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1. Introduction
1.1 History of congenital heart disease in Down Syndrome
Down Syndrome had a widespread revolutionary widespread interest since the days of Langdon Down’s pioneering work in 1866 [1]. The first comprehensive description of this unique syndrome was provided in a short paper published in the London Hospital Reports [2]. Down’s article was still unappreciated ten years later. In the July 1876 issue of the Journal of Mental Science, other reports on the same subject described the distinguishing features of an apparently new class of “idiots”, and the first graphical illustration in the medical literature of DS was drawn in an article by Fraser and Mitchell. This also provided the first pictorial sketch of the facial features of a person with DS [3].
Awareness of DS medical reports was sketchy. It is almost incredible that DS was unknown before the last half of the nineteenth century [4]. In the 1960s, Iowa pediatrician Hans Zellweger was excited to find an illustration of a Down patient prior to the latter half of the nineteenth century Figure 1. A Down infant appeared in a painting by the Flemish artist Jacob Jordan entitled “Adoration of the Shepherds”. This painting is dated 1618 and shows a woman holding a child (probably their daughter, Elizabeth) with similar DS features [5].
Figure 1.
The child looking over his mother’s shoulder could be erroneously diagnosed as being affected with Down syndrome. Sir Joshua Reynolds’s painting (1733) entitled Lady Cockburn and Her Children, which hangs in the National Gallery in London.
Other researchers have searched the art archives to determine pictorial representations of Down patients. In 1968, Dr. Arthur Markingson wrote a letter to the editor of Lancet in which he reported no painting of a Down patient could be found [6]. Dr. Markingson’s letter prompted cogent reasons for the apparent rarity of Down children in past centuries. Populations were much smaller than they are now, and the population age structure was different only about two-thirds of females survived to the age at which they could marry. Only half reached the end of childbearing age. Infant mortality was also much higher.
In his opinion, this limited survival of infants with DS in history. In While there were fewer people, the rate of Down births would not have changed appreciably. This suggested that many Down children in the prior centuries did not survive the neonatal period. Thus, raises the question of why did they die? Many reasons must be considered. First, there were no modern therapies such as antibiotics and heart surgery. Down infants often die due to pulmonary infection and heart defects during the critical early years of life. CHD especially likely increased mortality [4, 5, 6].
2. Causative gene mutation
Congenital heart is a major public issue and health challenges. Understanding the molecular genetic mechanism underlying abnormal cardiac lesions associated with trisomy chromosome 21 may lead to novel therapies [7, 8, 9, 10]. DS is the most common genetic causes of CHD and characterized by the presence of an extra full or partial human chromosome 21. In recent decades, significant efforts have been made to find the genotype-phenotype correlations for CHD in DS (DS CHD). For earlier detection and prevention and discover a better treatment.
There were several approaches to this problem: generating of a map of partial trisomy (PT21) cases in humans, creating mouse models with different orthologous regions of Hsa21, and analysis of DS gene expression in cells and tissues [11, 12]. Recent studies support the idea that not all Hsa21 loci are required for DS manifestation, suggesting a small region on 21q22.13 is considered critical to the DS core phenotype [13].
A primary goal of genetic studies in DS is to define sub-genomic areas associated with various DS phenotypes. There have been some exciting developments in this area after systematic analysis of 125 subjects from 1973 to 2015 (Pellerin et al., 2016). Retrospective reanalysis of the same cases added seven new topics (Piovesan et al., 2019) [13]. This work built a final map genomic region and discovered 34-kb on the distal part of 21q22.13 highly restricted DS critical region (HR-DSCR). Unfortunately, some patients carried additional chromosomal anomalies which makes the interpretation of genotype-phenotype correlation, including heart defects more difficult. Because of these complications, mice have been used instead of human partial (segmental) Ts21.
The long arm of Hsa21 has 33.9 Mega base in length and contains 430 protein-coding genes; 293 have a homolog in the mouse genome, and only 235 genes are conserved in syntonically regions on mouse chromosomes: (1) 16 (Mmu16, 23.3 Mb, 166 genes), (2) 17 (Mmu17, 1.1 Mb, 22 genes), and (3) 10 (Mmu10, 2.3 Mb, 47 genes). We found that Mmu16 is the only mouse chromosome associated with heart defects in DS [14, 15].
Mouse models associated with congenital heart disease are shown in Figure 2. The first is the Tc1 mouse model, which carries Hsa21, where approximately 8% of its genes were deleted leading to heart defects [16, 17]. The second is Ts65D, which is the most widely used model [18]. And exhibits some major DS phenotypes, including heart defects [19, 20]; Ts65Dn is trismic for 13.4 Mb of the 22.9 Mb Hsa21 syntenic region on Mmu16. The cardiovascular phenotype of overlapping in larger-than-5.8 Mb sub-centromeric region on Mmu17, which is not syntactic to any region on Hsa21 [21].
Figure 2.
Representation of the DS mouse models associated with cardiac features. “+” indicates the presence and “-” the absence of phenotypes whereas ND indicates a non-determined state for presence or absence of CHD in Ts1Cje.
We recently developed new rodent models to understand and mimic DS mouse segmental trisomy. The third type of model is Dp (10)1Yey/+, Dp (16)1Yey/+ and Dp (17)1Yey/+, carrying individual duplications spanning the entire Hsa21 syntenic regions on Mmu10, Mmu16, and Mmu17, respectively. The results showed both Dp (16)1Yey/+Dp (10)1Yey/+; Dp (16)1Yey/+; and Dp (17)1Yey/+ contribute to heart defects with similar frequency. The final model showed heart defect in Dp (16)2Yey/+ embryos within the Tiam1-Kcnj6 region correlated with over-expression of 20 genes in this area [22].
CHD in DS is a phenotype characterized by reducing the extent to which a particular gene or set of genes expressed in the phenotypes of individuals carrying it. Consequently, in PT21 cases mapping, it is possible to exclude chromosomal regions or identify them as critical for the phenotype only in patients with that phenotype (DS CHD). Approaching the DS CHD critical region was proposed by Korenberg et al. [23] when his concept used the 9 Mb region between D21S55 (21q22.2) to the telomere for the first time. This work further used mouse models over 4–5 Mb region, from (D21S55 through MX1) Korbel et al. [24] narrowed down the critical part for DS CHD to 1.77 Mb, Figure 3. The region in question was extended from DSCAM to ZNF295 (current name ZBTB21) created from combining the maps of 14 PT21 subjects with CHD with information from segmental trisomic mouse model Dp (16)1Yu/+.
Figure 3.
A panel of 30 patients with segmental trisomy 21 metanalysis defines DS phenotype candidate regions. Yellow boxes, no phenotype; solid boxes, increased copy-number; open boxes, 1:2 (monosomies) Purple boxes, presence of phenotype. (A) DSCHD region. TOF, tetralogy of Fallot; PS, pulmonic stenosis; PDA, patent ductus arteriosus; VSD, ventricular septal defect; ASD, atrial septal defect; MI, mitral insufficiency. Red box, DSCHD candidate region. Twenty-three subjects have duplications, including the DSCHD region, 14 thereof have DSCHD. No subject lacking a segmental trisomy involving the DSCHD critical regions was diagnosed with DSCHD. Corresponding regions for six mouse models are indicated to the left [21, 22, 39, 40, 41]. (B) Proposed DSCHD critical region (red box) determined by combining human and mouse data from A. MMU16 indicates the extent of the duplication in the mouse model Dp (16)1Yu with DSCHD.
In 40–60% of subjects, the overall risk of DSCHD in DS is from AVSDs [25]. Although some candidate genes have been a cause for DSCHD, conclusive evidence for their involvement is still unknown. We previously reported a map that contains the DSCHD region in humans to a 5.27-Mb chromosomal segment containing 82 genes [26]. Figure 3A narrows down this segment to a 2.82-Mb critical region likely involved in DSCHD endocardial cushion defects using an expanded panel with 14 subjects with DSCHD. By integrating our information from segmental trisomic mouse models with DSCHD [16, 21], we integrated a further limit on this region in a particular map (Figure 3B); we propose a 1.77-Mb DSCHD critical region, which contains ten genes, including the promoter and a portion of the DS cell adhesion molecule (DSCAM) gene. Specifically, the model Dp (16)1Yu/shows that DSCHD is involved only in the HSA21 regions orthologous to MMU16 (located at 14.4 Mb–42.3 Mb of HSA21); this defines the telomeric DSCHD border and suggests a limited role for the adjacent telomeric region for DSCHD.
2.1 Genes associated with causing CHD
A multifactorial model used as sample collection. Chromosome 21 Single nucleotide polymorphisms calling and Chromosome 21 Copy number variations analyses by pyrosequencing and Sanger sequencing showed most notable results of this study regarding identifying CHD risk loci in DS [27].
rs2832616 and rs1943950 are CHD risk alleles (odds ratios of 2.8 and 2.7, respectively) within the same LD block on chromosome 21 (both cis-eQTLs for KRTAP7–1 gene).
A 4.9-kb CNV upstream of the RIPK4 gene (CNV1) the RIPK4 gene (CNV1) has a risk ratio of 2.29 in the previously reported CHD region of chromosome 21.
A 1.8-kb CNV within the ZBTB21 gene (CNV2) of chromosome 21 with a risk ratio of 1.85. in the previously reported CHD region.
A pair of interacting cis-eQTLs on chromosome 11 (Bonferroni-adjusted P-value <0.05). involving CNOT11 on chromosome 2 and NRGN.
3. Clinical management
3.1 Diagnostic evaluation
Echocardiograms are generally accepted as the diagnostic standard. Some studies specified that all had an echocardiogram [49], while others limited by documentation and relied on retrospective review [28]. One study evaluated if screening, chest X-ray and ECG is an effective method to identify which infants with DS should have an echocardiogram. They found that this method resulted in 69 (17%) fewer echocardiograms without missing infants with major CHD [29]. A similar study showed a sensitivity of 71% and a specificity of 91% chest X-ray and ECG soon after birth for three modalities separately or in combination to detect CHD [30].
3.2 Surgical approach
DS is a challenging public health issue. The survival rate of DS with heart defects has increased dramatically with improved medical care [31]. Infant mortality for patients with DS remain 5× to 8× higher than that of the general population. In the 1940s to 1960s, the average life expectancy for children born with DS dramatically increased from 12 years in the 1940s to 60 [32]. There has been a gradual improvement in the results of DS children undergoing cardiac surgery in the last 16 years [33] with a better understanding of surgical anatomy, Advances in surgical techniques improved myocardial protection and cardiopulmonary bypass strategies, and advances in postoperative management in the intensive care unit contributed to improved survival rate and decreased mortality [34, 35, 36].
When comparing the DS to NS in preoperative data, however there are significant differences in age, RACHS-1 risk category, and presence of substantial noncardiac anomalies among DS patients in the 30 days (about four and a half weeks) to 1 year age group. In contrast, most children in the non-DS patients were in the >1 year age group. The DS population is more likely to have a coexisting major noncardiac structural anomaly, although DS were less likely to have been born prematurely [32].
In open-heart surgery, the cardiopulmonary bypass led to prolonged times. [(110 ± 47 min), 129 (87.75%), and (101.74 ± 33.61)]; aortic cross-clamp was shorter [(65 ± 30 min), 64 minutes (67.21 ± 26.63)]. Depend on the scoring system most patients in DS and Non-DS, RACHS-1 risk categories 1, 2, and 3. Distribution for patients without DS were spread across these three risk categories. In DS, the proportion of patients in risk categories 1, 2, and 3 increased with increasing surgical complexity [32, 37].
Infection is the most common complication that feared by surgeons and results in a more prolonged ICU and hospitalization with considerable treatment in patients with CHD and DS [38]; respiratory complications are also common. Sepsis occurred in 8 patients (10%), mainly caused by Staphylococcus and Pseudomonas. In 7/8 cases, this infection occurred early in the postoperative period. In one case, sepsis developed late and led to death [33].
4. Types of producers associated with DS
4.1 Favorable surgical outcome
4.1.1 Complete atrioventricular septal defect
Hospital mortality ranges from 0.9 to 3% in recent studies [39, 40]. The degree of residual valve dysfunction was independent of surgical choice in a study comparing three surgical techniques [41]. LV outflow tract obstruction is the second cause for reintervention small left ventricle (LV) and a double orifice left the atrioventricular valve. There was an anatomic increase in reoperation incidences, such as a small left ventricle (LV) and a double orifice left atrioventricular valve [41]. The hospital resources usage for cardiac surgery in pediatric patients with CHD and genetic conditions is of great interest [42]. Patients with DS and AVSD heart defect did not constitute an extra financial burden due to good surgical outcome and short hospital stay.
4.1.2 Partial atrioventricular septal defects
Mortality rate was low (0–1%) and reported with repair performed in early childhood [43]. The left atrioventricular valve anatomy was unfavorable in 31% of cases. Reoperation was required in 22% of non-DS. All patients survived surgery.
Other issues include:
4.1.3 single ventricle physiology and Unbalanced atrioventricular septal defects
There is often univentricular palliation or correction (Fontan-type) due to the constant risk of pulmonary hypertension or even mildly elevated pulmonary vascular resistance. Excellent survival was noted at palliation when pulmonary vascular resistance was low (<3 Wood Units/m2) in the 1st year of life. The mortality rate of patients with Fontan-type repair was 27.5% in patients with unbalanced AVSD [44]. Moreover, Fontan-type repair was rarely performed and was considered risky (12% early mortality) in Japan [45]. Furukawa et al. reported eight patients with Down syndrome who underwent total cardiopulmonary connection; one patient died, whereas the clinical course and recovery after surgery in the other seven patients was significantly prolonged. They studied 17 patients with DS who underwent TCPC and reported that mortality in the early period was 29% and significantly higher than that in patients without DS (10%). The debate is now DS itself is a vital independent factor of mortality. Future work should evaluate mortality and long-term prognosis.
4.2 Unfavorable surgical outcome
4.2.1 Tetralogy of Fallot
Cyanosis in DS patients accounts for about 6% of deaths. Early mortality has been reduced to 1–2% in recent years [39, 46, 47]; pulmonary hypertension is presumed to be a causal factor, and this was supported by its higher incidence in patients with tetralogy of Fallot associated with AVSD. Patients with DS and tetralogy of Fallot need a pulmonary valve replacement (PVR)/implantation earlier than normal patients [48].
4.2.2 Tetralogy of Fallot combined with AVCanal
This is a rare anomaly frequently associated with DS and low operative risk (4–6%) has been recently accomplished Complete repair [49] two-stage (with prior palliation) and single-stage repair was recently reported. With 10-year survival obtained the two strategies as well as similar freedom from reoperation for left atrioventricular valve regurgitation [50].
5. Scoring systems in cardiac surgical outcome
5.1 RACHS-score
The RACHS-1 method [51, 52] was used to adjust for differences in the patient mix when comparing in-hospital death. Surgical procedures ranged from 1 to 6 risk categories. Risk category 1 has the lowest risk for in-hospital death, whereas risk category 6 has the highest. Risk categories 5 and 6 were combined for reporting purposes because of the low numbers of patients in each group. Patients with >1 cardiac surgical procedure were placed in the category of the highest risk procedure.
Two studies evaluated outcomes in children with DS by grouping cardiac lesions based on risk-stratified categories (RACHS-1). There were generally low mortality rates for children with DS compared to those without, which highlighting the higher rate of cardiac operations in DS children [32, 39].
5.2 Aristotle score
A new international Nomenclature of evaluating the quality of care in congenital heart surgery based on the complexity of the surgical procedures the project started in 1999, involving expert surgeons included 50 pediatric surgeons from 23 countries representing International Scientific Societies. The calculation is undertaken in two steps: the first adjusts only the complexity of the procedures by establishing the Basic Score determined by three factors: the potential for morbidity, the anticipated technical difficulty, the potential for mortality. The second step was improving the Comprehensive Score, which further adjusts the complexity according to the specific patient characteristics. The Aristotle method allows the following equation of quality of care: Complexity FN Outcome = Performance which allows precise scoring of the complexity for 145 congenital heart surgery procedures. The complexity was based on the procedures defined by the Society of Thoracic Surgeons (STS)/European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) [53].
5.3 Propensity score matching analysis
Propensity score matching was frequently used in the cardiovascular surgery literatures. These methods are increasingly used to reduce the impact of treatment-selection bias in estimating causal treatment effects using observational data [54, 55, 56]. Tóth et al. reported that the perioperative values had no significant differences between the DS and non-DS groups after propensity matching. This method used similar values for the variables and can play an essential role in identifying the differences between control and study groups.
In Seminars in Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, the propensity score used at 5:1, (NS: DS). PSM based on sex, low birth weight, and prematurity age group with post matching standardized mean difference indicating successful balancing of the two groups; the final matched set was 2493 DS patients. These were compared to 12,465 patients, as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Children with Down syndrome and non-syndromic children undergoing various cardiac operations represented by The Texas Inpatient Public Use Datafile was queried from 1999 to 2016.
We show outcomes after cardiac operations in patients with DS using Texas Inpatient Public Use Datafile was queried for all patients <18 years old undergoing CHD procedures between 1999 and 2016. There were 2,841 cases in DS patients who underwent CHD operations compared to 25,063 non-DS cases. Over the 18-year period. Variables depending on the type of CHD lesion when multiple cardiac lesions require intervention; DS children have an excellent surgical outcome and hospital survival after isolated AVSD than did non-DS children. Bidirectional Glenn palliation TOF/PA repair was associated with worse hospital mortality in children with DS. Further work will be evaluated cardiac and noncardiac comorbidities in DS patients led to higher mortality for specific cardiac lesions [57].
6. Conclusion
The challenge of cardiac care of DS patients has no more concerns because of a great improving result of cardiac surgery contribute to the increasing survival and to the better quality of life is even more successful and gratifying.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"Down Syndrome (DS), congenital heart disease (CHD), genetic mutations, surgical outcome, cardiovascular surgery",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76070.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/76070.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76070",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76070",totalDownloads:135,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:45,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 5th 2021",dateReviewed:"March 10th 2021",datePrePublished:"May 20th 2021",datePublished:"March 23rd 2022",dateFinished:"April 1st 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The prevalence of congenital heart disease has accounted for nearly one-third of all significant congenital anomalies worldwide. The first report about an association between cardiac anomalies and Down Syndrome was in (1876). Ten years after discovering of Down Syndrome and the credit of association between congenital cardiac anomalies and mongolism was suggested in (1894) by Garrod. There many studies performed to identify a correlation between genotype and phenotype in Down Syndrome, little is known about cardiovascular phenotype in Down Syndrome. Congenital heart disease is considered one of the highest causes of mortality and morbidity in Down Syndrome compared to patients with the same lesion of non-down. There is a big debate about surgical management and considered them as risk factors of surgery with precaution and recent technology, Down Syndrome considered as a normal patient in prognosis. This chapter aimed to shed the light on congenital heart disease in Down Syndrome and current knowledge in specific mutations associated with them and how the effect of innovative technology and management to treat them end at the same outcome and sometimes better based on recent research and Scoring System.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76070",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76070",book:{id:"10333",slug:"down-syndrome-and-other-chromosome-abnormalities"},signatures:"Zainab Al-Suhaymi",authors:[{id:"341812",title:"Dr.",name:"Zainab",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Suhaymi",fullName:"Zainab Al-Suhaymi",slug:"zainab-al-suhaymi",email:"zainab.salman55@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 History of congenital heart disease in Down Syndrome",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Causative gene mutation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.1 Genes associated with causing CHD",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Clinical management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Diagnostic evaluation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Surgical approach",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Types of producers associated with DS",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1 Favorable surgical outcome",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"4.1.1 Complete atrioventricular septal defect",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.1.2 Partial atrioventricular septal defects",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"4.1.3 single ventricle physiology and Unbalanced atrioventricular septal defects",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.2 Unfavorable surgical outcome",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.2.1 Tetralogy of Fallot",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.2.2 Tetralogy of Fallot combined with AVCanal",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16",title:"5. Scoring systems in cardiac surgical outcome",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"5.1 RACHS-score",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"5.2 Aristotle score",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"5.3 Propensity score matching analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'M. C. Liu and K. Corlett, “A Study of Congenital Heart Defects in Mongolism,” Archives of Disease in Childhood 34, no. 177 (October 1959): 410-19'},{id:"B2",body:'“Langdon-Down-1866.Pdf,” accessed February 21, 2021, https://www.romolocapuano.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Langdon-Down-1866.pdf'},{id:"B3",body:'FRASER J. Kalmuc idiocy: report of a case with autopsy with notes on 62 cases. Journal of Mental Science. 1876; 22:161'},{id:"B4",body:'E. Peter Volpe, “Is Down Syndrome A Modern Disease” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 29, no. 3 (1986): 423-36, https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.1986.0043'},{id:"B5",body:'H. W. 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Pediatr Cardiol. 2009 Sep 23;30(8):1117'},{id:"B53",body:'Lacour-Gayet F, Clarke D, Jacobs J, Gaynor W, Hamilton L, Jacobs M, et al. The Aristotle score for congenital heart surgery. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg Pediatr Card Surg Annu. 2004;7:185-91'},{id:"B54",body:'ROSENBAUM PR, RUBIN DB. The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects. Biometrika. 1983 Apr 1;70(1):41-55'},{id:"B55",body:'Rosenbaum PR, Rubin DB. Reducing Bias in Observational Studies Using Subclassification on the Propensity Score. null. 1984 Sep 1;79(387):516-24'},{id:"B56",body:'Grunkemeier GL, Payne N, Jin R, Handy JR. Propensity score analysis of stroke after off-pump coronary artery bypass grafting. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 2002 Aug 1;74(2):301-5'},{id:"B57",body:'Dhillon GS, Ghanayem NS, Broda CR, Lalani SR, Mery CM, Shekerdemian LS, et al. An Analysis of Hospital Mortality After Cardiac Operations in Children With Down Syndrome. Seminars in Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. 2020 Dec 1;32(4):947-57'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Zainab Al-Suhaymi",address:"zainab.alsuhaymi@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Resident General Surgery, General Surgery Department, Prince Mohammed Bin Abdul Aziz Hospital, Ministry of National Guard Health Affairs, Al-Madinah, Saudi Arabia
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1. Introduction
Since Fujimoto et al. in 1999 first demonstrated that bismuth-doped silica glass could generate broadband luminescence covering the near-infrared (NIR) region [1], the bismuth-doped materials have attracted considerable attention due to their ultra-wide luminescence [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. Especially, the bismuth-doped and bismuth/erbium co-doped optical fibers (BDFs and BEDFs) have been developed for tunable fiber laser, amplifier, and ultra-broadband light source operating in the range from 1000 to 1800 nm [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15].
Although great endeavor has been made to improve the performance of BDFs and BEDFs, challenges still exist, and they have become obstacles to many practical applications. One of the key challenges is that the fundamental structure of bismuth active centers (BACs) and the nature of their NIR luminescence remain unclear. Based on the previous researches, it was generally accepted that the formation of BACs greatly depends on the material compositions [12, 15]. With different doping elements such as aluminum, phosphorus, silicon and germanium in the glass environment, there are four types of BACs in the BDFs, namely BAC associated with aluminum (BAC-Al), BAC associated with phosphorus (BAC-P), BAC associated with silicon (BAC-Si), and BAC associated with germanium (BAC-Ge), respectively [16, 17, 18, 19]. Multiple absorption peaks of these BACs have been observed in BDFs and BEDFs, for example, BAC-Al (510, 700, and 1050 nm), BAC-P (460, 750, and 1300 nm), BAC-Si (420, 830, and 1400 nm), and BAC-Ge (463, 925, and 1600 nm) [17, 18]. The typical NIR luminescence bands of these BACs locate at ~1100 nm (BAC-Al), ~1300 nm (BAC-P), ~1400 nm (BAC-Si), and ~ 1700 nm (BAC-Ge), respectively [15, 17].
To better reveal the nature of the NIR luminescence in BDFs/BEDFs and the configuration of BACs, various post treatments, such as ionizing radiation, laser irradiation, and thermal treatment, have already been applied [20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. Thereinto, as a result of laser irradiation, the photobleaching of BDFs/BEDFs leading to the gradual decay of the luminescence of BACs is quite obvious. In this chapter, the photobleaching effect on BACs observed in BDFs and BEDFs has been reviewed. More specially, this effect is demonstrated and analyzed in detail from the angle of BAC type, irradiation intensity, irradiation wavelength, and temperature. In addition, the photobleaching mechanism for each BAC is also discussed. The investigation of this photobleaching process gives not only the deep insights into the structure of BACs but also more information of photostability of BDFs/BEDFs. With further understanding of the BACs, it helps to develop an effective way to control the BACs and obtain better and more stable optical performance of BDF and BEDF for practical applications.
2. Phenomenon of photobleaching
The photobleaching effect observed in some luminescent materials is featured by the gradual decay of luminescence after laser irradiation. This effect can be referred as a process of laser irradiation-induced luminous centers destruction and/or converting into the nonluminous center. This process is called the photobleaching effect [26].
The photobleaching effect has been found in many materials. For example, it was reported that the green fluorescent protein could be bleached under laser irradiation [27]. The Sm2+ emission in epitaxial CaF2 film could be bleached partially under 633-nm irradiation [28]. The similar photoinduced reduction of luminescence has also been observed in Nd3+:LiYF4 and YVO4:Bi3+/Eu3+ nanoparticles [29, 30]. In addition, a large number of dyes present the photobleaching characteristics [31, 32, 33, 34]. In general, the photobleaching effect is caused by breaking of covalent bonds or nonspecific reactions between the luminous center and surrounding molecules. Especially, some photobleaching-based techniques such as fluorescence loss in photobleaching and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching have been developed and used for molecular marker, in vivo cell tracking, and investigation of molecule diffusion in biology [27, 35, 36, 37].
The photobleaching effect also exists in the glass materials. Exposure to 977 nm light irradiation led to the absorption decrease of Yb3+ in ytterbium-doped silica fiber [38]. In addition, the darkened Yb-doped fiber could be photobleached when irradiated by 355 and 633 nm laser [39, 40]. The similar photobleaching effect has also been observed in the thulium-doped fibers [41].
As for the bismuth-doped materials, the BAC-related NIR luminescence was reduced under laser irradiation in bismuth-doped silica-based glasses, TlCdCl3 crystal and Sr2B5O9Cl:Bi crystal [42, 43, 44]. In the case of BDFs/BEDFs, a number of studies on the photobleaching of various BACs have been reported [19, 21, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54]. Herein, the photobleaching effect on BAC-Si, BAC-Ge, BAC-Al, and BAC-P in BDFs and BEDFs is demonstrated in relation to irradiation intensity, irradiation wavelength, and temperature, respectively. The underlying mechanisms of these photobleaching effects in BDFs and BEDFs are also discussed below.
3. Photobleaching of BAC-Si
The photobleaching of BAC-Si in BEDF under 830-nm laser irradiation has been reported in [46]. By the 830 nm laser irradiation with an intensity of 0.12 MW/cm2, the luminescence spectra of 50 cm BEDF at different irradiation time were shown in Figure 1a. It is evident that the NIR luminescence of BAC-Si peaking at ~1420 nm decreases continuously with the longer exposure time. In addition, the absorption of BAC-Si peaking at ~816 nm demonstrates the similar trend, gradually decaying when exposed to the 830 nm laser as shown in Figure 1b. The decrease of both the NIR luminescence and absorption clearly indicates the degradation of BAC-Si. Interestingly, after the irradiation, both the absorption and luminescence of BAC-Si gradually recover to the initial value in 48 hours at room temperature (RT). This recovery behavior implies that the photobleaching of BAC-Si under 830-nm irradiation in BEDF is reversible in the mild condition.
Figure 1.
(a) Luminescence spectra of the BEDF under 830-nm irradiation in 60 minutes of exposure time; (b) BEDF insertion absorption spectra before and after irradiation (20 minutes to 48 hours) [46].
To characterize the photobleaching effect on BAC-Si, the stretched exponential function (SEF) has been used, which is expressed as [55]:
It=I1+I0−I1e−tτβE1
where I1 and I0 are the luminescence intensities at bleaching saturated time and initial time, τ represents the bleaching time and β stands for the stretched parameter. In addition, the bleaching ratio rB, defined by bleached part of the luminescence (I0−I1) divided by the initial luminescence before irradiation (I0), is used to quantify the photobleaching degree [47]. Figure 2 shows the typical luminescence variation at 1420 nm irradiated by 0.12 MW/cm2 830-nm laser, which is well fitted by SEF in Eq. (1).
Figure 2.
Variation of luminescence intensity at 1420 nm as a function of irradiation time [46].
3.1 Irradiation intensity dependence
It has been found that the irradiation intensity (power) has a significant effect on the photobleaching of BACs. Higher irradiation intensity provides more photons, which may lead to stronger photobleaching effect. The irradiation intensity dependence of photobleaching of BAC-Si in BEDF was investigated under 830-nm laser irradiation, and the variation of irradiation intensity was achieved by changing the incident power ranged from 0.39 to 35 mW [47]. Figure 3a demonstrates the time evolution of BAC-Si luminescence at 1420 nm under different irradiation power. It is obvious that the luminescence of BAC-Si decays more severely as the irradiation power increases. Furthermore, the luminescence at 1420 nm, time constant 1/τ, and bleaching ratio rB vs. irradiation power is plotted as Figure 3b. It is worth noting that both the bleaching ratio and bleaching rate tend to be saturated as the irradiation power increases. Such trend is similar with the variation trend of luminescence at 1420 nm. It hints that the excitation of BAC-Si may participate in the photobleaching process.
Figure 3.
(a) Evolution of BAC-Si luminescence at 1420 nm under different irradiation power; (b) luminescence, time constant, and bleaching ratio vs. irradiation power [47].
3.2 Irradiation wavelength dependence
The photobleaching of BAC-Si was observed in BEDF under 710 and 1380 nm irradiation. As shown in Figure 4, the luminescence of BAC-Si is significantly bleached under irradiation of 710 nm, but almost no change under 980-nm irradiation. The inset of Figure 4 indicates that the BAC-Si luminescence can be slightly bleached under 1380-nm irradiation, which is much weaker than that 710 nm irradiation. In addition, the luminescence of BAC-Si in BDF can be bleached under 532- and 407-nm irradiation [45]. The photobleaching effect on BAC-Si with different irradiation wavelengths is further summarized and listed in Table 1. Seen from Table 1, except for 980 nm, the photobleaching of BAC-Si can be obtained under all the other applied irradiation wavelengths even the irradiation intensity for some wavelengths is quite small. Generally, it is believed that the shorter wavelength provides larger photon energy. With the increasing photon energy, a greater number of BACs are degraded, resulting in the stronger photobleaching effect. However, even though light at 980 nm has more photon energy than that at 1380 nm, no obvious photobleaching effect is observed under 980-nm irradiation. Considering the fact that 980 nm is unable to excite BAC-Si to the upper energy level, therefore, it is suggested that the photobleaching effect on BAC-Si can only happen when the irradiation wavelength is capable of pumping BAC-Si to excited state. The detailed mechanism will be discussed in Section 3.4.
Figure 4.
Luminescence spectra excited by 0.2 mW 830-nm laser before and after 710- and 980-nm irradiation. The inset presents the variation of luminescence at 1420 nm with irradiation wavelengths of 710 and 1380 nm [47].
Summary of irradiation wavelength influence upon photobleaching of BAC-Si.
3.3 Temperature dependence
The temperature dependence of photobleaching effect on BAC-Si in BEDF was studied in the range from 77 to 673 K [47]. The bleaching ratio of BAC-Si under 0.36 MW/cm2 830-nm irradiation as a function of temperature is plotted as Figure 5. As the temperature rises from 77 to 673 K, the bleaching ratio of BAC-Si increases from 34 to 66% and then tends to be saturated. This result indicates that the heating of BEDF to the high temperature can accelerate the electron movement, leading to the stronger photobleaching of BAC-Si.
Figure 5.
Temperature dependence of bleaching ratio of BAC-Si under 0.36 MW/cm2 830-nm irradiation [47].
3.4 Photobleaching mechanism of BAC-Si
Based on the fact that the excitation of BAC-Si is an essential condition for the photobleaching [47], the photobleaching process is deduced to be expressed as:
BiBAC−Si+x→hνB∗iBAC−Si+x→kTBiBAC−Si+x+1+e−,E2
where BiBAC−Si+x stands for the Bi ion in a BAC-Si with a valence state of +x, ‘*’ symbolizes the excited state of the active center, and hν and kT are the photon energy and thermal energy, respectively. As shown by Eq. (2), the photobleaching mechanism of BAC-Si can be described as: first, the Bi ions absorb the 830 nm photons and are pumped to the upper excited state corresponding to 816 nm; second, with the help of thermal energy, some Bi ions release the electrons which are seized by the surrounding material defects (e.g., self-trapped holes, STH), arousing the decay of luminescence and absorption. As seen from Table 1, the BAC-Si could also be bleached under 1380-nm irradiation with a slight bleaching ratio of 0.06. The Bi ions absorb 1380 nm photons and then are excited to the lower excited state, and then the electrons can transfer from a small part of Bi ions at the lower excited state to the nearby defects. Compared with Bi ions at the upper excited state, this electron movement pathway at the lower excited state is more difficult.
4. Photobleaching of BAC-Ge
Photobleaching of BAC-Ge has been found in bismuth-doped optical germanosilicate fibers [45]. After 30 minutes’ irradiation of 532-nm laser with an intensity of 1.2 MW/cm2, both the absorption and the luminescence related to BAC-Ge significantly change as shown by the absorption and luminescence spectra of BDF before and after the irradiation. The dramatical decrease of absorption at 925 and 1650 nm and luminescence at 1700 nm clearly indicate the destruction (photobleaching) of BAC-Ge.
The photobleaching of BAC-Ge can also be fitted well by SEF in Eq. (1). The variation of luminescence at 1700 nm excited by 1550 nm under 532-nm irradiation has been demonstrated in [19, 45]. The decay curve of BAC-Ge luminescence at 1700 nm shows the exponential trend. Moreover, there is no recovery behavior after the photobleaching at RT. However, by thermal annealing of the bleached BDF, BAC-Ge could be recovered [19, 45, 53]. After 532-nm laser irradiation, the luminescence of BAC-Ge almost disappears. Annealing the bleached BDF at 600°C, the luminescence of BAC-Ge at ~1700 nm significantly increases, even more than the pristine value, as shown in Figure 6. The evident increase of the luminescence of BACs by thermal treatment has been observed in unirradiated BDFs and BEDFs [22, 24, 25, 56, 57, 58, 59]. All these results indicate that the thermal treatment can not only lead to the recovery of irradiated fibers but also activate the new BACs.
Figure 6.
Evolution of photoluminescence spectra of a BDF at different stages of the experiment: Pristine, irradiated, and annealed [19, 53].
4.1 Irradiation intensity dependence
The irradiation intensity dependence of photobleaching of BAC-Ge has been studied under 532-nm irradiation with intensity ranged from 0.5 to 2 MW/cm2 [48]. The bleaching rate 1/τ calculated by the SEF as a function of irradiation power under 532-nm irradiation is plotted as Figure 7. Seen from Figure 7, the relationship between the bleaching rate and irradiation power in log-log scale is almost linear with a slope of ~1.7. The fitting slope is close to 2, which suggests that the photobleaching of BAC-Ge under 532-nm irradiation is likely to be a two-photon process. In addition, the bleaching rate increases with the irradiation intensity, indicating that more photons obtained by higher irradiation intensity results in faster photobleaching of BAC-Ge.
Figure 7.
Bleaching rate as a function of irradiation power under 532-nm irradiation (log-log scale) [48].
4.2 Irradiation wavelength dependence
The irradiation wavelength dependence of photobleaching of BAC-Ge differs from that of BAC-Si. As mentioned above, the photobleaching of BAC-Si only happens when the irradiation photon is able to excite BAC-Si. The photobleaching of BAC-Ge in BDFs has been observed when irradiated by 244, 407, 532, 639, 975, and 1460 nm [21, 45, 48, 51, 53]. In [48], the variation of BAC-Ge luminescence at 1700 nm in BDF under irradiation at different wavelengths with the irradiation intensity kept at ~0.5 MW/cm2 has been demonstrated. Clearly, shorter irradiation wavelength provides higher photon energy, leading to stronger photobleaching of BAC-Ge. From this result, the photobleaching of BAC-Ge is almost unrelated to the resonant radiation wavelength. The mechanism of photobleaching of BAC-Ge will be discussed in detail in Section 4.4, which may be different from that of BAC-Si.
4.3 Temperature dependence
The temperature also has an influence upon the photobleaching of BAC-Ge. The BDF was irradiated under 532 nm with an intensity of 0.5 MW/cm2 at room temperature (300 K) and liquid nitrogen temperature (77 K), respectively [48]. Seen from Figure 8, the photobleaching of BAC-Ge is suppressed significantly when the temperature is cooled down to 77 K. It is noticeable that the photoionization of the germanium-related oxygen deficient center (GeODC) decreases at low temperature [60]. Especially, it has already been confirmed that the BAC in bismuth-doped materials should be some cluster making up of Bi ion with the oxygen deficiency center (ODC) rather than Bi ions themselves [61]. Therefore, it is reasonable to deduce that the photobleaching of BAC-Ge may be related to the photoionization of GeODC. It was also found that the 1550-nm laser had no photobleaching effect upon BAC-Ge under 80°C but was able to bleach BAC-Ge when the temperature of BDF was elevated to hundreds of degrees [54]. Such combined effect of thermal treatment and laser irradiation on BAC-Al has also been observed in BEDF [52].
Figure 8.
Variation of BAC-Ge luminescence at 1700 nm in BDF irradiated by 532 nm at 300 and 77 K [48].
4.4 Photobleaching mechanism of BAC-Ge
It is known that the most convincing model of the nature of BAC is a Bi ion close to a structural defect, and the defect is most probably to be an ODC [62]. Furthermore, the mechanism of photobleaching of BAC-Ge is assumed to be the photoionization of GeODC. The photobleaching process of BAC-Ge induced by the destruction of GeODC by laser irradiation can be expressed as follows:
BAC≡Bi+n+ODC→2hνBi+n+e−+E′centerE3
The hypothesis is supported by the following facts: (1) the irradiation intensity dependence of bleaching rate demonstrates that photobleaching of BAC-Ge is likely to be a two-photon process [48]; (2) the GeODC can be photoionized under UV light irradiation [63]; and (3) the behavior of photobleaching of BAC-Ge is similar to the photoionization of GeODC at low temperature [48].
These results also suggest that the Bi ion adjacent to the ODC is the credible structure of BAC. According to this mechanism, it is believed that the number of the GeODC in the fiber should have an impact on the photobleaching of BAC-Ge. In this case, the doping concentration of Ge may affect the formation of GeODC, resulting in different photobleaching phenomena with various core compositions in [21]. This doping concentration dependence of photobleaching effect may also apply to the photobleaching of BAC-Si, BAC-Al, and BAC-P.
In addition, it is worth noting that the photobleaching of BAC-Si under 532-nm irradiation can be explained utilizing this hypothesis [45]. Therefore, more than one mechanism of photobleaching of BACs under different irradiation wavelengths should exist.
5. Photobleaching of BAC-Al
Compared with BAC-Si and BAC-Ge, the understanding of the fundamental structure of BAC-Al is still limited. A number of studies on photobleaching of BAC-Al have been taken to explore the nature of BAC-Al. It has been reported that the BAC-Al can be bleached with various irradiation conditions in bismuth/erbium co-doped aluminosilicate fibers [49]. Figure 9 shows the absorption spectra of BEDF in the range from 650 to 750 nm before and after the irradiation. It is clear that the absorption of BAC-Al at ~700 nm decreases after the irradiation of 532, 633, 710, and 830 nm laser (for irradiation at 980 nm, the bleaching effect is not that obvious.). Unlike BAC-Si, after the irradiation, there is no obvious recovery behavior of BAC-Al at RT. Even the bleached BEDF is annealed at high temperatures; there remains no observable recovery of BAC-Al.
Figure 9.
Absorption of BEDF before and after irradiation at various wavelengths [49].
5.1 Irradiation intensity dependence
The photobleaching of BAC-Al also largely depends on the irradiation intensity [49, 52]. The intensity dependence of photobleaching of BAC-Al under 532-nm irradiation has been demonstrated in [49]. As irradiation intensity increases from 0.06 to 0.16 MW/cm2, both the bleaching rate and bleaching ratio increase, indicating a faster and stronger photobleaching process. Moreover, the irradiation power dependence of bleaching rate in log-log scale shows a linear trend with a slope of ~1.8, as shown in Figure 10. The fitting slope close to 2 also demonstrates that the photobleaching of BAC-Al under 532-nm irradiation is likely to be a two-photon process.
Figure 10.
The bleaching rate 1/τ of BAC-Al in BEDF under 532-nm irradiation versus irradiation power [49].
5.2 Irradiation wavelength dependence
The BAC-Al can be bleached under irradiation at both resonant and nonresonant wavelengths. The different irradiation wavelengths (532, 633, 710, 830, and 980 nm) have been applied for the investigation of the photobleaching of Al-doped BEDF [49]. At RT, there is no obvious reduction of BAC-Al luminescence under 980-nm irradiation while the photobleaching of BAC-Al takes place under irradiation of all the other wavelengths. Especially, the stronger photobleaching of BAC-Al can be obtained by increasing the photon energy (reducing the irradiation wavelength) with a growth of the bleaching rate and a reduction of the unbleached ratio as shown in Figure 11. This irradiation wavelength dependence suggests that the Al-related ODC (AlODC) may take part in the photobleaching process instead of the Bi ion.
Figure 11.
Unbleached ratio and bleaching rate as a function of the photon energy [49].
5.3 Temperature dependence
Similar to the BAC-Si and BAC-Ge, the photobleaching of BAC-Al is suppressed at low temperature. It has been reported that the bleaching ratio of BAC-Al under 0.12 MW/cm2 532-nm irradiation is reduced from 10 to 5% as the temperature falls down from RT to 77 K [49]. In addition, the temperature aggravated photobleaching of BAC-Al has been observed in BEDF [52]. Under 0.34 MW/cm2 980-nm irradiation, the BAC-Al luminescence at 1191 nm has little change at 293 K but decreases obviously at higher temperatures (423–623 K). The bleaching ratio of BAC-Al dramatically increases with the rising temperature, especially at 623 K, up to 35% of luminescence is bleached, as shown in Figure 12. The increasing temperature provides more thermal energy, making it possible for the electron to escape from the BAC-Al. The results imply the strong temperature dependence of photobleaching of BAC-Al, indicating the important role of thermal energy in the photobleaching process.
Figure 12.
Bleaching ratio of BAC-Al under 1 hour of 0.3 MW/cm2 980-nm irradiation as a function of the temperature [52].
5.4 Photobleaching mechanism of BAC-Al
Considering that the BAC-Al can be bleached under irradiation of both resonant and nonresonant wavelengths, it is believed that the degradation of BAC-Al under irradiation is due to the photoinduced effects on AlODCs [49], which is much similar with BAC-Ge. Subsequently, the electron released from the AlODC is captured by the nearby defects, arousing the destruction of BAC-Al. In addition, the suppression of photobleaching of BAC-Al at the low temperature arising from the decreasing phonon-assisted rate for relaxation of AlODC, and the electron movement may support the view of participation of AlODC. However, unlike GeODC, the information of photoionization of AlODC is still limited, and there may exist more than one mechanism of photobleaching of BAC-Al. Therefore, the mechanism of photobleaching of BAC-Al still needs further investigation for deep understanding of the origin of BAC-Al.
6. Photobleaching of BAC-P
Only one photobleaching relevant study on the BAC-P has been reported so far. The study demonstrates that the luminescence of BAC-P at 1300 nm in BDF can be bleached under 1 MW/cm2 407-nm irradiation [45]. The evolution of the luminescence of BAC-P is plotted as Figure 13, which is possibly linked with P-related ODC (PODC). Of course, more investigation on photobleaching of BAC-P needs to be taken in terms of irradiation intensity, irradiation wavelength, and temperature dependences to get in-depth knowledge of the photobleaching of BAC-P and its structure.
Figure 13.
Evolution of BAC-P luminescence at 1300 nm in BDF under 407-nm irradiation with an intensity of ~1 MW/cm2 at room temperature [45].
7. Inductive analysis
The photobleaching effect exists in all four types of BACs. Since photobleaching effect varies case by case and is largely dependent on the irradiation conditions, here, Table 2 summarizes a series of photobleaching of BACs observed in BDFs and BEDFs, along with their fiber compositions, BAC type, and irradiation conditions. The samples are doped with different compositions, such as Si, Ge, Al, P, Bi, and Er. The irradiation wavelengths are from 244 to 1460 nm, and the irradiation power varies from 0.005 to 1.5 MW/cm2. The exposure temperature of the sample is in the range of 77–673 K.
Summary of photobleaching of BACs in BDFs and BEDFs.
Note: T, temperature of the fiber when it is irradiated by the laser.
In general, the bleaching ratio increases with irradiation intensity. Higher irradiation intensity provides more photons, leading to stronger photobleaching effect. It is worth noting that for both BAC-Si and BAC-Al, the bleaching ratio tends to saturate as the irradiation intensity increases [47, 52]. More interestingly, the photobleaching effect could happen under irradiation of some wavelengths even the irradiation intensity is quite small. However, for some irradiation wavelengths, even the irradiation intensity is large, there is still no obvious photobleaching phenomenon. For example, the luminescence of BAC-Si decays 20% after 830-nm irradiation with an intensity of 0.005 MW/cm2 but has no change when exposed to 0.36 MW/cm2 980-nm irradiation [47]. This indicates that the irradiation wavelength affects more on the photobleaching than the irradiation intensity.
The photobleaching effect significantly depends on the irradiation wavelength. As for BAC-Ge and BAC-Al, the photobleaching effect could happen by the irradiations at both resonant and nonresonant wavelengths, and larger bleaching ratio can be achieved by shorter irradiation wavelength [48, 49]. However, as for BAC-Si, only the wavelengths that are able to excite BAC-Si to the upper level could lead to the photobleaching [47]. According to Table 2, it is worth noting that irradiation wavelengths that can cause the photobleaching effect are always shorter than the luminescence peak wavelength of BACs. Therefore, it is supposed that the premise of photobleaching is that the photon energy for the photobleaching is larger than the excitation energy between the ground state and the first excited state of BACs.
Higher temperature evidently accelerates the electron movement rate. It is believed that the photobleaching of BACs is due to the electron escape. Therefore, the photobleaching of BACs becomes stronger at high temperatures, as demonstrated in [47, 48, 52, 54]. It is remarkable that for some irradiation wavelengths, the luminescence has little change at room temperature but is bleached significantly at higher temperatures [52, 54]. The increasing temperature provides enough thermal energy and assists the electron to flee from the BACs; however, the phonon energy is not sufficient for electron escape at room temperature.
8. Summary
Since the first observation of NIR luminescence in bismuth-doped glass, the bismuth-doped materials have attracted great attention due to their ultra-broadband luminescence. Especially, the bismuth-doped and bismuth/erbium co-doped optical fibers have been developed for the potential applications as optical amplifier and fiber laser. A number of researches have been taken focusing on the photostability of bismuth active center (BAC) in these BDFs/BEDFs. The results have demonstrated that the laser radiation can evidently cause the photobleaching of all types of BACs (BAC-Si, BAC-Ge, BAC-Al, and BAC-P), leading to the change of optical characteristics of the fiber. For BAC-Si, BAC-Ge, and BAC-Al, the photobleaching is much dependent upon the irradiation intensity, irradiation wavelength, and temperature. The recovery behavior of bleached BAC-Si and BAC-Ge can be achieved with the aid of phonon-assisted relaxation after the irradiation. It is noted that the BAC-Ge and BAC-Al can be bleached under irradiation at both resonant and nonresonant wavelengths; however, the photobleaching of BAC-Si can only happen when the irradiation photon is able to excite the BAC-Si to the upper energy level. These differences indicate that the photobleaching of BACs is driven by multiple possible mechanisms. In bismuth-doped germanosilicate fiber, the possible mechanism of the photobleaching effect is the photoionization of GeODC, which participate in the formation of BAC-Ge. In addition, the fabrication process, material compositions, treatment conditions, as well as doping concentration of Si/Ge/Al/P have a great impact on the formation of their related ODCs (GeODC, AlODC, PODC, etc.) and ultimately affect the photobleaching of related BACs. All these investigations on photobleaching of BACs in these BDFs/BEDFs not only provide their photostability information but also give an insight to reveal the fundamental structure of BACs, which can be utilized to control the BACs in BDFs and BEDFs for the practical applications as an optical amplifier and fiber laser.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful for the support of National Natural Science Foundation of China (61520106014 and 61675032), Science and Technology Commission of Shanghai Municipality, China (SKLSFO2018-02) and 111 Project (D20031) and wish to express their thanks to other collaborators for their contributions.
\n',keywords:"bismuth-doped optical fiber (BDF), bismuth/erbium co-doped optical fiber (BEDF), bismuth active center (BAC), laser irradiation, photobleaching, irradiation intensity, irradiation wavelength, temperature",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72966.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72966.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72966",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72966",totalDownloads:556,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 27th 2019",dateReviewed:"July 17th 2020",datePrePublished:"August 12th 2020",datePublished:"December 2nd 2020",dateFinished:"August 12th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Bismuth-doped optical fiber (BDF) and bismuth/erbium co-doped optical fiber (BEDF) have attracted much attention due to their ultra-broadband luminescence in the near-infrared (NIR) region. The photobleaching effect on bismuth active centers (BACs) related to the NIR luminescence has been systematically investigated and summarized, in terms of irradiation intensity, irradiation wavelength, and temperature. All these findings not only give the deep insights into the fundamental structure of BACs but also provide an effective way to control the BACs. They play an important role for the development of BDF- and BEDF-based devices with high performance and stability under laser exposure in future.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72966",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72966",signatures:"Bowen Zhang, Mingjie Ding, Shuen Wei, Binbin Yan, Gang-Ding Peng, Yanhua Luo and Jianxiang Wen",book:{id:"8787",type:"book",title:"Bismuth",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Optoelectronic Applications",fullTitle:"Bismuth - Fundamentals and Optoelectronic Applications",slug:"bismuth-fundamentals-and-optoelectronic-applications",publishedDate:"December 2nd 2020",bookSignature:"Yanhua Luo, Jianxiang Wen and Jianzhong Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8787.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-243-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-242-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-244-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"226148",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanhua",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"yanhua-luo",fullName:"Yanhua Luo"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"41532",title:"Prof.",name:"Gang-Ding",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",fullName:"Gang-Ding Peng",slug:"gang-ding-peng",email:"g.peng@unsw.edu.au",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"48448",title:"Dr.",name:"BinBin",middleName:null,surname:"Yan",fullName:"BinBin Yan",slug:"binbin-yan",email:"yanbinbin@bupt.edu.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"226148",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanhua",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",fullName:"Yanhua Luo",slug:"yanhua-luo",email:"yanhua.luo1@unsw.edu.au",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226148/images/system/226148.jpg",institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"319762",title:"Mr.",name:"Bowen",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Bowen Zhang",slug:"bowen-zhang",email:"bowen_zhang@tju.edu.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"319763",title:"Dr.",name:"Mingjie",middleName:null,surname:"Ding",fullName:"Mingjie Ding",slug:"mingjie-ding",email:"daytonaviola@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"319765",title:"Mr.",name:"Shuen",middleName:null,surname:"Wei",fullName:"Shuen Wei",slug:"shuen-wei",email:"shuen.wei@unsw.edu.au",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Phenomenon of photobleaching",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Photobleaching of BAC-Si",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Irradiation intensity dependence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Irradiation wavelength dependence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Temperature dependence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Photobleaching mechanism of BAC-Si",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Photobleaching of BAC-Ge",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1 Irradiation intensity dependence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2 Irradiation wavelength dependence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.3 Temperature dependence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.4 Photobleaching mechanism of BAC-Ge",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Photobleaching of BAC-Al",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.1 Irradiation intensity dependence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.2 Irradiation wavelength dependence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.3 Temperature dependence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"5.4 Photobleaching mechanism of BAC-Al",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18",title:"6. Photobleaching of BAC-P",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"7. Inductive analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"8. Summary",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Acknowledgements",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Murata K, Fujimoto Y, Kanabe T, Fujita H, Nakatsuka M. Bi-doped SiO2 as a new laser material for an intense laser. Fusion Engineering and Design. 1999;44(1-4):437-439'},{id:"B2",body:'Denker B, Galagan B, Osiko V, Sverchkov S, Dianov E. Luminescent properties of Bi-doped boro-alumino-phosphate glasses. Applied Physics B. 2007;87(1):135-137'},{id:"B3",body:'Peng M, Dong G, Wondraczek L, Zhang L, Zhang N, Qiu J. 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Optics Express. 2011;19(20):19551-19561'},{id:"B18",body:'Sathi ZM, Zhang J, Luo Y, Canning J, Peng G. Spectral properties and role of aluminium-related bismuth active Centre (BAC-Al) in bismuth and erbium co-doped fibres. Optical Materials Express. 2015;5(5):1195-1209'},{id:"B19",body:'Firstov SV, Alyshev SV, Riumkin KE, Khegai AM, Kharakhordin AV, Melkumov MA, et al. Laser-active fibers doped with bismuth for a wavelength region of 1.6-1.8 μm. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics. 2018;24(5):1-15'},{id:"B20",body:'Wen J, Liu W, Dong Y, Luo Y, Peng G-D, Chen N, et al. Radiation-induced photoluminescence enhancement of Bi/Al-codoped silica optical fibers via atomic layer deposition. Optics Express. 2015;23(22):29004-29013'},{id:"B21",body:'Firstov S, Alyshev S, Khopin V, Melkumov M, Guryanov A, Dianov E. Photobleaching effect in bismuth-doped germanosilicate fibers. Optics Express. 2015;23(15):19226-19233'},{id:"B22",body:'Firstov SV, Alyshev SV, Khopin VF, Kharakhordin AV, Lobanov AS, Firstova EG, et al. Effect of heat treatment parameters on the optical properties of bismuth-doped GeO2: SiO2 glass fibers. Optical Materials Express. 2019;9(5):2165-2174'},{id:"B23",body:'Wei S, Luo Y, Ding M, Cai F, Xiao G, Fan D, et al. Thermal effect on attenuation and luminescence of Bi/Er co-doped fiber. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters. 2016;29(1):43-46'},{id:"B24",body:'Wei S, Luo Y, Fan D, Xiao G, Chu Y, Zhang B, et al. BAC activation by thermal quenching in bismuth/erbium codoped fiber. Optics Letters. 2019;44(7):1872-1875'},{id:"B25",body:'Zhang B, Wei S, Khan MTA, Luo Y, Peng G-D. Dynamics study of thermal activation of BAC-Si in bismuth/erbium-codoped optical fiber. Optics Letters. 2020;45(2):571-574'},{id:"B26",body:'Song L, Hennink E, Young IT, Tanke HJ. Photobleaching kinetics of fluorescein in quantitative fluorescence microscopy. 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Trends in Cell Biology. 1999;9(2):61-65'},{id:"B38",body:'Chávez AG, Kir’Yanov A, Barmenkov YO, Il\'Ichev N. Reversible photo-darkening and resonant photo-bleaching of ytterbium-doped silica fiber at in-core 977-nm and 543-nm irradiation. Laser Physics Letters. 2007;4(10):734'},{id:"B39",body:'Manek-Hönninger I, Boullet J, Cardinal T, Guillen F, Ermeneux S, Podgorski M, et al. Photodarkening and photobleaching of an ytterbium-doped silica double-clad LMA fiber. Optics Express. 2007;15(4):1606-1611'},{id:"B40",body:'Gebavi H, Taccheo S, Tregoat D, Monteville A, Robin T. Photobleaching of photodarkening in ytterbium doped aluminosilicate fibers with 633 nm irradiation. Optical Materials Express. 2012;2(9):1286-1291'},{id:"B41",body:'Laperle P, Chandonnet A, Vallée R. Photobleaching of thulium-doped ZBLAN fibers with visible light. Optics Letters. 1997;22(3):178-180'},{id:"B42",body:'Savelyev E, Butov O, Yapaskurt V, Golant K. Near-infrared luminescence of bismuth in silica-based glasses with different additives. Journal of Communications Technology and Electronics. 2018;63(12):1458-1468'},{id:"B43",body:'Vtyurina D, Romanov A, Kuznetsov M, Fattakhova Z, Khaula E, Lisitskii I, et al. Optical properties of bismuth-doped TlCdCl3 crystal. Russian Journal of Physical Chemistry B. 2016;10(1):1-4'},{id:"B44",body:'Wang X, Xu S, Yang Z, Peng M. Ultra-broadband red to NIR photoemission from multiple bismuth centers in Sr2B5O9Cl: Bi crystal. Optics Letters. 2019;44(19):4821-4824'},{id:"B45",body:'Firstov SV, Alyshev SV, Kharakhordin AV, Riumkin KE, Dianov EM. Laser-induced bleaching and thermo-stimulated recovery of luminescent centers in bismuth-doped optical fibers. Optical Materials Express. 2017;7(9):3422-3432'},{id:"B46",body:'Ding M, Wei S, Luo Y, Peng G-D. Reversible photo-bleaching effect in a bismuth/erbium co-doped optical fiber under 830 nm irradiation. Optics Letters. 2016;41(20):4688-4691'},{id:"B47",body:'Ding M, Fang J, Luo Y, Wang W, Peng G-D. Photo-bleaching mechanism of the BAC-Si in bismuth/erbium co-doped optical fibers. Optics Letters. 2017;42(24):5222-5225'},{id:"B48",body:'Firstov SV, Alyshev SV, Firstova EG, Melkumov MA, Khegay AM, Khopin VF, et al. Dependence of the photobleaching on laser radiation wavelength in bismuth-doped germanosilicate fibers. Journal of Luminescence. 2017;182:87-90'},{id:"B49",body:'Zhao Q , Luo Y, Tian Y, Peng G-D. Pump wavelength dependence and thermal effect of photobleaching of BAC-Al in bismuth/erbium codoped aluminosilicate fibers. Optics Letters. 2018;43(19):4739-4742'},{id:"B50",body:'Ding M, Luo Y, Wen J, Peng G-D, editors. Dynamic behavior of pump light radiation induced photo-bleaching effect on BAC-Si in bismuth/erbium co-doped optical fibers. In: Fiber Lasers XV: Technology and Systems. Washington, D.C., USA: International Society for Optics and Photonics; 2018'},{id:"B51",body:'Firstov S, Alyshev S, Melkumov M, Riumkin K, Shubin A, Dianov E. Bismuth-doped optical fibers and fiber lasers for a spectral region of 1600-1800 nm. Optics Letters. 2014;39(24):6927-6930'},{id:"B52",body:'Zhang B, Luo Y, Ding M, Wei S, Fan D, Xiao G, et al. Thermally aggravated photo-bleaching of BAC-Al in bismuth/erbium co-doped optical fiber. Optics Letters. 2019;44(19):4829-4832'},{id:"B53",body:'Firstov S, Firstova E, Alyshev S, Khopin V, Riumkin K, Melkumov M, et al. Recovery of IR luminescence in photobleached bismuth-doped fibers by thermal annealing. Laser Physics. 2016;26(8):084007'},{id:"B54",body:'Alyshev S, Kharakhordin A, Firstova E, Khegai A, Melkumov M, Khopin V, et al. Photostability of laser-active centers in bismuth-doped GeO2–SiO2 glass fibers under pumping at 1550 nm. Optics Express. 2019;27(22):31542-31552'},{id:"B55",body:'Johnston D. Stretched exponential relaxation arising from a continuous sum of exponential decays. Physical Review B. 2006;74(18):184430'},{id:"B56",body:'Zhang B, Wei S, Chu Y, Talal M, Fu X, Yan B, et al., editors. Thermal quenching effect on BAC-P in bismuth/erbium co-doped optical fibre. In: Asia Communications and Photonics Conference. Washington, D.C., USA: Optical Society of America; 2019'},{id:"B57",body:'Zhao Q , Luo Y, Hao Q , Peng G-D. Effect of thermal treatment parameters on the spectral characteristics of BAC-Al in bismuth/erbium-codoped aluminosilicate fibers. Optics Letters. 2019;44(18):4594-4597'},{id:"B58",body:'Xu H, Yan B, Lin J, Luo Y, Lu P, Wang K, et al. Effects of quenching and cooling upon near infrared luminescence of Bi/Er co-doped optical fiber. Optical Materials Express. 2019;9(7):3156-3168'},{id:"B59",body:'Kharakhordin A, Alyshev S, Firstova E, Khegai A, Melkumov M, Khopin V, et al. Analysis of thermally activated processes in bismuth-doped GeO2-SiO2 glass fibers using the demarcation energy concept. Optical Materials Express. 2019;9(11):4239-4246'},{id:"B60",body:'Hosono H, Abe Y, Kinser DL, Weeks RA, Muta K, Kawazoe H. Nature and origin of the 5-eV band in SiO2: GeO2 glasses. Physical Review B. 1992;46(18):11445'},{id:"B61",body:'Dianov EM. Nature of Bi-related near IR active centers in glasses: State of the art and first reliable results. Laser Physics Letters. 2015;12(9):095106'},{id:"B62",body:'Dianov EM. On the nature of near-IR emitting Bi centres in glass. Quantum Electronics. 2010;40(4):283'},{id:"B63",body:'Vasil’ev SA, Dianov EM, Koltashev VVE, Marchenko VM, Mashinsky VM, Medvedkov OI, et al. Photoinduced changes in the Raman spectra of germanosilicate optical fibres. Quantum Electronics. 1998;28(4):330'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Bowen Zhang",address:null,affiliation:'
Photonics and Optical Communications, School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Australia
Key laboratory of Specialty Fiber Optics and Optical Access Networks, Joint International Research Laboratory of Specialty Fiber Optics and Advanced Communication, Shanghai University, China
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The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\n\n
\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n\t
850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
\n
\n\n
During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
\n\n
\n\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\n\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\n\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
\n
\n\n
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+5,700 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
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