf Hussain, Iqbal Ahmed Qarshi, Hummera Nazir and Ikram Ullah",authors:[{id:"147617",title:"Dr.",name:"Altaf",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"altaf-hussain",fullName:"Altaf Hussain"}]},{id:"53601",doi:"10.5772/66840",title:"Chitosan in Agriculture: A New Challenge for Managing Plant Disease",slug:"chitosan-in-agriculture-a-new-challenge-for-managing-plant-disease",totalDownloads:5634,totalCrossrefCites:31,totalDimensionsCites:66,abstract:"In recent years, environmental-friendly measures have been developed for managing crop diseases as alternative to chemical pesticides, including the use of natural compounds such as chitosan. In this chapter, the common uses of this natural product in agriculture and its potential uses in plant disease control are reviewed. The last advanced researches as seed coating, plant resistance elicitation and soil amendment applications are also described. Chitosan is a deacetylated derivative of chitin that is naturally present in the fungal cell wall and in crustacean shells from which it can be easily extracted. Chitosan has been reported to possess antifungal and antibacterial activity and it showed to be effective against seedborne pathogens when applied as seed treatment. It can form physical barriers (film) around the seed surface, and it can vehicular other antimicrobial compounds that could be added to the seed treatments. Chitosan behaves as a resistance elicitor inducing both local and systemic plant defence responses even when applied to the seeds. The chitosan used as soil amendment was shown to give many benefits to different plant species by reducing the pathogen attack and infection. Concluding, the chitosan is an active molecule that finds many possibilities for application in agriculture, including plant disease control.",book:{id:"5412",slug:"biological-activities-and-application-of-marine-polysaccharides",title:"Biological Activities and Application of Marine Polysaccharides",fullTitle:"Biological Activities and Application of Marine Polysaccharides"},signatures:"Laura Orzali, Beatrice Corsi, Cinzia Forni and Luca Riccioni",authors:[{id:"189361",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Orzali",slug:"laura-orzali",fullName:"Laura Orzali"},{id:"189612",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Riccioni",slug:"luca-riccioni",fullName:"Luca Riccioni"},{id:"189614",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Corsi",slug:"beatrice-corsi",fullName:"Beatrice Corsi"},{id:"189615",title:"Prof.",name:"Cinzia",middleName:null,surname:"Forni",slug:"cinzia-forni",fullName:"Cinzia Forni"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64570",title:"Banana Pseudo-Stem Fiber: Preparation, Characteristics, and Applications",slug:"banana-pseudo-stem-fiber-preparation-characteristics-and-applications",totalDownloads:9295,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Banana is one of the most well-known and useful plants in the world. Almost all the parts of this plant, that are, fruit, leaves, flower bud, trunk, and pseudo-stem, can be utilized. This chapter deals with the fiber extracted from the pseudo-stem of the banana plant. It discusses the production of banana pseudo-stem fiber, which includes plantation and harvesting; extraction of banana pseudo-stem fiber; retting; and degumming of the fiber. It also deals with the characteristics of the banana pseudo-stem fiber, such as morphological, physical and mechanical, durability, degradability, thermal, chemical, and antibacterial properties. Several potential applications of this fiber are also mentioned, such as the use of this fiber to fabricate rope, place mats, paper cardboard, string thread, tea bags, high-quality textile materials, absorbent, polymer/fiber composites, etc.",book:{id:"7544",slug:"banana-nutrition-function-and-processing-kinetics",title:"Banana Nutrition",fullTitle:"Banana Nutrition - Function and Processing Kinetics"},signatures:"Asmanto Subagyo and Achmad Chafidz",authors:[{id:"257742",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Achmad",middleName:null,surname:"Chafidz",slug:"achmad-chafidz",fullName:"Achmad Chafidz"},{id:"268400",title:"Mr.",name:"Asmanto",middleName:null,surname:"Subagyo",slug:"asmanto-subagyo",fullName:"Asmanto Subagyo"}]},{id:"40180",title:"Plant Tissue Culture: Current Status and Opportunities",slug:"plant-tissue-culture-current-status-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:66304,totalCrossrefCites:42,totalDimensionsCites:87,abstract:null,book:{id:"3568",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture"},signatures:"Altaf Hussain, Iqbal Ahmed Qarshi, Hummera Nazir and Ikram Ullah",authors:[{id:"147617",title:"Dr.",name:"Altaf",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"altaf-hussain",fullName:"Altaf Hussain"}]},{id:"68437",title:"Chemical Properties of Starch and Its Application in the Food Industry",slug:"chemical-properties-of-starch-and-its-application-in-the-food-industry",totalDownloads:4650,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:47,abstract:"Starch is an important food product and a versatile biomaterial used world-wide for different purposes in many industrial sectors including foods, health, textile, chemical and engineering sector. Starch versatility in industrial applications is largely defined by its physicochemical properties and functionality. Starch in its native form has limited functionality and application. But advancements in biotechnology and chemical technological have led to wide-range modification of starch for different purposes. The objective of this chapter is to examine the different chemical reactions of starch and expose the food applications of the modification products. Several literatures on starch and reaction chemistry including online journals and books were analyzed, harmonized and rationalized. The reactions and mechanisms presented are explained based on the principles of reaction chemistry. Chemical modification of starch is based on the chemical reactivity of the constituent glucose monomers which are polyhydroxyl and can undergo several reactions. Starch can undergo reactions such as hydrolysis, esterification, etherification and oxidation. These reactions give modified starches which can be used in baked foods, confectionaries, soups and salad dressings. This chapter discusses the different chemical reactions of starch, the associated changes in functionality, as well as the applications of chemically modified starches in the food industry.",book:{id:"8170",slug:"chemical-properties-of-starch",title:"Chemical Properties of Starch",fullTitle:"Chemical Properties of Starch"},signatures:"Henry Omoregie Egharevba",authors:[{id:"300976",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Henry",middleName:"Omoregie",surname:"Egharevba",slug:"henry-egharevba",fullName:"Henry Egharevba"}]},{id:"63169",title:"The Dairy Industry: Process, Monitoring, Standards, and Quality",slug:"the-dairy-industry-process-monitoring-standards-and-quality",totalDownloads:8973,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Sampling and analysis occur along the milk processing train: from collection at farm level, to intake at the diary plant, the processing steps, and the end products. Milk has a short shelf life; however, products such as milk powders have allowed a global industry to be developed. Quality control tests are vital to support activities for hygiene and food standards to meet regulatory and customer demands. Multiples of chemical and microbiological contamination tests are undertaken. Hazard analysis testing strategies are necessary, but some tests may be redundant; it is therefore vital to identify product optimization quality control strategies. The time taken to undergo testing and turnaround time are rarely measured. The dairy industry is a traditional industry with a low margin commodity. Industry 4.0 vision for dairy manufacturing is to introduce the aspects of operational excellence and implementation of information and communications technologies. The dairy industries’ reply to Industry 4.0 is represented predominantly by proactive maintenance and optimization of production and logistical chains, such as robotic milking machines and processing and packaging line automation reinforced by sensors for rapid chemical and microbial analysis with improved and real-time data management. This chapter reviews the processing trains with suggestions for improved optimization.",book:{id:"6817",slug:"descriptive-food-science",title:"Descriptive Food Science",fullTitle:"Descriptive Food Science"},signatures:"Niamh Burke, Krzysztof A. Zacharski, Mark Southern, Paul Hogan,\nMichael P. Ryan and Catherine C. Adley",authors:[{id:"243276",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael P",middleName:null,surname:"Ryan",slug:"michael-p-ryan",fullName:"Michael P Ryan"},{id:"246153",title:"Prof.",name:"Catherine",middleName:null,surname:"Adley",slug:"catherine-adley",fullName:"Catherine Adley"},{id:"264302",title:"Ms.",name:"Niamh",middleName:null,surname:"Burke",slug:"niamh-burke",fullName:"Niamh Burke"},{id:"264304",title:"Mr.",name:"Krzysztof A",middleName:null,surname:"Zacharski",slug:"krzysztof-a-zacharski",fullName:"Krzysztof A Zacharski"},{id:"264305",title:"Mr.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Hogan",slug:"paul-hogan",fullName:"Paul Hogan"},{id:"264306",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Southern",slug:"mark-southern",fullName:"Mark Southern"}]},{id:"40181",title:"Plant Tissue Culture Media",slug:"plant-tissue-culture-media",totalDownloads:104949,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"3568",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture"},signatures:"Abobkar I.M. Saad and Ahmed M. Elshahed",authors:[{id:"144204",title:"Prof.",name:"Abobkar",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamed",slug:"abobkar-mohamed",fullName:"Abobkar Mohamed"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"33",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81528",title:"Effects of High Ambient Temperature on Milk Protein Synthesis in Dairy Cows and Goats: Insights from the Molecular Mechanism Studies",slug:"effects-of-high-ambient-temperature-on-milk-protein-synthesis-in-dairy-cows-and-goats-insights-from-",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104563",abstract:"Milk protein is well accepted for nutritional value compared with other sources of protein. Detailed understanding of the natural factors that can determine milk protein subcomponent (i.e., casein) not only fulfill the knowledge of protein synthesis but also provide the potential idea to improve milk quality. The variation in milk protein content from dairy cows and goats fed in tropical areas may determine the added value of milk from this region. Under prolonged high ambient temperature (HTa), dairy cows and goats are at the stage of heat stress. This physiological condition produces a negative effect on dairy cows and goats, i.e., food intake and milk yield. However, the higher milk protein content during summer is demonstrated in dairy goats in our condition. Likewise, an increase in heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) gene expression from mammary epithelium cells isolated from either in vivo (summer and winter periods) and in vitro conditions suggests the direct effect of HTa on mammary gland and perhaps on milk protein synthesis. The intracellular effect of Hsp70 on milk protein synthesis has been proposed in regard to the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus protein transportation and with the subcomponent of casein micelle. The present information reveals the molecular mechanism of HTa on milk protein synthesis.",book:{id:"11360",title:"Milk Protein - New Research Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11360.jpg"},signatures:"Sumpun Thammacharoen, Nungnuch Saipin, Thiet Nguyen and Narongsak Chaiyabutr"},{id:"81333",title:"Pseudocereals: A Novel Path towards Healthy Eating",slug:"pseudocereals-a-novel-path-towards-healthy-eating",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103708",abstract:"Nowadays, interest in research about pseudocereals has increased worldwide. Pseudocereals can be defined as seeds or fruits of non-grass species that can be consumed similarly to cereals. The most extensively used pseudocereals include quinoa, chia, buckwheat, amaranth, and so on. All of them, have good nutritional and bioactive compounds such as essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, phenolic acids, flavonoids, minerals, and vitamins. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has also reported that there is a buddle of plants that are under-utilized that significantly contribute to improving nutrition and health as well as enhancing food basket and livelihoods of the individual; contributing to future food security and sustainability. Earlier studies also reported that pseudocereals protein-derived peptides have anti-cancerous, anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertensive, hypocholesterolemic, and antioxidant properties. The presence of these interesting properties in pseudocereals enhances the interest to carry out extensive research regarding their health benefits and the way to incorporate them into the diet. In this chapter, we portray different types of pseudocereals with their nutritional benefits for living a healthy and active life.",book:{id:"11354",title:"Pseudocereals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11354.jpg"},signatures:"Upasana and Latika Yadav"},{id:"80610",title:"Compare the Effects of Ultrasound versus Taping in Lactating Mothers with Breast Engorgement",slug:"compare-the-effects-of-ultrasound-versus-taping-in-lactating-mothers-with-breast-engorgement",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102359",abstract:"Human milk has hundreds of milk proteins, which provides many benefits on breastfeeding. Breastfeeding is a mother’s gift to herself, her baby, and the earth, there is no substitute for mother’s milk. Milk protein is most important for baby’s growth, development and protects the baby from different illness. Colostrum is produced during early days immediately after child birth, which contains important nutrients and antibodies. Breast engorgement is a problem that is commonly encountered in breastfeeding mothers, which is to be addressed and treated to provide good milk proteins to baby, by relieving discomforts of lactating mothers. A randomized controlled trial was conducted with 30 subjects based on inclusion and exclusion criteria where the subjects are divided into two groups, which contain 15 lactating mothers in each group. The control group that is group-A was treated with ultrasound, and the experimental group that is group-B was treated with ultrasound and Taping Technique. The result of the study showed that there was a significant difference between the pre- and posttest intervention, and we conclude that the ultrasound therapy and Kinesio taping was effective in treating lactating mothers with breast engorgement.",book:{id:"11360",title:"Milk Protein - New Research Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11360.jpg"},signatures:"Dasarapu Indrani, Jagatheesan Alagesan, Prathap Suganthirababu, M.V. Sowmya and Dubba NagaRaju"},{id:"80780",title:"Omics, the New Technological Approaches to the Milk Protein Researches",slug:"omics-the-new-technological-approaches-to-the-milk-protein-researches",totalDownloads:29,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102490",abstract:"With the development of technological approaches, the perturbations of biological information in gene, mRNA, proteins, and metabolites have been gathered to broaden the cognition of synthesis processes during lactation. While omics, the series of application including genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, are mostly preferred and conducted in the investigation of lactation especially the milk protein. These new technological approaches provide a complete view of the molecular regulation pathways and make it possible to systematically investigate the lactation. The aim of this chapter is to comprehensively review the advances in knowledge regarding the great progress in milk protein synthesis as well as lactation physiology and pathology mainly in dairy cows obtained from omics technologies, meanwhile the milk proteins as well as their attributes are illustrated.",book:{id:"11360",title:"Milk Protein - New Research Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11360.jpg"},signatures:"Zitai Guo, Lu Ma and Dengpan Bu"},{id:"80943",title:"Colostrum and Milk in Sow",slug:"colostrum-and-milk-in-sow",totalDownloads:33,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102890",abstract:"Both colostrum and milk quality and quantity can influence piglet survival and growth, especially in a highly prolific sow. The Danish Landrace × Yorkshire crossbred was selected for high prolificacy and challenged to provide enough colostrum and milk of high quality to all piglets. This chapter reviewed the mechanism of colostrum and milk production, basic information of colostrum, and milk quality (immunoglobulin, fat, protein, lactose, etc.) and quantity. The importance of colostrum and milk in modern sows on piglet performance and survival was addressed. Since the sow immunoglobulin cannot pass epitheliochorial placenta in the sow to the piglet’s bloodstream. Therefore, colostrum is a crucial role in piglet survival and growth. However, the amount of colostrum and milk production in hyperprolific sow still improve from high litter size. The knowledge about the factors influencing colostrum and milk quality and quantity, such as parity number, piglet, the environment in hyperprolific sows, may support veterinarians and farmers in the commercial swine farms for increasing pig production. Moreover, the technique to improve colostrum and milk quality and quantity were explained, such as feed supplementation in gestating and lactating sows.",book:{id:"11360",title:"Milk Protein - New Research Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11360.jpg"},signatures:"Morakot Nuntapaitoon"},{id:"79873",title:"Review on Pseudo-Cereals of India",slug:"review-on-pseudo-cereals-of-india",totalDownloads:30,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101834",abstract:"Pseudo-cereals are non-grass, wild plants whose seeds are used in the same manner as cereals, but are underutilized due to the dominance of conventional cereal crops. Pseudo-cereals have varied adaptability. They are climatically more resilient and nutritionally richer than major cereal crops. They are enriched with essential amino acids and their protein content is either similar or greater than that of cereals. They contain adequate amounts of dietary fibers that help improve lipid metabolism. They also contain saponins, polyphenols, betalains, flavonoids, antioxidants, vitamins, and other important phytochemical compounds that help detoxify ROS and cope up with the diseases. Interest in the research of pseudo-cereals is growing among the research community due to its extraordinary nutritional and phytochemical profile and its potential in the development of gluten-free products. It can serve as an alternative food source against staple cereal crops under harsh environmental conditions and if cultivated sustainably, can resolve hunger issues in many countries. Pseudo-cereals form an integral part of the biodiversity due to its widespread usage by the tribals. 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