\r\n\tIt has been established that energy/nutrient depletion, calcium flux injury, or oxidative stress disrupt endoplasmic reticulum homeostasis and even induce accumulation of misfolded/unfolded proteins leading to endoplasmic reticulum stress. Under endoplasmic reticulum stress conditions, an adaptive mechanism of coordinated signaling pathways, defined unfolded protein response (UPR), is activated to return the endoplasmic reticulum to its healthy functioning state. The aging causes a decrease of the protective adaptive response of the UPR and an increase of the pro-apoptotic pathway together with endoplasmic reticulum ultrastructural injury. Controlling endoplasmic reticulum stress response, maintaining the appropriate endoplasmic reticulum ultrastructure and homeostasis, and retaining mitochondria interplay are crucial aspects for cellular health.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book presents a comprehensive overview of endoplasmic reticulum, including, but not limited to, endoplasmic reticulum ultrastructural anatomy, MAMs, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and their implication in health and diseases. Additionally, identifying perturbations in the endoplasmic reticulum stress response could lead to early detection of age-related disease and may help develop therapeutic approaches.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-228-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-227-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-229-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"5d7d49bd80f53dad3761f78de4a862c6",bookSignature:"Dr. Gaia Favero",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",keywords:"Metabolism, Aging, Neurodegenerative Diseases, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Microscopy, Metabolic Stress, Ultrastructural Anatomy, Cellular Stress, Contactology, Mitochondria, Cellular Stress, Endoplasmic Reticulum Response",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 9th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"19 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Human anatomy researcher involved in crucial topics on morphology, anatomy, and molecular medicine - working on innovative approaches to aging-related pathopsychological processes at the University of Brescia.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"238047",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaia",middleName:null,surname:"Favero",slug:"gaia-favero",fullName:"Gaia Favero",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238047/images/system/238047.jpg",biography:'Dr. Gaia Favero is a prominent scientist in the field of life sciences. She is currently engaged as a researcher for the Scientific-Disciplinary Sector BIO/16 Human Anatomy at the Anatomy and Pathophysiology Division, Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia (Italy).\r\nDr. Favero focuses on aging-related morphological dysfunctions as the prelude to various pathophysiological processes in her research programs. The central hypothesis is that natural antioxidants and, in particular, melatonin may act as molecular "switches" that modulate cells and tissues by suppressing, at various levels, oxidative stress and inflammatory signalling cascades. These research approaches represent powerful tools for developing innovative preventive strategies and identifying novel prognostic biomarkers for several diseases. The above-reported research activity determined more than 120 scientific publications and an h-index of 25.',institutionString:"University of Brescia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Brescia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"278926",firstName:"Ivana",lastName:"Barac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/278926/images/8058_n.jpg",email:"ivana.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"58969",title:"Corruption, Causes and Consequences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72953",slug:"corruption-causes-and-consequences",body:'1. Introduction
The word corruption is derived from the Latin word “corruptus,” which means “corrupted” and, in legal terms, the abuse of a trusted position in one of the branches of power (executive, legislative and judicial) or in political or other organizations with the intention of obtaining material benefit which is not legally justified for itself or for others.
Corruption was referred to as a great sin already in the Bible: “Do not accept a bribe, for a bribe blinds those who see and twist the words of the innocent.” However, the history of corruption is in fact related to the beginning of the creation of law and the state and was already in the antiquity considered an evil, which negatively affects the public administration and the functioning of the political system. The earliest records of corruption date back to the thirteenth century BC, to the time of the Assyrian civilization. From the found plates, written in cuneiform, the archeologists managed to discern how and who accepted bribes. Under the Roman law, the criminal offense of corruption was defined as giving, receiving or claiming benefits in order to influence an official in connection with his work. Due to the prevalence of corruption in the country, this law was supplemented by a new law, which predicted compensation for damage in double value of the damage, and the loss of political rights for the perpetrator of the corruptive act. However, this did not help alleviate corruption, especially due to the fact that corruption was most practiced by the members of the Senate and senior state officials, both in Rome itself and in the remote Roman provinces. The early Christian faith condemned corruption, yet corruption later also developed greatly in ecclesiastical structures, and achieved its peak with the selling of indulgences in the Middle Ages, all until the condemnation of the latter (as well as of other immoral acts of the clergy, with the Pope at the head) by Martin Luther. Apart from the condemnation of corruption, the Reformation also led to a break with until then dominant Catholic culture and the emergence of Protestant ethics.
As a child (he was a hostage at the Ravenna court), Attila1 noticed a high level of corruption among the state officials of the Western Roman Empire and how they appropriated the state money (as a consequence, there was less money in the Treasury and therefore the taxes increased). He thus decided that if he would ever to rule, he would do so fairly and by oppressing the corruption in his own country. The early feudalism was familiar with various laws that punished the bribing of courts also with death. Later, when the developed feudalism again turned to the Roman law, a number of laws (Dušan’s Code, Mirror of the Swabians) discussed the abuse of position. Then, in late Feudalism, countries became virtually helpless in the fight against corruption, as illustrated by the case of France, which in 1716 established a special court in which should rule in cases of abuse of royal finances; however, these abuses (embezzlement, extortion, bribery, scams, etc.) were so extensive that the court was abolished and a general amnesty introduced in 1717 made some forms of corruption quite a tradition. The corruption was also widespread during the time of the Spanish Inquisition, where the victim of the accusation could make amends with money, which made the corruption, especially among the inquisitors, extensive.
Throughout the history, many intellectuals dealt with corruption or theorized about it one way or another. Machiavelli2 had a low opinion on republics, considering them even more corrupt than other regimes, and according to him, corruption leads to moral degradation, bad education and bad faith. On the other hand, however, the great philosopher, diplomat and lawyer Sir Francis Bacon3 was known both for receiving bribes and taking them. When he reached the highest judicial position in England, he was caught in as many as 28 cases of accepting a bribe and defended himself before the parliament by saying that he usually accepted a bribe from both parties involved and that the dirty money therefore did not affect his decisions. The parliament did not accept these arguments and sent him to the jail where he spent only a few days as he was able to bribe the judge.
Thus, although the corruption has been occurring in society ever since, it has only been given more attention in the recent period—the researches on the phenomenon and its negative impacts have become more common after 1995, when countries and international institutions began to be aware of this problem. The attitude of the public toward corruption was, until then, neutral. In 1998, Kaufmann and Gray [1] found that:
Bribery is widespread, especially in the developing and transition countries; there are, however, significant differences between and within regions.
Bribery increases transaction costs and creates insecurity in the economy.
Bribery usually leads to ineffective economic results, in the long term impedes foreign and domestic investments, reallocates talents due to income and distorts sectorial priorities and technology choices (for example, it creates incentives for contracting major defense projects or unnecessary infrastructure projects, but does not encourage investments in rural specialist health clinics or in preventive health care). This pushes companies into the “underground” (outside the formal sector), weakens the state’s ability to increase revenue and leads to ever-increasing tax rates (as too little tax is taken), which is levied on less and less taxpayers, consequently diminishing the state’s ability to provide enough public goods, including the rule of law.
Bribery is unfair, as it imposes a regressive tax, which heavily burdens in particular commercial and service activities performed by small businesses.
Corruption destroys the legitimacy of the state.
Many other researchers and institutions (the World Bank Institute—WBI, the European Commission, the United Nations, the EBRD) have investigated corruption and its impact on macroeconomic and microeconomic indicators through various forms of corruption, as well as its connection with local customs and habits, and how it affects the everyday lives of people. Most studies are therefore mainly the analyses of the effects of corruption on various economic indicators, such as GDP growth, investments, employment, tax revenues and foreign investments [2, 3, 4, 5], or the study of various forms of corruption in relation to politics and the economic environment [6], the research of its social condition and various manifestations [7, 8]. Dobovšek [9] agrees with the negative effects, i.e. high economic, political and social costs, and adds that corruption is not a weakness of people but of institutions (supervisory and other), as they should be the ones to obstruct the greed and temptation of individuals within them.
2. Causes of corruption
Although corruption differs from country to country, it is possible to identify some of the key common driving forces that generate it. What is common to all countries, which are among the most corrupt, has been identified by Svensson [10]; all of them are developing countries or countries in transition,
with rare exceptions, low-income countries,
most countries have a closed economy,
the influence of religion is visible (Protestant countries have far the lowest level of corruption),
low media freedom and
a relatively low level of education.
Regardless of the above, corruption cannot be assessed unambiguously, since there is never only one phenomenon that is responsible for the occurrence and the development of it; corruption always arises from an array of several, interrelated factors, which can differ considerably from one another. Among the most commonly mentioned factors that influence the development of corruption are: political and economic environment, professional ethics and legislation, as well as purely ethnological factors, such as customs, habits and traditions.
2.1. Political and economic environment
The phenomenon of corruption is strongly influenced by the political and economic environment. The more is the economic activity in the country regulated and limited, the higher the authority and the power of officials in decision making and the greater the possibility of corruption, since individuals are willing to pay or offer payment in order to avoid restrictions. A great potential for corruption is especially there where the officials are under the regulation given the opportunity to decide on the basis of discretion.
The level of corruption is also affected by the monetary policy. Goel and Nelson [11] in their research found a strong link between monetary policy and corruptive activity in the States. The States that have a well-regulated financial sector, not a lot of informal economy or black market are also less corrupt than those where the opposite is true. They also find that there is less corruption in the countries with higher economic and political freedom.
Dimant [12] puts it well in his claim that the level of efficiency of public administration determines the extent to which corruption can find fertile soil and sprout. Such efficiency is determined by the quality of the regulations and permits, since ineffective and unclear regulations help to increase the level of corruption in at least two different ways:
The artificially created monopoly of power that enables civil servants to obtain bribes is based on their superior position and embedded in the system.
On the other hand, however, ineffective and unclear regulations cause inhibition and therefore encourage natural persons to pay bribes in order to speed up the bureaucratic procedure.
Corruption is also strongly influenced by the low salaries of public administration employees (state officials), who are therefore trying to improve their financial position by receiving bribes, and consequently, the socio-economic situation of the government officials also affects the phenomenon of corruption. This is demonstrated also by Allen et al. [13] in their study where they find that corruption arises because agencies, institutions and the government can no longer control corruption effectively due to underpaid officials, which is a problem especially in the developing countries, where they do not have the sufficient tax revenue to properly reward the local officials. However, low wages are not the only cause of corruption; the poor state of the public administration, which is a consequence of political “overcrowding”4 of officials, due to which loyalty usually prevails over professional standards, also strongly affects the corruption. As an important factor influencing corruption, some authors also indicate satisfaction with the work done by officials—the more they are dissatisfied with their work or place of work, the higher the degree of corruption, which is confirmed by Sardžoska and Tang [14] in their studies. The mentioned authors find that the private sector has higher ethical values, in particular those that affect satisfaction with work, than the public sector and is therefore less unethical (especially regarding thefts and corruption). Indirectly, Svenson [10] also affirms this and states that in principle, the salary level of civil servants affects the receipt of a bribe (the higher it is, the smaller the chance that the person will act corruptly). However, he continues on that a higher salary also strengthens the negotiating power of the official, which leads to higher bribes and he also states that, on the basis of existing research, it is very difficult to determine whether a higher salary causes less corruption, which means that the level of salary is not a decisive factor, but merely one of many.
The economy is unfortunately largely dependent on politics and often reflects the rule of law; various options for eliminating competition are exploited, and bribery is just one of the possible weapons in the struggle to gain a job. At the same time is the mentality of the economy sometimes: “The cost of a bribe is only a substantial business cost, an integral part of the contract,” or “Even if we stop the bribery, our rivals will not, so we must bribe in order to remain competitive, “or” bribery and misleading behaviour are not really crimes, they are just part of the old business practice. They are part of the game and everyone does it.” On the other hand is the point sometimes simply the “lubricating” of the bureaucratic wheel by the private sector to do certain things faster or easier.
The political influence of corruption is also manifested through the proverb: examples are attractive! If the top of the politics (government, parties and leading politicians) is corrupt, then corruption shows at all levels, and this evil at the same time spreads among the ordinary population, as nobody trusts the institutions or the rule of law. Johnston [15] thus points out useful thinking in terms of two types of equilibrium—the balance between the openness and the autonomy of the institutions and elites it leads and the balance between political and economic power and opportunities for cooperation. Ideally, the institutions should be open to influences and feedback from different sources, yet at the same time sufficiently independent to effectively carry out their work. Where the openness and independence of the institutions are in balance, the officials are accessible, but not excessively exposed to private influences; if they can make authoritative decisions, while not using their power to arbitrate, the corruption is relatively low. But where the official power is poorly institutionalized, too exposed to private influence, and the officials’ independence is reflected in excessive exploitation of their power—they can do as they please—the possibility for extreme corruption is again high.
2.2. Professional ethics and legislation
Lack of professional ethics and deficient laws regulating corruption as a criminal offense, and the prosecution and sanctioning of it are also an important cause for the emergence and spread of corruption. A great influence comes also from the ineffective sanctioning of corruption, which only increases the possibility of continuing the corruptive actions of those involved, creating at the same time a strong likelihood that others will join in the corruption due to this inefficient sanctioning.
The sole lack of professional ethics is a particular issue, as the administration requires different amounts of time to develop or change its ethics and professional standards, which is well known in transition countries (in some, ethics and professional standards changed overnight and approached the equivalents in the developed democracies, and in some, they remained the same as in socialism). It is precisely in the transition countries that the “softer” acts of corruption are often considered to be acceptable and justifiable. Therefore, due to lack of professional ethics in some countries that otherwise manage illegal corruption well, there is nevertheless a widespread form of legal corruption.
Corruption also generates a lack of transparency and a lack of control by supervisory institutions. Therefore, where there is insufficient legal basis or sufficient political will to control, which enables a non-transparent functioning of both politics and the economy, corruption flourishes. Corruption is also affected by the extensive, non-transparent or incomplete legislation, where laws can be interpreted in different ways (for the benefit of the one who pays).
2.3. Habits, customs, tradition and demography
Different countries have different attitudes to corruption. In Europe alone, we can find two extremes; from completely corruption intolerant North to the warm South, where corruption is an almost normal, socially acceptable phenomenon. Or the difference between countries with a democratic past, which traditionally prosecute corruption, and former socialist countries, where the corruption in the state apparatus was a part of folklore tradition. Then, there are also different customs; in some cases, a “thank you” in the form of a gift for a service (for which this person has already been paid with a salary) is an expression of courtesy, and elsewhere it is considered corruption. Everything is only a matter of ethics and morality; however, they can be very different in different areas and different countries.
Some forms of corruption also relate to an informal form of social security, where the family or the immediate community takes care of its members. Such forms of informal social security prevail in less developed countries, where there is no legal regulation of formal social security and in the countries of Southern Europe where the influence of the broader family (patriarchate5) is still very strong, like for example in Italy, Greece, Albania, Bosnia, etc. These countries are known for nepotism, cronyism and patronage, since the family as well as the wider community provide social security. The family or community takes care of their members, who, in return, must be loyal and in a way also repay the benefits they receive from it. The same is true of faith. While the southern, predominantly Catholic, very hierarchically organized part of Europe, encourages the cult of the family (also joint and several community) and several liability, the northern, mainly Protestant part, emphasizes individualism and individual responsibility (which means less forms of corruption). The corruption also prospers better in countries where Islam and Orthodoxy are the main religion. The influence of the dominant religion in the country is thus important.
The influence of majority Protestantism has been tested several times and has proven to be an important factor for the low level of corruption in a country. However, the relationship between Protestantism and good governance is probably rooted more in history than in today’s practice. Today, there are many nominally Protestant countries that are de facto secular, while also many non-Protestant countries fight effectively against corruption. Thus, the influence of Protestantism appears to emerge from its egalitarian ethos, which could indirectly function as a support to the general orientation toward ethical universalism, literacy and the promotion of individualism. Its role is therefore important, as it at certain stages of the development explains why the first countries that were well managed were predominantly Protestant. This does not mean that other religious traditions are incompatible with good governance, but only that they have not succeeded in compiling this particular array of factors at the right moment [16].
Similarly, the research by North et al. [17] showed that, according to the authors, the least corrupt countries or those countries where the rule of law is the strongest were predominantly Protestant in 1900 and those who are most corrupt were predominantly Orthodox in the same year. The results of their research have shown that there is a link between religion and corruption on one hand, and respect for the rule of law on the other, but not that the link is causative. The questions therefore arise: Why do some religions respect the rule of law more than others and control corruption? Do the characteristics of a particular religion themselves lead to the results? Are there any differences in religious doctrines, practices or cultures that lead to such results? Are there other links that are not rooted in the religious culture, but are related to religious affiliation?
A study titled Perception of corruption by authors Melgar et al. [18] tried to find out which groups of people are more likely to pay for corruption. They found that those who think that there is a lot of corruption also perceive it so and are consequently more willing to pay for it (as they think or expect the society to function that way). By using a wide and very heterogeneous set of data and econometrics, it has been shown that the social status and personal characteristics also play an important role in the shaping of corruption perception at the micro level. While divorced women, unemployed persons, persons working in the private sector or the self-employed are considered to be in positive correlation with the perception of corruption (corruption is perceived more and they are more willing to pay bribes), the opposite applies to married persons, full-time employees, people who frequently attend religious ceremonies and people with at least secondary education (they perceive less corruption and are also unwilling to pay). According to the classification of countries, they find that it can be proved that all African and Asian countries are in the upper half of the table, and the same applies to the former socialist countries and most of the East Asian countries. People living in these countries perceive more corruption than others. On the contrary, most European countries and some of the former English colonies show lower perceptions than the average (there are also exceptions) and rank in the lower half, the same as half of the richest countries. They also added that the geographical classification of countries has been strongly correlated with the corruption perception index (CPI), which shows that individual characteristics and social conditions are specific factors that influence the perception of corruption. However, they have also found that better economic results reduce the perception of corruption, while the macroeconomic instability and income inequalities have precisely the opposite effect. With Mahič [19], we also found a similar influence on the perception of corruption; in the economic crisis (high unemployment and low purchasing power), the perception of corruption is rising.
A very important factor that affects corruption is also demographics. A number of studies have shown that patriarchal society is more prone to corruption. This is confirmed by several researches that actually explore to what extent are men women corrupt. Several earlier, especially econometric contributions to the debate on who is more corrupt, men or women, argued that there is a link between a higher representation of women in government and lower levels of corruption. An influential study of 150 countries in Europe, Africa and Asia by the World Bank [20] confirmed this and concluded that women are more reliable and less prone to corruption. The subsequent findings were later reinforced by further research. Rivas [21] also affirms this in his research and notes that, according to the results of the survey, the conclusion could be that women are less corrupt than men and that the increase in the number of women on the labor market and in politics would help fight corruption. Lee and Guven [22] in the survey: Engaging in corruption—the influence of cultural values and the contagion effects at the micro-level also raised the question of whether men are more corrupt than women. The findings of the research support the thesis that women are less susceptible to corruption than men, especially in cultures that require men to be ambitious, competitive and materially successful, as these factors significantly contribute to unethical behavior. This was surprisingly well shown also in practice [23] when, due to gender equality, the Peruvian government a decade ago decided to involve more women in the police units. When the 2,500 female police officers were joined as traffic police officers, something unexpected happened; bribery was drastically reduced, and people welcomed the female police officers on the streets.
3. The impact of corruption on the economy
In 1997, Tanzi and Davoodi [2] conducted a systematic study of the impact of corruption on public finances. Several important findings came to light:
Corruption increases the volume of public investments (at the expense of private investments), as there are many options that allow for public expenditure manipulation and are carried out by high-level officials so as to get bribes (which means that more general government expenditures or a large budget offer more opportunities for corruption).
Corruption redirects the composition of public expenditure from the expenditure necessary for basic functioning and maintenance to expenditure on new equipment.
Corruption tends to pull away the composition of public expenditure from the necessary fixed assets for health and education, as there is less chance of getting commissions than from other, perhaps unnecessary projects.
Corruption reduces the effectiveness of public investments and the infrastructure of a country.
Corruption can reduce tax revenues by compromising the ability of the state administration to collect taxes and fees, although the net effect depends on how the nominal tax and other regulatory burdens were selected by the officials, exposed to corruption.
The influence of corruption on the economy was studied by the same authors [3] through several factors:
Through the impact of corruption on businesses: The impact of corruption on a business is largely depend on the size of the company. Large companies are better protected in an environment that is prone to corruption, they avoid taxes more easily and their size protects them from petty corruption, while they are often also politically protected, which is why the survival of small (especially start-up companies) and middle-sized companies, regardless of their importance for the growth of the economy and the development, is much more difficult than the survival of large companies.
Through the impact of corruption on investments: Corruption affects (a) total investments, (b) the size and form of investments by foreign direct investors, (c) the size of public investments and (d) the quality of investment decisions and investment projects.
Through the influence of corruption on the allocation of talents: Indirectly, corruption has a negative impact on economic growth through the allocation of talents, since gifted and prospective students are driven, due to the influence of the environment and the situation in the country, for example, to study law rather than engineering, which would add value to the country.
Through the impact of corruption on public spending: Corruption has a negative impact on public spending and has an especially strong impact on education and health. There are also indications of the correlation between corruption and military expenditure, which means that high level of corruption reduces economic growth due to high military expenditure.
Through the impact of corruption on taxes: Because of corruption, less taxes are levied than would otherwise be, as some of the taxes end up in the pockets of corrupt tax officials. There are also frequent tax relieves in the corrupt countries, selective taxes and various progressive taxes; in short, there is much less money than the country could have, and so corruption, through the country’s financial deficit, also affects the economic growth; and conclude the findings on the negative impact (both indirect and direct) of corruption on economic growth.
Smarzynska and Wei [5] came to similar conclusions regarding the effects of corruption on the size and composition of investments. Corrupt countries are less attractive for investors, and if they do opt for an investment, due to non-transparent bureaucracy, they often enter the market with a joint venture, as they usually understand or control matters of the home country better. The local partner can also help foreign companies with the acquisition of local licenses and permits or can otherwise negotiate with the bureaucratic labyrinths at lower costs. Generally inclined (as investors) to the joint venture in the corrupt countries are especially the US investors; however, even investors from those European countries, which are among the highest ranked on the CPI, quickly adapt to local conditions.
Corruption for various reasons also affects the following:
Employment, because the job does not go to the most suitable or qualified person, but the one who is ready to pay for it or in any other way return the favor.
Also affects total investments [24].
The size and composition of foreign investments and the size of public investments.
The effectiveness of investment decisions and projects. In the presence of corruption, the investments are smaller, as entrepreneurs are aware that they will have to bribe the officials or even give them a profit share for a successful implementation of a business. Due to these increased costs, the entrepreneurs are not interested in investing.
Wei [25] even made a projection which predicted that in the case of reduction in corruption in Bangladesh to the level of corruption in Singapore, the growth rate of GDP per capita would increase by 1.8% per year between 1960 and 1985 (assuming that the actual average annual growth rate was 4% per year), and the average per capita income could have been more than 50% higher, whereas the Philippines could, if its level of corruption was reduced to that of Singapore (if everything remained unchanged), have raised their investments in relation to GDP by as much as 6.6%, which means a significant increase in the investments. At the same time, he notes that in order to reduce the corruption to the level of Singapore in the countries that he compared (India, Kenya, Sri Lanka, Turkey, Colombia, Mexico and Ghana), the State should raise the salaries of officials by 400—900%. He therefore asks himself whether this would even be possible. However, he notes that in the event of a large increase in salaries, a new form of corruption would likely arise when everyone would be prepared to pay a bribe for a well-paid official job.
Corruption often reduces the effectiveness of various financial assistance programs (both state and international), as money is “lost somewhere along the way” and does not reach those that need it or for whom it is intended, as the financial benefits, deriving from corruption, are not taxable because they are hidden. The state is thus also losing part of the income from the taxes due to corruption, while the public spending, resulting from corruption (or narrow private interests) leads to negative effects on the budget.
The European Commission in its report found that corruption is costing the European economy about 120 billion a year, and according to the European Commissioner for Home Affairs, Cecilia Malstotröm, the corruption in Europe is most present in public procurement, financing of political parties and health care [26].
The United Nations estimate that the cost of corruption in Afghanistan amounted to about $ 3.9 billion in 2012. According to Transparency International, the former leader of Indonesia, Suharto, embezzled between $ 15 and $ 35 billion, whereas the embezzlements of Mobutu in Zaire, Ferdinand Marcos in the Philippines and Abacha in Nigeria are estimated to amount to $ 5 billion [27]. However, the World Bank survey shows that $ 1 billion in bribes, both in rich and developing countries, is paid annually [28], which means that even the developed countries are not immune to corruption (but in a different form) and that the political corruption is especially present in large infrastructure projects. Bađun [29] on the example of Croatia gives conclusions, which are valid for all post-communist countries.
Impact on enterprises: A survey conducted by the EBRD and the World Bank shows that bribes paid in smaller companies account for 5% of their annual profits and in medium-sized companies 4% of their annual profits. However, both are, compared to large companies, where bribes comprise less than 3%, in a much worse position, which shows how bribes are causing problems or are putting these smaller companies into a subordinate position compared to the large ones, which in turn leads to the collapse of these.
Also interesting is the study of the Shadow Economy in Highly Developed OECD Countries where Schneider and Buehn [30] also find the link between the low quality of institutions that are the holders of the rule of law (or degree of corruption) and the shadow economy, and therefore, the weaker the “law” is, the higher the degree of corruption and of shadow economy. In the study Corruption and the Shadow Economy [31], the same authors explore the relationship between the degree of corruption and the emergence of the shadow economy, and their findings are that the high level of shadow economy and the high degree of corruption are strongly linked to one another. One of the hypotheses in this survey (which has been confirmed) is also: the higher the degree of corruption, the lower the economic development measured by GDP per capita. The authors detected a positive correlation; corruption thus affects the economic development.
However, the extended practice of finding annuity outside the logic of the market and competition can therefore lead to a (neo) liberal conclusion that the root of the existence of corruption is in the very existence of the state—especially in excessive, selective and deforming state interventions and subsidies that create fertile soil for the development of corruption. The truth is that the devastating combination consists of widespread state intervention and subsidies in the simultaneous absence of a strong institutional framework and detailed rules of the game, including the control of public finances and effective anti-trust legislation and legal practices. On the other hand, however, there is no clear evidence that private monopolies are more effective and less corrupt than the public ones and that privatization, especially long-lasting, gradual and non-transparent one (so-called gradualism), reduces positive developmental and social effects, including the reduction of corruption [32]. Yet market deregulation, legal and judicial reform and transparent management of public procurement would significantly reduce corruption in many developing countries (as well as in transition countries), at which point the government should play an important role in the shaping of the anti-corruption policy. There should be a strong strengthening of the public procurement institution. The law is admittedly strict about the public procurement, but one of the main reasons for public procurement problems is the lack of a skilled workforce, and public procurement is thus still the breeding ground of corruption. There also exists a proverb “poverty is a curse,” which applies largely to all developing countries, as these are the countries that are most affected by poverty. Poverty destroys all ethical and moral values.
One of the important aspects of the damage to the global economy is also the failure to respect copyright and intellectual property. The more corrupt countries are also inclined to lower respect for the aforementioned, and the economic damage amounts to billions of dollars. Cavazos-Cepeda et al. [33] found that reforms, legal, fiscal and intellectual incentives to respect copyright and intellectual property patents encourage the society to make itself more innovative and economically more effective; however, they underline the importance of human capital and investment in people as one of the most important factors for reducing the level of corruption in the country.
There are also theories that corruption can act as the lubricant of the economic wheel and at least in some cases has a positive impact on the economic growth. The empirical analysis done by Dreher and Gassebner [34] on a sample of 43 countries between 2003 and 2005 shows that corruption is even useful, but with some reservations. In particular, they investigated the short-term effects of corruption and found, for example, that in countries where corruption is widespread, more new entrepreneurs enter the market (corruption in the public sector is expected to promote private entrepreneurial activity). They are, however, not necessarily to succeed, as there is a high likelihood that they will go bankrupt due to the rigid regulations that block the activity and because of which bribes are needed. They do acknowledge, on the other hand, that most authors who have been doing research for a longer period of time admit the harmfulness of corruption both for society and the economy. Something similar show the data for some Asian countries, where, unlike their findings (short-term benefit), the high degree of corruption coincides with the long-term economic growth.
Svendson [10] also notes that, in light of the theoretical literature and various research studies, notwithstanding that these show the negative impact of corruption on the economic growth, but this cannot be said for sure, since there are difficulties in measuring corruption, and at the same time, the question arises whether the econometric models that were made are good enough to capture all the important variables. He also states that corruption appears in many forms and that there is no reason to assume that all types of corruption are equally harmful to the economic growth.
Recent empirical researches also attest to that; while many countries have suffered, as a characteristic consequence of corruption, the decline in economic growth, other countries have had economic growth (in some cases a very positive one) despite corruption. The latter is also to be expected, since corruption has many manifestations and it would be surprising if all types of corrupt practices had the same effect on economic performance. Analyses show that one of the reasons for this is the extent to which the perpetrators of corrupt practices—in this case the bureaucrats—coordinate their behavior. In the absence of an organized corruption network, each bureaucrat collects bribes for himself, while ignoring the negative impact of others’ demands for them. In the presence of such a network, the collective bureaucracy reduces the total value of the bribe, which results in lower bribe payments and higher innovation, and the economic growth is consequently higher in the latter case than in the former case. The interesting question is not so much why is the degree of corruption in poor countries higher than in the rich ones, but rather why the nature of corruption differs between countries. The extent to which corruption is organized is just one aspect of this, but there are other aspects. For example, it is common practice in some countries to pay ex post (as a share of profit, for example) instead of ex ante (in advance, as a bribe) to officials or politicians, so it is assumed that the effects on the economy will be different. The precise reason why corruption should take on one form and not the other is an important issue which has been largely ignored and which could have to do with cultural, social and political reasons, as well as economic circumstances [35].
In the fight against corruption, a remarkable role was also played by the debt crisis. The die Welt newspaper [36] mentions the study of the Hertie School of Governance, which shows that Italy, Spain and Portugal have made great strides in the fight against bribery and corruption of their civil servants due to lack of money, which enabled a significantly more transparent and “pure” practice for the award of public procurement. The crisis is supposed to dry up monetary resources and thus reduce the chances of corruption. Also, the crisis has changed the perception of the society, and bad business practices, which were acceptable before the crisis, are acceptable no longer. However, the fight against corruption is often similar to the fight against windmills. The case of India shows how corruption is changing, getting new dimensions, not only in scope, but also in methods. Just as the population in India is growing, so is corruption, and there are always new ways how to cheat both the state and the society. The perception of corruption is increasing year after year. Despite all the anti-corruption moves and anti-corruption initiatives, people do not hesitate to offer or accept a bribe. The bribers are becoming innovative, they adapt to the situation and the innovation of companies in paying bribes and hiding them is also visible. However, just as elsewhere in the world, the negative effects of corruption are the same; it reduces foreign direct and domestic investments, increases inequality and poverty, raises the number of freeloaders (renters, free-riders) in the economy, distorts and exploits public investments and reduces public revenues.
4. Discussion
Corruption is, in fact, a multidirectional process. On one hand, the provider benefits, on the other the recipient, and both are aware of the deed that remains hidden. The third link in the chain is everyone else, the victims. Although not every act of corruption is yet a criminal offense, it is, however, unethical and detrimental to the economic and political development of a society. Usually, there are persons involved with political, economic and decision-making power, and as the philosopher Karl Popper wrote in his book, The Open Society and its Enemies, that the greatest problem is not the question of who should give orders, but how to control the one who gives them. How to organize the political and social institutions in order to prevent the weak and incompetent rulers from doing too much harm? However, as there is no general and unmistakable way of preventing the tyranny or corruptions of the heavyweights, the price of freedom is eternal alertness [37]. Greediness, ambition, rapacity and immorality have been known to the human society ever since the emergence of civilization and use every tool available to them: kinship, common past, school contacts, common interests, friendship and, of course, political as well as religious ties.
In a study by Šumah et al. [38], we did an analysis of countries, taking into account their ranking on the Corruption Perception Index published every year by Transparency International, and identified the main factors affecting the level of corruption in a particular group of countries, or rather, we tried to find similarities and differences between individual groups of countries in terms of what affects the level of corruption in these groups. We have established a basic model of three factors (risk, benefit and consciousness) that was created on the basis of the merger of several known, scientifically proven factors that cause or reduce corruption or affect its level in the individual country. According to this degree of corruption, we have identified five groups, classified the countries and analyzed their common characteristics. The findings were as follows:
Corruption is linked to the level of GDP (the higher the GDP, the lower the rate of corruption).
Corruption is related to the level of education (the higher the average level of education, the lower the level of corruption).
Corruption is strongly linked to the geographical location. The highest level is in Asia (mainly in Central Asia), Africa (North and Central Africa) and South America (according to the Transparency International map).
Corruption is strongly linked to the country’s prevailing religion.
Corruption is linked to freedom in the country (personal freedom, freedom of speech, economic freedom, etc.), with respect to the rule of law in a country and inefficiency of public administration, which is often also locally limited or is inherently corrupt.
The lower the country is ranked, the more dominant is the patriarchal society.
Many researchers are still involved in corruption. The findings show that there is a link between corruption and its negative effects, but from most of the studies it is not possible to determine what the cause is and what the consequence. Whether is the level of corruption lower due to high GDP, or is it vice versa, cannot be directly identified, since the corruption depends on economic indicators, while at the same time affecting them [39]. It is also very difficult to claim that the average low level of education is due to corruption or, conversely, that corruption is a result of low education. Similarly goes for the rule of law and (in)efficiency of public administration. This interdependence will surely continue to be the subject of numerous researches in the future, for the only way to be successful in the fight against corruption is if we know the causes and begin to eliminate them.
Nevertheless, there remains something that needs to be emphasized. Almost all of the studies ignore the fact that the top of the most corrupt countries consists of countries with one of the various forms of armed conflict (civil war, intertribal conflicts, inter-religious wars or some other form of aggression), which means that peace in the country is a prerequisite for a successful fight against corruption. The least corrupt countries are countries that have a lasting peace on their territory (most since the Second World War or even longer), which is confirmed by the above fact. Peace is therefore one of the prerequisites for a successful fight against corruption.
The answer to the question of how to deal with corruption is not unambiguous; some countries have achieved great success in dealing with it in a relatively short time (Singapore, Estonia and Georgia) and some have been struggling for a long time (the most famous example is Italy). The first condition is in any case to ensure freedom (personal freedom, economic freedom, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, etc.) and democracy, and then education and awareness of people. However, at this point, it is not about introducing the Western type democracy, as our culture knows it, for it has often proven that, especially with the help of the army, more harm than benefit was caused. It is necessary to start using good practices of countries that are similar to each other (religion, habits, tradition, ethics and morality) and that have common history.
\n',keywords:"corruption, influence, economy, economic growth, rule of law",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/58969.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/58969.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58969",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58969",totalDownloads:27467,totalViews:58482,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:13,totalAltmetricsMentions:33,impactScore:13,impactScorePercentile:98,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"October 17th 2017",dateReviewed:"December 6th 2017",datePrePublished:"February 21st 2018",datePublished:"October 3rd 2018",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Corruption is a constant in the society and occurs in all civilizations; however, it has only been in the past 20 years that this phenomenon has begun being seriously explored. It has many different shapes as well as many various effects, both on the economy and the society at large. Among the most common causes of corruption are the political and economic environment, professional ethics and morality and, of course, habits, customs, tradition and demography. Its effects on the economy (and also on the wider society) are well researched, yet still not completely. Corruption thus inhibits economic growth and affects business operations, employment and investments. It also reduces tax revenue and the effectiveness of various financial assistance programs. The wider society is influenced by a high degree of corruption in terms of lowering of trust in the law and the rule of law, education and consequently the quality of life (access to infrastructure, health care). There also does not exist an unambiguous answer as to how to deal with corruption. Something that works in one country or in one region will not necessarily be successful in another. This chapter tries to answer at least a few questions about corruption and the causes for it, its consequences and how to deal with it successfully.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/58969",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/58969",book:{id:"6487",slug:"trade-and-global-market"},signatures:"Štefan Šumah",authors:[{id:"228073",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Sumah",fullName:"Stefan Sumah",slug:"stefan-sumah",email:"stefan.sumah@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Causes of corruption",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Political and economic environment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Professional ethics and legislation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Habits, customs, tradition and demography",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. The impact of corruption on the economy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'[Kaufmann D, Gray CW. Corruption and development. Finance & Development. 1998;35(1):7]'},{id:"B2",body:'[Tanzi V, Davoodi H. Corruption, public investment, and growth. IMF Working Paper 97/139. Washington: International Monetary Fund; 1997]'},{id:"B3",body:'[Tanzi V, Davoodi HR. Corruption, growth, and public finances. IMF Working Paper. 2000. pp. 1-27. Available on: https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp00182.pdf]'},{id:"B4",body:'[Blažek S. Korupcija in gospodarska rast. V: Inovativnost, proizvodnja in management: Zbornik, 8. Koper. 2011. Available on: http://www.fm-kp.si/zalozba/ISBN/978-961-266-123-6/prispevki/046.pdf]'},{id:"B5",body:'[Smarzynska BK, Wei SJ. Corruption and Composition of Foreign Direct Investment: Firm-Level Evidence. Vol. 7969. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research; 2000]'},{id:"B6",body:'[Johnston M. Syndromes of Corruption: Wealth, Power, and Democracy. Cambridge University Press; 2005. Available on: http://www.untag-md.ac.id/files/Perpustakaan_Digital_1/CORRUPTION%20Syndromes%20of%20Corruption.pdf]'},{id:"B7",body:'[Karklins R. Typology of post-communist corruption. Problems of Post Communism. 2002;49(4):22-32]'},{id:"B8",body:'[Kasdin M, Nichols PM, Siedel GJ. Corruption as a pan-cultural phenomenon: An empirical study in countries at opposite ends of the former soviet empire. Texas International Law Journal. 2003;39:215]'},{id:"B9",body:'[Dobovšek B, Škrbec J. Korupcija, grožnja slovenski (pravni) državi. Revija za kriminalistiko in kriminologijo. 2012;63(1):50-59]'},{id:"B10",body:'[Svensson J. Eight questions about corruption. The Journal of Economic Perspectives. 2005;19(3):19-42]'},{id:"B11",body:'[Goel RK, Nelson MA. Economic freedom versus political freedom: Cross-country influences on corruption. Australian Economic Papers. 2005;44(2):121-133]'},{id:"B12",body:'[Dimant E. The Antecedents and Effects of Corruption – A Reassessment of Current (Empirical) Findings. 2014. Available from: https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/60947/1/MPRA_60974.pdf [Accessed: Nov 27, 2016]]'},{id:"B13",body:'[Allen F, Qian J, Shen L. Corruption and Competition. 2015. Available from: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2685219 [Accessed: Jan 9, 2017]]'},{id:"B14",body:'[Sardžoska EG, Tang TLP. Testing a model of behavioral intentions in the republic of Macedonia: Differences between the private and the public sectors. Journal of Business Ethics. 2009;87(4):495-517]'},{id:"B15",body:'[Johnston M. Corruption and democratic consolidation. In: Conference on “Democracy and Corruption”. Princeton University; 2000]'},{id:"B16",body:'[Mungiu-Pippidi A. Controlling corruption through collective action. Journal of Democracy. 2013;24(1):101-115]'},{id:"B17",body:'[North CM, Orman WH, Gwin CR. Religion, corruption, and the rule of law. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking. 2013;45(5):757-779]'},{id:"B18",body:'[Melgar N, Rossi M, Smith TW. The perception of corruption. International Journal of Public Opinion Research. 2010;22(1):120-131]'},{id:"B19",body:'[Šumah Š, Mahić E. Impact on the perception of corruption. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science. 2015;20(11):21-29. ISSN: 2279-0845]'},{id:"B20",body:'[Dollar D, Fisman R, Gatti R. Are women really the “fairer” sex? Corruption and women in government. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization. 2001;46(4):423-429]'},{id:"B21",body:'[Rivas MF. An experiment on corruption and gender. Bulletin of Economic Research. 2013;65(1):10-42]'},{id:"B22",body:'[Lee WS, Guven C. Engaging in corruption: The influence of cultural values and contagion effects at the microlevel. Journal of Economic Psychology. 2013;39:287-300]'},{id:"B23",body:'[Karim S. Madame Officer. 2011. Available from: http://www.americasquarterly.org/node/2802 [Accessed: Dec 3, 2015]]'},{id:"B24",body:'[Bucič M. Vrste korupcije v Sloveniji in možnosti za njihovo preprečevanje. Diplomsko delo. Ljubljana: Ekonomska fakulteta; 2004]'},{id:"B25",body:'[Wei SJ. Corruption in Economic Transition and Development: Grease or Sand? Geneva: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe; 2001]'},{id:"B26",body:'[EU Commission. Report from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament – EU Anti-corruption Report. 2014. Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/e-library/documents/policies/organized-crime-and-human-trafficking/corruption/docs/acr_2014_en.pdf [Accessed: Mar 17, 2016]]'},{id:"B27",body:'[The Guardian. Suharto, Marcos and Mobutu Head Corruption Table with $50 bn Scams. 2004. Available from: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/mar/26/indonesia.philippines [Accessed: Apr 23, 2015]]'},{id:"B28",body:'[The World Bank. The Cost of Corruptions. 2004. Available from: http://go.worldbank.org/LJA29GHA80 [Accessed: Jul 1, 2015]]'},{id:"B29",body:'[Bađun M. The relationship between political corruption and public investment-the case of Croatia. Društvena istraživanja. 2011;20(2):295-316]'},{id:"B30",body:'[Schneider F, Buehn A. Shadow Economies in Highly Developed OECD Countries: What are the Driving Forces? 2012. Available from: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2161228 [Accessed: Dec 9, 2016]]'},{id:"B31",body:'[Buehn A, Schneider F. Corruption and the shadow economy: Like oil and vinegar, like water and fire? International Tax and Public Finance. 2012;19(1):172-194]'},{id:"B32",body:'[Stojiljković Z. Karakter i logika korupcije. 2010. Available from: Media.institut – alternativa.org]'},{id:"B33",body:'[Cavazos-Cepeda RH, Lippoldt DC, Senft J. Policy Complements to the Strengthening of IPRs in Developing Countries (No. 104). OECD Publishing; 2010]'},{id:"B34",body:'[Dreher A, Gassebner M. Greasing the wheels? The impact of regulations and corruption on firm entry. Public Choice. 2013;155(3-4):413-432]'},{id:"B35",body:'[Blackburn K, Forgues-Puccio GF. Why is corruption less harmful in some countries than in others?. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization. 2009;72(3):797-810]'},{id:"B36",body:'[Die Welt Euro krise bremst Europaweit. 2013. Available from: http://www.welt.de/wirtschaft/article115079570/Euro-Krise-bremst-europaweit-die-Korruption.html [Accessed: Jun 27, 2015]]'},{id:"B37",body:'[Brioschi CA. Kratka povijest korupcije – Od starov vijeka do naših dana. Zagreb: Mate d.o.o; 2003]'},{id:"B38",body:'[Šumah Š, Mahić E. Dejavniki, ki vplivajo na stopnjo korupcije. Revija za kriminalistiko in kriminologijo. 2017;68(3):248-257]'},{id:"B39",body:'[Manzin M, Bavec C, Čurin S. Resiliency to corruption-structural model of causalities and consequences. Journal of Criminal Investigation and Criminology/Ljubljana. 2012;63:4]'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Attila (406–453) was the great ruler of the Huns, who, as the first, united all the Huns and conquered a considerable part of Europe and Asia. He is also known as the Whip of God."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"The Renaissance political theorist (1469–1527) who was for more than a decade engaged in diplomatic and state affairs in Florence. Modern political philosophy and political science consider him the founder of the realistic approach to the theory of politics."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"An English philosopher, writer, judge and politician (1561–1626). He rejected Aristotle’s view and philosophy and sought to gain the reputation of the experimental science."},{id:"fn4",explanation:"Overcrowding in this context implies replenishment of posts in public administration with members of one party."},{id:"fn5",explanation:"Patriarchate is a social arrangement in which all authority is held by male representatives of the families that make up the community. The right to name, social and political status, as well as the possession and authority over family members is automatically transferred from the father to the firstborn or to the nearest male relative."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Štefan Šumah",address:"stefan.sumah@gmail.com",affiliation:''}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6487",type:"book",title:"Trade and Global Market",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Trade and Global Market",slug:"trade-and-global-market",publishedDate:"October 3rd 2018",bookSignature:"Vito Bobek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6487.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78923-844-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-843-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-494-6",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:9,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"463"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"63359",type:"chapter",title:"Introductory Chapter",slug:"introductory-chapter-63359",totalDownloads:835,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Vito Bobek",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek"}]},{id:"61175",type:"chapter",title:"Trade Openness and Economic Growth: Empirical Evidence from Transition Economies",slug:"trade-openness-and-economic-growth-empirical-evidence-from-transition-economies",totalDownloads:3437,totalCrossrefCites:8,signatures:"Sabina Silajdzic and Eldin Mehic",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"233162",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sabina",middleName:null,surname:"Silajdzic",fullName:"Sabina Silajdzic",slug:"sabina-silajdzic"},{id:"233367",title:"Prof.",name:"Eldin",middleName:null,surname:"Mehic",fullName:"Eldin Mehic",slug:"eldin-mehic"}]},{id:"59645",type:"chapter",title:"The Effect of Taxation, Specialization, and Entrepreneurial Activities on International Trading",slug:"the-effect-of-taxation-specialization-and-entrepreneurial-activities-on-international-trading",totalDownloads:858,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Er'el Granot",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"181601",title:"Prof.",name:"Er'El",middleName:null,surname:"Granot",fullName:"Er'El Granot",slug:"er'el-granot"}]},{id:"60251",type:"chapter",title:"Location Choice of Inward FDIs in Korea: The Case of Japanese FDIs with Unexpected Shock in Home",slug:"location-choice-of-inward-fdis-in-korea-the-case-of-japanese-fdis-with-unexpected-shock-in-home",totalDownloads:910,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Seok-Joon Hwang and Xiaomin Li",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"226474",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Seok-Joon",middleName:null,surname:"Hwang",fullName:"Seok-Joon Hwang",slug:"seok-joon-hwang"},{id:"241888",title:"Ms.",name:"Xiaomin",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Xiaomin Li",slug:"xiaomin-li"}]},{id:"58969",type:"chapter",title:"Corruption, Causes and Consequences",slug:"corruption-causes-and-consequences",totalDownloads:27467,totalCrossrefCites:11,signatures:"Štefan Šumah",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"228073",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Sumah",fullName:"Stefan Sumah",slug:"stefan-sumah"}]},{id:"59359",type:"chapter",title:"Analysis of the Role of Exchange Rate Volatility in Monetary Policy Conduction in OECD Countries: Empirical Evidence from Panel-VAR Models",slug:"analysis-of-the-role-of-exchange-rate-volatility-in-monetary-policy-conduction-in-oecd-countries-emp",totalDownloads:1506,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Oguzhan Ozcelebi",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"226325",title:"Prof.",name:"Oguzhan",middleName:null,surname:"Ozcelebi",fullName:"Oguzhan Ozcelebi",slug:"oguzhan-ozcelebi"}]},{id:"59485",type:"chapter",title:"Impacts of Exchange Rate Volatility on Macroeconomic and Financial Variables: Empirical Evidence from PVAR Modeling",slug:"impacts-of-exchange-rate-volatility-on-macroeconomic-and-financial-variables-empirical-evidence-from",totalDownloads:1382,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Oguzhan Ozcelebi",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"226325",title:"Prof.",name:"Oguzhan",middleName:null,surname:"Ozcelebi",fullName:"Oguzhan Ozcelebi",slug:"oguzhan-ozcelebi"}]},{id:"61033",type:"chapter",title:"Struggles of Rural Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises for Bank Finance: Role of District Industries Centres in India",slug:"struggles-of-rural-micro-small-and-medium-enterprises-for-bank-finance-role-of-district-industries-c",totalDownloads:1069,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Maumita Choudhury",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"245695",title:"Ms.",name:"Maumita",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhury",fullName:"Maumita Choudhury",slug:"maumita-choudhury"}]},{id:"62740",type:"chapter",title:"On Simulation of Various Effects in Consolidated Order Book",slug:"on-simulation-of-various-effects-in-consolidated-order-book",totalDownloads:909,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Alexander Glekin, Alexander Lykov and Kirill Vaninsky",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"256924",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kirill",middleName:null,surname:"Vaninsky",fullName:"Kirill Vaninsky",slug:"kirill-vaninsky"},{id:"257053",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Lykov",fullName:"Alexander Lykov",slug:"alexander-lykov"},{id:"257054",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Glekin",fullName:"Alexander Glekin",slug:"alexander-glekin"}]},{id:"61761",type:"chapter",title:"Can Fundamental Analysis Provide Relevant Information for Understanding the Underlying Value of a Company?",slug:"can-fundamental-analysis-provide-relevant-information-for-understanding-the-underlying-value-of-a-co",totalDownloads:983,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Raúl Navas, Ana Paula Matias Gama and Sónia R. Bentes",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"239217",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Gama",fullName:"Ana Gama",slug:"ana-gama"},{id:"255620",title:"Prof.",name:"Raul",middleName:null,surname:"Navas",fullName:"Raul Navas",slug:"raul-navas"},{id:"255621",title:"Prof.",name:"Sónia R.",middleName:null,surname:"Bentes",fullName:"Sónia R. Bentes",slug:"sonia-r.-bentes"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2355",title:"International Trade from Economic and Policy Perspective",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8fe6804794ddc1a7f4202db20aed5985",slug:"international-trade-from-economic-and-policy-perspective",bookSignature:"Vito Bobek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2355.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"38490",title:"A Survey of Effects of International Trade on Growth",slug:"a-survey-of-effects-of-international-trade-on-growth",signatures:"Maria Hamideh Ramjerdi",authors:[{id:"140299",title:"Prof.",name:"M H",middleName:null,surname:"Ramjerdi",fullName:"M H Ramjerdi",slug:"m-h-ramjerdi"}]},{id:"38483",title:"Regions as Networks: Towards a Conceptual Framework of Territorial Dynamics",slug:"regions-as-networks-towards-a-conceptual-framework-of-territorial-dynamics",signatures:"Carlos Brito and Ricardo Correia",authors:[{id:"143319",title:"PhD.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Correia",fullName:"Ricardo Correia",slug:"ricardo-correia"},{id:"143325",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Brito",fullName:"Carlos Brito",slug:"carlos-brito"}]},{id:"38484",title:"The Extent of Intra Industry Trade Between Thailand and ASEAN Economic Community (AEC)",slug:"the-extent-of-intra-industry-trade-between-thailand-and-asean-economic-community-aec-",signatures:"Sujinda Chemsripong",authors:[{id:"143385",title:"Dr.",name:"Sujinda",middleName:null,surname:"Chemsripong",fullName:"Sujinda Chemsripong",slug:"sujinda-chemsripong"}]},{id:"38481",title:"Regional Dynamics in Romanian Counties: Convergence and Trade",slug:"regional-dynamics-in-romanian-counties-convergence-and-trade",signatures:"Jesús López-Rodríguez and Cosmin Bolea-Gabriel",authors:[{id:"141386",title:"Prof.",name:"Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"López-Rodríguez",fullName:"Jesús López-Rodríguez",slug:"jesus-lopez-rodriguez"},{id:"141545",title:"Mr.",name:"Cosmin",middleName:null,surname:"Bolea Gabriel",fullName:"Cosmin Bolea Gabriel",slug:"cosmin-bolea-gabriel"}]},{id:"38488",title:"The Impact and Consequences of Tax Revenues' Components on Economic Indicators: Evidence from Panel Groups Data",slug:"the-impact-and-consequences-of-tax-revenues-components-on-economic-indicators-evidence-from-panel-gr",signatures:"Taufik Abdul Hakim and Imbarine Bujang",authors:[{id:"143713",title:"Dr.",name:"Imbarine",middleName:null,surname:"Bujang",fullName:"Imbarine Bujang",slug:"imbarine-bujang"},{id:"143844",title:"Mr.",name:"Taufik",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hakim",fullName:"Taufik Abdul Hakim",slug:"taufik-abdul-hakim"}]},{id:"38482",title:"A Comparative Analysis of the Economic Effects of Cross-Border Mergers and Acquisitions in European Countries",slug:"a-comparative-analysis-of-the-economic-effects-of-cross-border-mergers-and-acquisitions-in-european-",signatures:"Anita Maček",authors:[{id:"142587",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Maček",fullName:"Anita Maček",slug:"anita-macek"}]},{id:"38485",title:"Transboundary Animal Diseases and International Trade",slug:"transboundary-animal-diseases-and-international-trade",signatures:"Andrés Cartín-Rojas",authors:[{id:"139628",title:"Ms.",name:"Andrés",middleName:null,surname:"Cartín-Rojas",fullName:"Andrés Cartín-Rojas",slug:"andres-cartin-rojas"}]},{id:"38489",title:"International Trade Promotion in Southern Africa: Challenges and Lessons",slug:"international-trade-promotion-in-southern-africa-challenges-and-lessons",signatures:"Mercy Mpinganjira",authors:[{id:"140107",title:"Prof.",name:"Mercy",middleName:null,surname:"Mpinganjira",fullName:"Mercy Mpinganjira",slug:"mercy-mpinganjira"}]},{id:"38491",title:"Technical Barriers to Trade of Leather and Footwear: Impacts and Challenges Posed by International Standards, Regulations and Market Requirements in Brazil",slug:"technical-barriers-to-trade-of-leather-and-footwear-impacts-and-challenges-posed-by-international-st",signatures:"Mauro Silva Ruiz, Alexandre de Oliveira e Aguiar, Pedro Luiz Cortez, Cláudia Echevenguá Teixeira and Gustavo Silveira Graudenz",authors:[{id:"141766",title:"Dr.",name:"Mauro",middleName:"Silva",surname:"Ruiz",fullName:"Mauro Ruiz",slug:"mauro-ruiz"},{id:"162299",title:"Dr.",name:"Cláudia",middleName:null,surname:"Echevenguá Teixeira",fullName:"Cláudia Echevenguá Teixeira",slug:"claudia-echevengua-teixeira"},{id:"166310",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"de Oliveira e Aguiar",fullName:"Alexandre de Oliveira e Aguiar",slug:"alexandre-de-oliveira-e-aguiar"}]},{id:"38487",title:"A Perspective on Remanufacturing Business: Issues and Opportunities",slug:"a-perspective-on-remanufacturing-business-issues-and-opportunities",signatures:"Mosè Gallo, Elpidio Romano and Liberatina Carmela Santillo",authors:[{id:"11826",title:"Prof.",name:"Elpidio",middleName:null,surname:"Romano",fullName:"Elpidio Romano",slug:"elpidio-romano"},{id:"11827",title:"Prof.",name:"Liberatina",middleName:null,surname:"Santillo",fullName:"Liberatina Santillo",slug:"liberatina-santillo"},{id:"138996",title:"PhD.",name:"Mosè",middleName:null,surname:"Gallo",fullName:"Mosè Gallo",slug:"mose-gallo"}]},{id:"38486",title:"Optimizing Global Value Chain Activities by Diagonal Cumulation of Origin",slug:"optimizing-global-value-chain-activities-by-diagonal-cumulation-of-origin",signatures:"Romana Korez-Vide",authors:[{id:"139320",title:"Dr.",name:"Romana",middleName:null,surname:"Korez Vide",fullName:"Romana Korez Vide",slug:"romana-korez-vide"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"79900",title:"Dyslexia, Dysgraphia and Dyscalculia: A Response to Intervention Approach to Classification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101163",slug:"dyslexia-dysgraphia-and-dyscalculia-a-response-to-intervention-approach-to-classification",body:'1. Introduction
The field of learning disabilities has a long history, stemming back diagnostically over the past century to the work of Hinshelwood [1] and Morgan [2] in the 1890’s, and the work of Orton in the 1920’s and 1930’s with children characterised as “word blind” [3, 4]. Methodologically, it can be traced to the techniques for treating reading, writing and spelling difficulties pioneered by Dearborn [5, 6], Monroe [7], Gates [8], Durrell [9], and Fernald [10], to the application of Orton’s theories by Gillingham and Stillman [11] and to the differing conceptualisations of treatment developed by Strauss and Lehtinen in the 1940’s [12] and by clinicians such as Cruickshank [13], Ayres [14], Dubnoff [15], Frostig [16], Kephart [17], Getman [18], Kirk [19], Spalding and Spalding [20], Freidus [21], and Johnson and Myklebust [22] in the 1950’s and 1960’s.
In teaching children to read there has also been intense debate between proponents of phonically based techniques and visually-based methods as summarised in Chall [23], as well as between those who have advocated or rejected the practice of classifying and labelling different types of reading disabilities, as outlined by Elliott and Grigorenko [24]. These debates are ongoing [25].
At this point in time, based on over a hundred years of clinical and academic work in the field, the value of teaching reading using phonologically and phonically based methods at entry point to school and also at foundation level in school has become widely accepted [26, 27, 28]. In addition, a number of different types of learning disabilities have been identified [29, 30].
Despite these advances, there is still lack of agreement as to typologies of learning disabilities, as well as to how these apply to children and adults. There is also a lack of consensus as to whether it is better to base diagnosis of learning disabilities on purely functional descriptions of the behaviours associated with how learning disabilities manifest in particular children (using terms such as “backward reading”, “specific learning disorder, with impairment in reading”, or “specific reading retardation”), or whether it is helpful to also apply a label such as “dyslexia”, “developmental dyslexia”, “dysgraphia”, or “dyscalculia” to children for diagnostic purposes.
This chapter describes a programme which uses a response to intervention model of classification [31, 32, 33], working from the standpoint that classifications of learning difficulties are provisional and emergent, with the potential of changing from hypotheses to firm and persistent categories as treatment progresses. The model is based on a process of incremental and treatment validity, in which evidence concerning a child’s response to particular procedures or techniques can add to an existing combination of assessment methods [34, 35, 36].
The model is then discussed in relation to the methods for assessment and treatment of functional difficulties with reading, writing, spelling and arithmetical concepts applied in the programme. As the difficulties of children are specific and manifest in the context of particular households and school environments, initial functional descriptions of behaviour are used in the programme as the basis for treating learning difficulties associated with difficulties with reading, writing, spelling and numeracy.
The approach to diagnosis and treatment is evidence-based, and described in Potter [37, 38]. Initial assessment provides descriptive information concerning a child’s functioning, which is then linked to specific treatment programmes. Firm classification of dyslexia, dysgraphia and dysgraphia is then linked to both ongoing assessment and to progress evaluation linked to indicators of progress to establish effects of treatment, and through this to firm classification as learning disabled [39].
2. Classification of learning disabilities
Lyon et al. [40] suggest that classification research involves forming groups or categories, which can then be evaluated for reliability, validity, and coverage. This implies that all classifications are essentially hypotheses about variables, and the relationships between variables. Classifications applying in the area of learning disabilities thus relate to both variables indicating difficulties as well as variables relating to the treatment of difficulties. Classification researchers then evaluate the reliability, validity, and coverage of hypothetical groupings of both independent and dependent variables relating to both difficulties and treatment of difficulties. This is done by conducting and analysing research on the relationships between these variables, as well as the relationships between variables conceptualised as either dependent or independent [41].
Following this logic, classifications applying in the area of learning disabilities are based on the interrelationships between a wide range of variables based on indicators associated with the learning difficulties experienced by particular children at school. As many types of behaviour are associated with both successful and unsuccessful performance in particular school environments, it would also imply that it would be unlikely that learning difficulties can be conceptualised as related to a single disability. Instead learning disability would need to be represented as a general category, which is composed of disabilities in any one or a combination of several areas or domains as these apply to the development of particular children [42].
This is the standpoint adopted in the programme described in this chapter, based on the position previously taken by others. In the 1968 federal definition of learning disabilities adopted in the United States, for example, seven domains are identified: (1) listening; (2) speaking; (3) basic reading (decoding and word recognition); (4) reading comprehension; (5) arithmetic calculation; (6) mathematics reasoning; and (7) written expression [30, 43], while Fletcher et al. [44] have suggested that the evidence supports six subgroups of learning disability involving reading (word recognition, fluency, and comprehension), math (calculations and problem solving), and probably written expression. The latter could involve either the generation of text (handwriting, spelling) or composition. Further research would be needed on these written expression components to establish whether these are distinct categories or categories which overlap other forms of learning disability.
Within these domains, the programme described in this chapter focuses on three main subgroups of learning disability:
Reading disabilities (often referred to as dyslexia)
Written language disabilities (often referred to as dysgraphia)
Math disabilities (often called dyscalculia)
Other related categories treated in the programme include disabilities that affect focus and attention, working memory, social skills, and executive functions such as personal organisation and deciding how to approach or begin a task. These difficulties are initially described functionally [37]. This is followed by a process of firmer classification based on analysis of response to intervention to programmes focused on improving functioning and performance in these areas, based on a process of evaluation which is empirical, multimethod and evidence-based [45, 46, 47].
3. Functional description of different types of learning difficulties: a response to intervention perspective
A response to intervention instructional model uses intervention as a treatment variable and response to intervention as an indicator of underlying learning disabilities. Firm classification is then based on evidence of learning difficulties which are persistent or resistant to treatment. This is the approach adopted in Dr. Charles Potter’s Reading Fluency Programme [48], which is described in this chapter. Given the difficulties inherent in measurement particularly where anxiety and emotion are involved, the programme uses a response to intervention approach in which diagnosis can be emergent, based on evidence from both response-to-intervention (RTI) and norm-referenced ability testing collected over time [49].
Since difficulties with reading, writing and/or math are recognisable problems during the school years, the signs and symptoms of learning difficulties in a particular school programme form the point of departure for treatment. Functional description of different types of learning difficulties forms the basis for establishing treatment programmes. Response to intervention then provides the basis for classification as learning disabled.
Learning disabilities are thus initially defined as functional difficulties, based on evidence of unexpected underachievement in a child relative to the achievement which would be typical of other children in a particular school or learning environment. Indicators of unexpected underachievement are used at the outset to describe the difficulty, based on inability to respond to the instruction which is benefitting other children. The definition would also include other functional indicators of learning difficulties, such as ratings or test scores indicating reading, writing and spelling difficulties or difficulties with number concept and mathematical problem-solving, and would also include ratings or test scores indicating neurological markers and signs, as well as unevenness in cognitive functions.
A firm classification as learning disabled would then be based on evidence of difficulties persisting both during as well as after treatment based on longitudinal, incremental assessment and evaluation [50, 51] as outlined in Table 1.
Table 1.
Classification of learning disabilities based on response to intervention.
The model in Table 1 is a generic one which can be applied by others. How this has been applied in practice is described in the rest of this chapter with reference to a particular programme applying specific methods of assessment and treatment in a particular country context. As there are a number of different variables which can affect the development of reading, writing and spelling, the methods and materials used with each child vary, based on initial assessment to identify areas of strength and difficulty, as well as specific areas requiring intervention.
Intervention then takes place to address the variables related to the areas of difficulty. As this takes place, firm diagnosis and classification of learning disability then becomes possible, based on assessment linked to ongoing assessment and progress evaluation of the effects of multivariate treatment, based on use of particular types of methods and materials. Classification as learning disabled can then be linked to concessions to compensate for the areas of difficulty which have been demonstrated to be resistant to particular forms of treatment, as well as to ongoing treatment and learning support.
4. Initial assessment: focus on functional difficulties
The assessment process used in Dr. Charles Potter’s Reading Programme1 is based on the child’s family and scholastic history in either the private or government schooling system in South Africa, which is a country classified as both first and third world [52]. The assessment procedures conform to similar procedures used by other educational psychologists in South Africa to provide evidence which can be used for diagnostic purposes against what are termed the ICD DSM IV and ICD DSM V criteria by South African medical aid societies.2
The ICD DSM IV and ICD DSM V criteria are designed to enable initial diagnosis to be made against functional descriptions of the learning difficulties experienced by children. These can then be used as the basis for both functional classification as well as for the development of treatment programmes.
As has been described in a previous publication on the work of the programme [37], four screening tests are used at the outset of the assessment process. These are designed to yield information about reading single words and reading words in sequence, and writing and spelling single words and words in sequence. Results on these tests are then reported using reading, spelling and dictation ages, for the reason that the South African ICD DSM IV and DSM V are based on age-related expectancies which are then used by the medical aid societies for the management of claims and benefits.3
Besides following the medical aid society guidelines in focusing on basic skills in reading and written expression, the assessment procedures are also based on the procedures suggested by Luria [58] for clinical assessment of reading and writing. Qualitative analysis of an initial parent interview is combined with analysis of drawings, pragmatic writing-based tasks and observation in an initial ice-breaking session with the child. This is then followed by a second session with the child during which four screening tests are used to establish levels of basic skills in reading, writing and spelling. This information is also combined with additional evidence from a biographical inventory, parental interview, analysis of school reports and more formal psychometric testing. This includes assessment of arithmetical and mathematical problem-solving skills if these are highlighted as areas of difficulty by the child’s school and the child’s parents.
Overall, the procedures used in the assessment process thus follow Luria’s suggestion [58] that assessment should start with a preliminary conversation, and then include a careful history, detailed observation of behaviour, analysis of neurological symptoms and a series of additional objective tests. Luria suggests that the examination needs to be relatively short, and involve methods of experimental psychological investigation applied to clinical practice.
The methods of examination used in the initial sessions spent working with the child also include pragmatic assessment of repetitive and spontaneous speech, writing, reading, comprehension of texts and the solution of problems, in order to establish how reading, writing and spelling are used by the child as a functional system. This informal evidence is then combined with more formal testing of reading, writing and spelling skills, and interpreted, as Luria suggests, against a framework of knowledge of the types of difficulties normally associated with the functional system under investigation, based on current literature [59].
Assessment leads to a functional description of deficits sufficient for diagnosis of learning disability to meet medical aid requirements,4 as opposed to an attempt to link this to possible labelling of the child as dyslexic, or labelling in terms of the other types of learning disability commonly described in the literature [37]. This is consistent with the standpoint adopted by Elliott and Grigorenko [24] and Elliott [61], namely, that adding a label adds little of clarity to a functional description of deficits for purposes of intervention. Similarly, the pattern of scores on subtests of an IQ test would best be used functionally, to indicate areas of cognitive and language strength and weakness, as well as areas in sequencing and working memory which may need to be worked with in therapy.
5. Evidence-based multivariate treatment: a response to intervention model
Following Luria [62], the aim is to move from assessment to statement of areas of deficit, and from this to specific programmatic intervention. The statement of areas of deficit can then be used as the basis for diagnosis for medical aid purposes, recommendations concerning the need for additional more in-depth testing (e.g. cognitive testing, speech and language and/or visual assessment, more in-depth analysis of phonological and phonic skills) or for more in-depth neurological or paediatric investigation,5 as well as to recommend specific types of programmatic activities which can be used to address the areas of deficit.
Being based on the DSM IV criteria,6 the diagnosis is related to the ICD10 classifications of possible types of developmental disorders affecting the development of scholastic skills, which are as follows:
F81 Specific developmental disorders of scholastic skills
F81.0 Specific reading disorder
F81.2 Mathematics disorder
F81.8 Other developmental disorders of scholastic skills
F81.81 Disorder of written expression
F81.89 Other developmental disorders of scholastic skills
This classification then enables parents to be able to claim benefits from their medical aid societies. At the same time, the statement of areas of deficit then enables recommendations to be made for more in-depth testing, as well as for commencing treatment. This is done matching the behaviours tapped by the tests used in the assessment process with the functional descriptions associated with the following literature-based based categorisation of types of learning disability associated with the ICD 10 developmental disorders of scholastic skills [42, 64, 65]:
Dyslexia: learning difficulties affecting reading and related language-based processing skills.
Auditory processing problems: difficulties with the sound system of the language, with phonological awareness, with listening in the classroom, and with processing and remembering the sounds associated with the letters in reading, writing and spelling.
Language processing problems: difficulties in processing spoken language, affecting both receptive and expressive language.
Reading Comprehension Deficits: learning difficulties affecting an individual’s understanding of what they read.
Dysgraphia: learning difficulties affecting a person’s handwriting ability and fine motor skills.
Visual, Visual perceptual or visual motor deficits: poor eye-hand coordination, difficulties in navigating surroundings, difficulties in visual tracking of print or losing one’s place when reading.
Non-Verbal Learning Deficits: learning difficulties affecting the child’s social interactions, manifesting in difficulties interpreting nonverbal cues such as facial expressions or body language, or difficulties relating to poor coordination.
Dyscalculia: learning difficulties affecting a person’s ability to understand numbers and learn arithmetic or mathematical facts.
As the work done in my practice is related to the ICD 10 classification and medical aid codes, the functional difficulties associated with the ICD 10 codes related to the above categories (dyslexia, reading comprehension deficits, dysgraphia and dyscalculia) form the basis for the types of treatment initially developed for working with the child. Functional difficulties in the other four areas are referred to other therapists (e.g. occupational therapists, physiotherapists, visual therapists and speech and language specialists) working in the field.
This enables the work done in the practice to meet medical aid requirements, while at the same time focusing on use of particular methods and materials in working with reading, writing and spelling difficulties, difficulties with numeracy and mathematical problem-solving, as well as the attentional, emotional and social aspects which accompany difficulties at school (Table 2) [37, 38, 66].
Table 2.
Diagnosis of learning disability based on response to intervention prior to, during and subsequent to treatment.
The model for evidence-based classification can be represented as follows:
The model thus involves evidence-based multivariate treatment as the basis for firm classification of particular types of learning disability based on response to intervention over time. At each stage in the application of the model, classification of learning disability is based on incremental validity based on specific evidence relating to particular types of treatment. It is also related to the emotional, social, family and classroom issues involved in treating learning difficulties at school.
How the model has been applied in practice is outlined in the following sections. While this is done with reference to the multivariate programmes developed in the practice for treating learning disabilities, the model could also be applied in other programmes working in a similar evidence-based way.
6. Applying the model: treatment of reading difficulties
Dr. Charles Potter’s Reading Programme is a fluency-based programme for treating learning difficulties [67]. The methods used for treating reading difficulties in the programme are based on the theories of the Russian neuropsychologist A.R. Luria [58, 68, 69] and have been described in a number of previous publications [37, 38, 66, 70, 71]. The materials used in the programme are electronic, and can either be downloaded or sent out by email.
At pre-reading level, the material is activity-based and focuses on developing phonological and phonemic awareness. The methods used in working with the material are described in accompanying manuals [72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86] which can be used by parents, teachers and therapists, and form the basis for the training of programme implementers.
The programme works with children from pre-reading and school readiness level. The transition to foundation level is made once the child has developed alphabetic awareness and the associations between the letters of the alphabet and the sounds used to represent the letters in English. The child is then introduced to reading through a series of fifteen foundation level reading books, using a structured language experience approach which integrates reading, writing, phonics and spelling with drawing and illustration. This is done through six activity books based on families of rhyming words, which accompany the first six of the foundation level reading books, with the methods used described in accompanying manuals [75, 82, 86].
Once the child has developed the ability to read three letter words and words based on short vowel sounds and beginning and ending consonant blends and clusters, repetitive paired reading is introduced, focusing initially on reading of sentences. Comprehension is developed through drawing and illustration of reading content.
Once the child can read and write phonically based words as well as sentences using three letter words in context, reading fluency work is commenced using large print phonically based reading books, based on the model for treatment of reading acquisition, reading fluency and reading comprehension development represented in Table 3.
Table 3.
Model for Reading fluency development.
The procedures used are documented in a user’s manual which includes both theory and the methods used in programme implementation [72]. In addition, there is a parent implementer’s manual which presents a step by step approach to implementation [78].
7. Methods used for treatment of reading fluency difficulties
The development of the large-print, phonically based material used for developing reading fluency in the programme has been described in a separate publication [66]. The methods used for developing reading fluency involve use of a paired reading method called the 3 x 3 Oral Impress Method. This is designed to be used with a series of electronic reading fluency books which are graded, and written in a way which builds repetition into the words used, as well as phrases used in sentences.
The material presents letters and letter strings associated with particular sounds repetitively in an uncluttered format. Repetitive oral reading is then used together with visual tracking of the printed words to develop and then automatise the associations between the configuration of the letters within phonically regular words and their sounds as used in the written language the child sees, the spoken language the child hears, and the words read by both adult and child [87].
This is done by working with the reading material three paragraphs at a time in the following way (Table 4).
Paragraph One | Child reads | Parent and Child read together | Parent reads |
Paragraph Two | Parent reads | Child reads | Parent and Child read together |
Paragraph Three | Parent and Child read together | Parent reads | Child reads |
Table 4.
The 3 x 3 Oral impress method.
The aim, as Luria suggests [58, 68], is to enhance cerebral organisation based on a repetitive process. This was also Heckelman’s view when he pioneered the use of paired reading as a procedure [88, 89, 90], suggesting that paired reading is “one of the most direct and fundamental systems of reading” involving a “combination of reflexive neurological systems.” We have reported similar positive results [38, 66], supporting Heckelman’s position that gains made are based on increasing neurological integrity.
The model for developing using the phonically-based, large print reading materials to develop reading fluency would be conceptualised as based on the coding and recoding of phonic associations [91, 92, 93]. Following Dehaene [94, 95], what the 3 x 3 Oral Impress Method does when used with our phonically based large-print reading fluency books is to present the visual word form area in the brain with strings of letters representing sounds repeatedly. This would have the effect of strengthening the connections between the visual areas in the brain and the areas of the brain involved in processing sounds and oral language, thus enabling the child first to read, and then to read fluently.
8. Treating difficulties with rapid naming
The relationship between rapid naming and reading difficulties has been established by a number of researchers [96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102]. What has not been clearly established is whether rapid naming is a separate factor influencing reading performance, and whether it is responsive to training [103, 104]. Recent research indicates that training interventions in this area are possible [105, 106], but that more controlled studies are still necessary on whether rapid naming can be trained, and how it can be trained. The descriptions provided in this section should be viewed in this context.
Our methods focus on teaching rapid naming of letters, words and numbers, as well as teaching rapid reading. At initial stages in the programme, rapid naming of letters is conducted using phonogram cards. Rapid naming of words is conducted using key words drawn from our phonically-based large print reading material. Rapid naming of numbers is trained through rapid marking of arithmetic worksheets. Rapid reading is also taught developmentally using the 3 x 3 Oral Impress Method [72], which focuses on accurate naming of phonically regular words and sentences, and then on rapid and accurate reading of a wider range of reading material.
The material used is phonically graded as well as repetitive, and the aim in the initial stages is to work with words which become increasingly familiar to the child, to develop accurate and rapid naming ability for individual words and words in sequence. This is done through the repetitive methods used to develop automaticity in reading [74], as well as through activities in which the child is asked to name letters and numbers in worksheets based on both familiar and unfamiliar content. Tachistoscopic work is then introduced at later stages in the programme [107], working repetitively with words of increasing length drawn from an electronic dictionary, as well as with words drawn from graded revisualisation materials and the child’s school books.
Using computer-based presentation, length of words presented, time exposure of the presentation of each word and time between the exposure of each word can be treated as variables. Other variables involve the ways in which words can be presented, read, revisualised and written down, following the procedures outlined in Table 5.
Table 5.
Methods for treating rapid naming difficulties.
The methods used for developing rapid naming in the child’s programme thus link with the methods used for training fluency in reading, and include activities methods designed to develop rapid naming of words as well as activities aimed at developing increasing familiarity with words. Based on Luria’s theories of automaticity [58], repetition would be intrinsic to the development of fluency in reading. As Dehaene [95] has noted, familiarity with material influences fluency. The aim of our methods is to use repetitive paired reading to develop the coding, recoding, working memory and rapid naming abilities necessary for fluent and accurate reading, and for self-teaching [108].
9. Developing automaticity in writing and spelling
Fluency in writing and spelling is addressed in our programme through a variety of methods involving linking the teaching of phonic associations with training in basic skills in writing and copying. This is done by teaching the child how to work from print to sound, how to analyse words based on phonic analysis of how words work, and how to use the letters and letter combinations used to represent the vowels in words as the basis for remembering how words are spelled both individually and in sequence. This is done through a process we call “phonological referencing” which focuses on the coding and recoding of phonic associations [80].
This is done using word families of between five and six words, supported by sentences in which the words are analysed in sequence, revisualised and then tested. The aim is to use revisualisation of words and sequences of words as an integral part of the process of learning to write and spell, with the aim of developing the phonological, phonic and sequential working memory processes involved in writing rapidly and accurately in sequence [84, 85].
The model for using our phonically-based, large print materials for developing writing and spelling fluency, is represented in Table 6.
Table 6.
Model for developing writing and spelling fluency based on activities involving development of reading, writing, spelling, phonic analysis and revisualisation.
Following Luria’s theories [58], our methods use repetition as intrinsic to the development of automaticity in writing and spelling fluency. As with reading fluency, the aim is to develop the coding, recoding and working memory abilities necessary for fluent and accurate writing and spelling [91, 92, 93, 108, 109].
At initial stages in the programme, the aim is to build phonological, orthographic and morphological awareness through phonological referencing [86]. This involves developing the child’s phonic analysis, visual memory and sequential working memory skills by methods which combine phonic analysis and revisualisation [74].
The phonic abilities of the child are established from analysis of the child’s errors on spelling tests, in the child’s descriptive writing, creative writing and school work, as well as through a series of phonic inventories [79]. Based on the pattern of errors, we initially involve the child in work with word families and phonogram cards targeting specific phonic errors in the profile. In the process, the child is introduced to working with the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System, which is a procedure for teaching children through activities involving mapping the combinations of letters used in writing words to the sounds made when those words are spoken orally [73, 74].
The aim is to combine phonic analysis and revisualisation in developing skills in word attack, spelling and sequential working memory. This is done through activities focusing on analysis of the letters and letter combinations used to represent the vowel sounds in words, combined with revisualisation activities focused on remembering sequences of words [84]. The sequence of instruction followed, and the links between phonological referencing, the introduction and application of the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System, and the combination of phonic analysis and revisualisation in the Targeted Revisualisation Programme [83], are represented in Table 7 below.
Table 7.
Introducing phonological referencing and the seven vowel phonic analysis system.
The sequence of instruction followed in implementing the programme thus integrates reading, writing and spelling through activities which are phonically-based, linking phonological, phonemic, visual memory and sequential working memory development. The methods used are outlined in a series of manuals which can be used by therapists, teachers, schools and parents [81, 82, 83, 84, 85].
10. Mapping the associations between spoken and written words
Both phonological referencing and the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System are used for point to point analysis of the links between the sequences of letters used in written words and the sequence of sounds made which the words are spoken orally. This is done through activities in which the child is taught to map the associations between the sequences of letters used in written words and the sequences of sounds used when the words are spoken orally [80].
The sequence of instruction followed in teaching the child is as follows:
After the child has learned the associations between sounds and letters, the child works with word families as well as with phonogram and rime cards, which are used side by side with the process of phonological referencing. The basis for mapping is to link the individual letters and sequences of letters with the sequences of sounds made when the words are spoken out loud, based on the principle that “what we say is what we write.”
This stage involves activities in which the hand is placed under the chin to increase the ease by which the vowel sounds in words can be identified as part of the process of mapping letters to sounds and sounds to letters.
Particular focus is placed on identifying the vowel sounds in words (which are spoken when the mouth opens) and the consonant sounds (which are spoken when the mouth closes). The letters the child has written or typed form the departure point for linking what is written on paper with both sounds and mouth movements.
The aim is to enable the child to identify the vowel letters and the consonant letters used in written words, and then to link these back to the sounds made when the word is spoken orally.
Reverse mapping between the sequence of sounds in the word and the letters used in writing the word then takes place. Once the vowel sound in the word has been identified, the letters used to represent the vowel sound are then colour coded. In the process, short vowel sounds are identified as normally being made by one letter working by itself, while long vowel sounds are identified as normally being made by two letters working together.
As the focus lies on mapping the consistency between the sequences of letters used in written words with the sequences of sounds used when the words are spoken orally, the aim is to enable the child to build the variety of phonic associations necessary to read, write and spell in sequence. Visual memory, revisualisation and dictation activities are also used to develop the metacognitive and working memory processes necessary to remember and write sounds and letters in sequence, and words in sequence [110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116].
11. Increasing the transparency of written English
Much has been written about the transparency of the English language compared to other languages [117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122], for the reason that the phonic associations underpinning English orthography are varied, with similar sounds being represented by different letter combinations. This means that both reading and spelling in English are not as easy for children to learn as in many other languages such as Italian, Afrikaans, Welsh, German, or French [123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130]. This has potentially negative effects on the progress of children with learning disabilities [118, 119, 131, 132, 133].
Our materials attempt to overcome this problem at initial stages in the programme through the use of carefully chosen vocabulary. Phonic associations are initially taught through graded rhyming word activities, and then developed through activities involving reading, writing and use of working memory in spelling. Once the child has been introduced to the phonological referencing and colour coding process with individual words and families of rhyming words, he or she is also introduced to activities involving use of visual memory and revisualisation of words in sequence.
Word families of written words are used as the basis for analysing individual words, while written sentences are used as the basis for analysing words in sequence. This is done through activities based on sentences and paragraphs which include words in which the y and w combine with other letters to form long vowel sounds. These letter-sound associations are identified and then mapped using the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System [73, 74, 83].
In the process, the child is taught that a, e, i, o and u are the letters normally used to represent the vowel sounds in words, but that y and w can also be used to represent the represent the vowel sounds in positions at or near the end of written words in English. The Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System is then worked with and applied through activities in which the child speaks the word out loud and then identifies the letters used as vowels in the word. Through activity-based learning, the child is introduced to the principle that there needs to be a vowel in every word, that the letters a, e, i, o and u are used to represent the vowels in all positions in words, and that the use of y and w as vowels at the end of words is both logical and consistent, applying to nearly all words in English.
The use of the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System thus enables the letters used to represent the sounds in both simple and complex written words to be identified through phonological referencing, and to be analysed following the principle that “what we say we write.” The aim is make written English as transparent as written Welsh, in which the use of the seven vowels a, e, i, o, and u, as well as y and w, also applies [122, 123, 133], making it logical and easier for children to learn.
12. Combining phonic analysis and revisualisation in developing sequential working memory for words
The methods for teaching spelling in our programme have been described in Potter [38, 70] and follow the phonologically and phonically-based stages in spelling described by Moats [134, 135], as well as the stages in a set of three phonic inventories based on the foundation level curriculum taught in primary schools in South Africa [79]. Phonic associations are initially introduced through graded rhyming word activities involving reading, writing and use of working memory in spelling. Focus is placed on teaching through synthetic phonic approaches incorporating teaching children to isolate sounds and blend sounds into words, as well as how to create families of rhyming words based on similar phonological and phonemic elements [75].
These are introduced side by side with reading fluency activities using our foundation level and then our basic level readers, through methods which use activity-based learning to build the variety of phonic associations necessary to read, write and spell. Phonic analysis is then introduced using phonological referencing [80], which is applied working with families of between five and seven words, each of which are based on a similar consonant blend of cluster. These are then contextualised in short sentences in which the words are then phonically analysed and revisualised in sequence. The aim is to develop the working memory integrities necessary to write accurately in sequence.
In the ck word family, for example, the following words would be written in the child’s writing book.
shock
brick
check
stack
cluck
trick
The vowel in each word would then be underlined in colour and matched with the way the mouth opens in making each vowel sound and the way the mouth closes in making each consonant sound. After this, the child would work with his or her reading partner and phonologically reference each word in the ck word family, by linking the sounds in each word when the word is spoken out loud with the letters used when the word is written down.
This would be done through an activity-based process, in which the child is asked to:
Point to the written word on the page and say it.
Look at the two letters at the beginning of the written word. Say the sound of these letters out loud.
Look at the vowel in the middle of the written word. Say the sound of this letter out loud.
Look at the two letters at the end of the written word. Say the the sound of these letters out loud.
The phonic rule applied in each of the words would then be focused on working with the reading partner. This would be done by focusing on how the beginning sound, the middle sound and the ending sound work together to make each word, and how the ck ending applies in each word.
Each of the words in the family would then be contextualised in sequence in a short sentence. The sentence would be written down by the child, and the vowel or vowels in each word in the sentence underlined in colour. After this, each word in the sentence would then be revisualised in sequence working memory tested by asking the child to rewrite the sentence from memory. These sequential revisualisation techniques would then be used further at higher levels in the programme [84].
13. Linking the development of phonic associations, visual memory and sequential working memory skills
The sequence of instruction followed with each child varies based on evidence of how the child learns, but is conducted with the aim of linking the development of phonic analysis, visual memory and working memory skills as represented in Table 8.
Table 8.
Methods linking phonic analysis, visual memory for strings of letters and words and sequential working memory for written words, phrases, sentences and paragraphs.
It will be apparent from Table 8 that the aim at each level of the programme is to work to combine phonological and phonic skills development with the development of visual memory and sequential working memory. This is done through methods which to combine the process of phonic analysis with the process of revisualisation in developing sequential working memory for words [83, 84], through a longitudinal process in which:
The child is taught to map the associations between the sequences of letters used in words and the sequences of sounds used when words are spoken orally through phonological referencing, as well as through use of phonogram and rime cards.
The child is taught that each written word is logical and can be analysed on the principle that “what we say is what we write.”
The child is shown how to use revisualisation to remember the sequences of letters used in individual words and the sequences of words in used in sentences.
Both phonic analysis and revisualisation are thus used to develop the child’s ability to store each word in working memory in sequence. This is initially done working with words in the context of sentences, and then with sequences of sentences. The child’s sequential working memory is tested through dictation.
At each level in the programme, the methods used are repetitive and follow the procedures for developing automaticity outlined by Luria [58, 68, 69], and are summarised in illustrated implementer manuals for users [74, 81, 83, 84, 85]. Once the child is able to recall sentences of between five and seven words accurately, span of sequential working memory is increased by phonic analysis and revisualisation of sentences of increasing length, as well as by phonic analysis and revisualisation of increasing numbers of sentences in sequence.
As our reading fluency materials are graded and phonically based, sentences and paragraphs from these can be used as the basis for activities which link reading, writing, spelling and sequential working memory work. More complex graded paragraphs and sequences of paragraphs are then introduced once the Targeted Analysis, Revisualisation and Sequential Spelling Programme is commenced, as described in the section following.
14. The targeted analysis, revisualisation and sequential spelling programme
Once the child is able to recall the words used in individual sentences and sequences of sentences accurately, the materials used in the Targeted Analysis, Revisualisation and Sequential Spelling Programme are introduced. The methods target words with more than one vowel, which are first written, then typed, then colour coded and then syllabified. The target words are then revisualised and tested [136].
After analysing and recalling the target words, the text of the graded materials is then worked with, focusing on each word in each sentence in sequence. Sequential revisualisation techniques are used. We call this process “targeted revisualisation” as each word is targeted in sequence, using techniques which combine the procedures used for phonic analysis of the target words with the types of mental imagery the child uses in recalling words. These build on the activities linking phonic analysis and revisualisation, and the methods used for developing sequential working memory used at previous levels in the programme.
The aim is to use accuracy in use of sequential working memory for words as the basis for developing fluency and automaticity in writing and spelling [38]. This is done in four stages, as outlined in Table 9.
Level of mediation | Focuses of phonic analysis | Focuses of revisualisation | Focuses of use of sequential working memory |
---|
Stage One: Focus on Words based on Short Vowel Sounds | Introduce concept that vowels are used in all spoken and written words. Identify and mediate short vowel sounds a, e, i, o, and u. | Construct, deconstruct, mentally image and revisualise words and rhyming word families containing short vowel sounds. | Use working memory in writing rhyming words based on short vowel sounds in sequence. |
Stage Two: Focus on Words based on Long Vowel Sounds | Identify and mediate long vowel sounds involving use of digraphs involving a, e, i, o, and u. Introduce the letters y and w as vowels in positions at or near the end of words. | Construct, deconstruct, mentally image and revisualise words and rhyming word families containing long vowel sounds, including use of the letters y and w as vowels in positions at or near the end of words. | Use working memory in writing sequences of words containing both long and short vowel sounds, including use of the letters y and w as vowels in positions at or near the end of words. |
Stage Three: Focus on Sequentialisation of Words in Sentences | Identify letters used as vowels in words used in sequence in sentences. | Identify, phonically analyse, mentally image and revisualise single syllable and polysyllabic words in sequence in sentences. | Use working memory in writing single syllable and polysyllabic words in sequence in sentences and sequences of sentences. |
Stage Four: Focus on Sequentialisation of Words and Sentences in Paragraphs | Identify letters used as vowels in words used in sequence in sentences, and in sentences used in sequence in paragraphs. | Identify, phonically analyse, mentally image and revisualise single syllable and polysyllabic words in sequence in paragraphs. | Use working memory in writing sentences in sequence in paragraphs of increasing length and phonic complexity. |
Table 9.
Stages and focuses of mediation in the targeted analysis, revisualisation and sequential spelling programme.
The Targeted Analysis, Revisualisation and Sequential Spelling Programme is applied using graded paragraphs, which increase in complexity as well as length. As these are worked with, the process of combining phonic analysis and revisualisation in using the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System is applied repetitively. This is done by working from printed word to sound, and from sound back to print. These phonological recoding skills provide the building blocks on which writing and spelling fluency is developed [71].
On a phonological and phonic level, the methods used are based on the coding and recoding of phonic associations through activities in which the child writes, types and colour codes the vowels in words by underlining the letters used to represent the vowel sounds in colour as well as using the colour coding feature in a word processing programme. This adds a visual dimension to the targeted revisualisation process, as the methods used are designed to make the letters used to represent the vowel sounds in words stand out in colour [83].
Both phonic associations and visual contrasts are then used to identify the letters representing the vowel sounds in words, with the aim of enabling the child to develop working memory for individual words as well as sequential working memory for words in sequence. Fluency in writing and spelling is then based on increasing span of sequential working memory as well as automaticity in recalling the sequences of letters used in individual words, the sequences of words used in sentences, and the sequences of sentences used in paragraphs.
At higher levels in the programme, rapid reading of words and working memory for words are also developed through use of tachistoscopic methods conducted side by side with targeted revisualisation [107]. Children who have worked in this way report effects in improving word attack in reading, as well as improvements in rate of processing words, rate of reading, spelling accuracy and rate of work.
15. Treatment of difficulties with calculation and numerical problem-solving
In addition to the strands in the child’s programme focused on treating difficulties with reading, writing and spelling, numerical and problem-solving activities are also included in the programme, using electronic materials which can be worked with online, as well as sent to parents and children by email [71]. The aim of using this format-based multivariate treatment system is to enable treatment of the functional difficulties identified in assessment, while at the same time addressing needs indicated by the errors made by the child in his or her school work.
The format system is flexible and comprehensive enough to be able to focus on areas of strength as well as needs, while also enabling email delivery of the activities included in each child’s individual programme. Number concept development can also be linked to language and problem-solving activities, with support programmes linked to the developmental model outlined in Table 10. These activities are then implemented side by side with the mathematical curriculum taught at school.
Table 10.
Model for development of number concept, numerical fluency, numerical reasoning and numerical problem solving.
It will be apparent from Table 10 that at the same time as treating numerical and mathematical difficulties identified in the initial assessment, the learning support provided is both diagnostic and based on clinical teaching, as well as linked to numerical and mathematical concepts covered in the child’s work at school. As with other areas of our programme, the aim is to treat functional difficulties as well as to evaluate the child’s response to specific types of interventions, as outlined in the section following.
16. Progress evaluation
Work with each child is conducted longitudinally, and is based on a cycle in which evaluation forms an integral part of both planning and implementation. Feedback on specific activities in the format is also provided by photographs sent by email or WhatsApp, enabling the planning of the next format in the child’s programme to be evidence-based, linked to ongoing evaluation of learning needs. Assessment is then built into programme implementation at regular intervals.
The model used for implementation is action research based [137, 138, 139], and can be summarised as follows (Table 11).
Table 11.
Action research cycle for planning and implementation of activity-based online programmes.
As the programme’s data base is extensive, the planning and implementation model implies that each child’s programme is evidence-based and multivariate, addressing a number of different learning needs through use of a variety of graded activities. The programme is then implemented using online sessions supported by learning materials provided by email [71].
The aim is that programme implementation can take place with support from parents, teachers, tutors or au paires as reading partners, working with a variety of electronic materials delivered by email or made accessible online via links to websites. Methods used in the programme are documented in illustrated implementer manuals, and are demonstrated working online, supported by cell phone and email contact.
Both evaluation programme activities and evaluation of progress are linked to evidence from the child’s school work and school reports at regular points in primary, with full re-assessment and summative evaluation being conducted at point of transition to high school. The aim at this point is to make a firm diagnosis of learning disability which can be linked to concessions.
The aim is to ensure that firm classification and labelling of a child as learning disabled is valid [36], based both on longitudinal analysis of test results as well as response to specific interventions [140, 141], on the model described in the section following.
17. Firm classification of particular types of learning disability on the basis of response to intervention
In implementing the different types of interventions which have been described in this chapter, the programme focuses on a number of different variables related to the areas of difficulty. Interventions are normally longitudinal and conducted side by side with the curriculum taught in the child’s school.
The programme works with the aim of providing fluency-based interventions which can develop basic skills and competences in reading, writing, spelling as well as numeracy. At the same time, evidence-based learning support is provided focused on areas of the school curriculum with which the child is experiencing difficulties. This type of multivariate intervention is implemented using formats based on an online session providing counselling followed by an intervention, supported by electronic materials which can then be used by parents and children working in conjunction with a teacher or therapist, or independently [71].
At the outset the child’s difficulties are described functionally. This enables labelling to be avoided, until such time as the child has had benefit of focused multivariate treatment, and is also likely to be more developmentally and neurologically mature [142, 143, 144, 145]. As maturation takes place, firm diagnosis and classification of learning disability then becomes to the child’s benefit, as it can be linked to concessions related to areas of ongoing difficulty. This can be linked both to cross-sectional assessment as well as evaluation of response to interventions which have been based on multivariate treatment using particular types of methods and materials.
In our programme, firm classification as learning disabled is thus normally undertaken at the end of a child’s primary school years, based on evidence collected by use of different methods over time [146, 147], within a model of inference based on a process of incremental validity [34, 35, 148]. Diagnosis can then be linked to concessions to compensate for those areas of difficulty which have been demonstrated to be resistant to particular forms of treatment, as well as to ongoing treatment and learning support in particular areas of the high school curriculum.
The model for classification of learning disabilities is reflected in Table 12 on the previous page. It will be noted that the model is multimethod, based on summative assessment linked to progress evaluation of longitudinal interventions conducted across a number of areas of functional difficulty, enabling triangulation across different data points over time [131].
Table 12.
Classification of learning disabilities based on response to multivariate fluency-based interventions.
This enables firmer conclusions as to the type of learning disability involved, as well as classification of learning disability based on specific evidence relating to response to particular types of treatment [141].
18. Summary and implications
This chapter has focused on treatment of the functional learning difficulties associated with dyslexia, dysgraphia and dyscalculia, as three dimensions of learning disability. As each of these dimensions can be associated with a range of reading, writing, spelling and working memory difficulties, the model of classification described in this chapter has been described with reference to a particular programme which uses a large data base to implement a variety of different activities with children diagnosed as having learning problems.
Owing to the measurement error implicit in testing young children who may have attention and focus difficulties in addition to functional difficulties with reading, writing, spelling and maths, the model of classification assumes that initial diagnosis of learning disabilities is at best provisional. For this reason, labelling of children is avoided at the outset. Functional indicators based on actual versus expected performance are used in preference, using ICD10 codes and descriptors as opposed to labelling using terms such as Dyslexia, Auditory Processing Problems, Language Processing Problems, Reading Comprehension Deficits, Dysgraphia, Visual Perceptual or Visual Motor Deficits, Non-Verbal Learning Deficits or Dyscalculia.
Detailed description of the initial assessment process has been provided in order to show that functional ICD 10 descriptors can be used instead of labels as the basis for establishing needs and areas of treatment. Treatments can then be targeted at these descriptors, being related to focus on specific problems with reading, writing and spelling, as well as numerical concepts and mathematical problem-solving. Difficulties outside these areas are then referred to other specialists.
Detailed description of particular methods, materials and programmes has also been provided in this chapter to indicate that once initial functional classification has taken place linked to specific areas of difficulty, multivariate interventions can then be developed and implemented. Firm classification then becomes possible based on the child’s progress over time.
One implication is that initial diagnosis of learning difficulties can be rigorous despite being provisional, providing detailed descriptions of specific areas of difficulty which are made with a view to undertaking multivariate treatment. Firm classification can then be made based on response to intervention at a time in the child is likely to be more developmentally and neurologically mature, and prior making a transition to new forms of teaching and new areas of learning at high school level.
Another implication is that the process of establishing firm diagnosis and classification would best be conducted at the end of a child’s primary school years, with a view to establishing concessions as well as the possibility of further treatment at higher levels in the curriculum. At this point firm diagnosis as having dyslexia, dysgraphia or dyscalculia can act to the child’s maximal benefit, in maximising the chances of obtaining the concessions and further treatments necessary to making the grade.
As the response to intervention classification model described in this chapter has been successfully applied in practice,7 a third implication is that the model is feasible and may have wider relevance. It offers the possibility that firm classification as learning disabled can be based on the child’s response to treatment which has been focused, multivariate and multimethod. In terms of the model, firm diagnosis of children as dyslexic, dysgraphic or dyscalculaic becomes an outcome taking place after treatment, linked to the possibility of concessions as well as additional interventions.
\n',keywords:"dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, reading, writing, spelling, numeracy, working memory, assessment, evaluation, response to intervention, incremental validity; multivariate treatment",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79900.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79900.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79900",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79900",totalDownloads:152,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"August 22nd 2021",dateReviewed:"October 11th 2021",datePrePublished:"January 5th 2022",datePublished:"March 30th 2022",dateFinished:"January 5th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter provides a model for classification of dyslexia, dysgraphia and dyscalculia through analysis of the response of children to treatment. The model is discussed with reference to the types of multivariate treatment applied in a particular programme which works interactively online using an electronic data-base for linking functional difficulties in learning to treatment, and through this to firm diagnosis and classification. In applying the model, initial diagnosis of learning disabilities is treated as provisional, based on functional indicators as well as test data. Firm classification becomes possible through longitudinal assessment, analysis of response to multivariate intervention as well as response to specific programmes. Diagnosis can then be linked both to concessions as well as ongoing treatment.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79900",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79900",signatures:"Charles Potter",book:{id:"10910",type:"book",title:"Learning Disabilities",subtitle:"Neurobiology, Assessment, Clinical Features and Treatments",fullTitle:"Learning Disabilities - Neurobiology, Assessment, Clinical Features and Treatments",slug:"learning-disabilities-neurobiology-assessment-clinical-features-and-treatments",publishedDate:"March 30th 2022",bookSignature:"Sandro Misciagna",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10910.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-588-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-587-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-589-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"103586",title:null,name:"Sandro",middleName:null,surname:"Misciagna",slug:"sandro-misciagna",fullName:"Sandro Misciagna"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"93190",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Potter",fullName:"Charles Potter",slug:"charles-potter",email:"pottercs@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93190/images/6641_n.jpg",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Classification of learning disabilities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Functional description of different types of learning difficulties: a response to intervention perspective",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Initial assessment: focus on functional difficulties",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Evidence-based multivariate treatment: a response to intervention model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Applying the model: treatment of reading difficulties",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Methods used for treatment of reading fluency difficulties",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Treating difficulties with rapid naming",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Developing automaticity in writing and spelling",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Mapping the associations between spoken and written words",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"11. Increasing the transparency of written English",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"12. Combining phonic analysis and revisualisation in developing sequential working memory for words",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"13. Linking the development of phonic associations, visual memory and sequential working memory skills",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"14. The targeted analysis, revisualisation and sequential spelling programme",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"15. Treatment of difficulties with calculation and numerical problem-solving",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"16. Progress evaluation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"17. Firm classification of particular types of learning disability on the basis of response to intervention",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"18. Summary and implications",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'[Hinshelwood J. Congenital word blindness. The Lancet. 1900:1506-1508]'},{id:"B2",body:'[Morgan WP. A case of congenital word blindness. British Medical Journal. 1896;1378]'},{id:"B3",body:'[Orton ST. “Word-blindness” in school children. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry. 1925;5:581-615]'},{id:"B4",body:'[Orton ST. Reading, Writing and Speech Problems in Children. New York: Norton; 1938]'},{id:"B5",body:'[Dearborn WF. The psychology of reading: An experimental study of the reading pauses and movements of the eye. In: Archives of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods. New York: Columbia University, The Science Press; 1906. p. 4]'},{id:"B6",body:'[Dearborn WF. Experiments in learning. Journal of Educational Psychology. 1910;1(7):373-388]'},{id:"B7",body:'[Monroe M. Children Who Cannot Read. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1932]'},{id:"B8",body:'[Gates AI. The Improvement of Reading. 3rd ed. New York: Macmillan; 1947]'},{id:"B9",body:'[Durrell DD. Improvement of Basic Reading Abilities. Chicago: World Book; 1940]'},{id:"B10",body:'[Fernald GM. Remedial Techniques in Basic School Subjects. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1943]'},{id:"B11",body:'[Gillingham A, Stillman B. Remedial Teaching for Children with Disability in Reading, Spelling, and Penmanship. Cambridge MA: Educator\'s Publishing Service; 1968]'},{id:"B12",body:'[Strauss AA, Lehtinen LE. Psychopathology and Education of the Brain-Injured Child. New York: Grune & Stratton; 1947]'},{id:"B13",body:'[Cruickshank W. A Teaching Method for Brain-Injured and Hyperactive Children. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press; 1961]'},{id:"B14",body:'[Ayres JA. The development of perceptual motor abilities: A theoretical basis for treatment of dysfunctions. American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 1963;17:221-225]'},{id:"B15",body:'[Dubnoff B. The practical application of an integrated perceptual motor program in a school for children with severe learning disabilities: A preliminary report. In: Selected Convention Papers: New Frontiers in Special Education. Council for Exceptional Children, Arlington, Va. Papers presented at the Annual CEC Convention (43rd, Portland, Oregon, April 20–24). 1965. pp. 194-199]'},{id:"B16",body:'[Frostig M. Education of children with learning disabilities. In: Frierson EC, Barbe WB, editors. Educating Children with Learning Disabilities. New York: Appleton-Centurey-Crofts; 1967. pp. 387-398]'},{id:"B17",body:'[Kephart NC. Perceptual-motor aspects of learning disabilities. Exceptional Children. 1964;31(4):201-206]'},{id:"B18",body:'[Getman GN, Kane ER, Halgren MR, McKee GW. Developing Learning Readiness. Manchester, MO: Webster Division, McGraw-Hill; 1968]'},{id:"B19",body:'[Kirk SA, Bateman B. Diagnosis and remediation of learning disabilities. Exceptional Children. 1962;29(2):73-78]'},{id:"B20",body:'[Spalding RB, Spalding WT. The Writing Road to Reading. New York: Morrow; 1957]'},{id:"B21",body:'[Freidus E. Methodology for the classroom teacher. In: Helmuth J, editor. The Special Child in Century 21. Seattle: Special Child Publications; 1964]'},{id:"B22",body:'[Johnson DJ, Myklebust HR. Learning Disabilities; Educational Principles and Practices. New York: Grune and Stratton; 1967]'},{id:"B23",body:'[Chall J. Learning to Read: The Great Debate: An Inquiry Into the Science, Art and Ideology of Old and New Methods of Teaching Children to Read. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1967]'},{id:"B24",body:'[Elliott JG, Grigorenko EL. The Dyslexia Debate. Vol. 14. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2014]'},{id:"B25",body:'[Elliott JG, Nicolson R. Dyslexia: Developing the Debate. London: Bloomsbury; 2016]'},{id:"B26",body:'[Adams MJ. Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning about Print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1990]'},{id:"B27",body:'[National Reading Panel (US), National Institute of Child Health, & Human Development (US). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and its Implications for Reading Instruction: Reports of the Subgroups. National Institutes of Health: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development; 2000]'},{id:"B28",body:'[Ehri LC. Learning to read words: Theory, findings and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading. 2005;9:167-188]'},{id:"B29",body:'[Shaywitz BA, Fletcher JM, Shaywitz SE. Defining and classifying learning disabilities and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child Neurology. 1995;10, 1:S50-S57]'},{id:"B30",body:'[Lyon GR, Fletcher JM, Barnes MC. Learning disabilities. In: Mash EJ, Barkley RA, editors. Child Psychopathology. New York: Guilford Press; 2003. pp. 520-586]'},{id:"B31",body:'[Fuchs D, Mock D, Morgan PL, Young CL. Responsiveness-to-intervention: Definitions, evidence, and implications for the learning disabilities construct. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice. 2003;18(3):157-171]'},{id:"B32",body:'[Vaughn S, Fuchs LS. Redefining learning disabilities as inadequate response to instruction: The promise and potential problems. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice. 2003;18(3):137-146]'},{id:"B33",body:'[Fletcher JM, Vaughn S. Response to intervention: Preventing and remediating academic deficits. Child Development and Perspectives. 2009;1:30-37]'},{id:"B34",body:'[Haynes SN, Lench HC. Incremental validity of new clinical assessment measures. Psychological Assessment. 2003;15(4):456-466]'},{id:"B35",body:'[Hunsley J, Meyer GJ. The incremental validity of psychological testing and assessment: Conceptual, methodological, and statistical issues. Psychological Assessment. 2003;15(4):446-455]'},{id:"B36",body:'[Fuchs LS, Fuchs D. Treatment validity: A unifying concept for reconceptualizing the identification of learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice. 1998;13:204-219]'},{id:"B37",body:'[Potter CS. Developing automaticity in children with learning disabilities: A functional perspective part one: Theory and assessment. In: Ryan C, editor. Learning Disabilities. London: InTech; 2017a Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/learning-disabilities-an-international-perspective/developing-automaticity-in-children-with-learning-disabilities-a-functional-perspective-part-one-the]'},{id:"B38",body:'[Potter CS. Developing automaticity in children with learning disabilities: A functional perspective part two: programme methods and materials. In: Ryan C, editor. Learning Disabilities. London: InTech; 2017b Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/articles/show/title/developing-automaticity-in-children-with-learning-disabilities-a-functional-perspective-part-two-pro]'},{id:"B39",body:'[Vaughn S, Wanzek J, Fletcher JM. Multiple tiers of intervention: A framework for prevention and identification of students with reading/learning disabilities. In: Taylor BM, Ysseldyke JE, editors. Effective Instruction for Struggling Readers. K-6 ed. New York: Teachers College Press; 2007. pp. 173-195]'},{id:"B40",body:'[Lyon GR, Fletcher JM, Shaywitz SE, Shaywitz BA, Torgesen JK, Wood FB. Rethinking Learning Disabilities. Washington, DC: Hudson Institute; 2001]'},{id:"B41",body:'[Fletcher JM. Dyslexia: The evolution of a scientific concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society. 2009;15(4):501-508]'},{id:"B42",body:'[Fletcher JM. Classification and identification of learning disabilities. In: Wong B, Butler DL, editors. Learning about Learning Disabilities. Cambridge, MA: Elsevier Academic Press; 2012. pp. 1-25]'},{id:"B43",body:'[U.S. Office of Education. First Annual Report of the National Advisory Committee on Handicapped Children. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare; 1968]'},{id:"B44",body:'[Fletcher JM, Lyon GR, Fuchs LS, Barnes MA. Learning Disabilities: From Identification to Intervention. New York: Guilford Publications; 2018]'},{id:"B45",body:'[Cox DD. Evidence-based interventions using home-school collaboration. School Psychology Quarterly. 2005;20(4):473-497]'},{id:"B46",body:'[Stuebing KK, Fletcher JM, Branum-Martin L, Francis DJ, Van Der Heyden A. Evaluation of the technical adequacy of three methods for identifying specific learning disabilities based on cognitive discrepancies. School Psychology Review. 2012;41(1):3-22]'},{id:"B47",body:'[Potter CS. Programme evaluation. In: Terreblanche M, Durrheim K, editors. Research Methodology in the Social Sciences in Southern Africa. 2nd ed. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press; 2006. pp. 209-226]'},{id:"B48",body:'[Information on Dr Charles Potter’s Reading Programme can be obtained by clicking on the following link: http://www.charlespotter.org]'},{id:"B49",body:'[Flanagan DP, Ortiz SO, Alfonso VC, Dynda AM. Integration of response to intervention and norm-referenced tests in learning disability identification: Learning from the tower of Babel. Psychology in the Schools. 2006;43(7):807-825]'},{id:"B50",body:'[APA. Dictionary of Psychology. New York: American Psychological Association;]'},{id:"B51",body:'[Hunsley J. Introduction to the special section on incremental validity and utility in clinical assessment. Psychological Assessment. 2003;15(4):443-445]'},{id:"B52",body:'[Guseh JS, Oritsejafor E. Democracy and economic growth in Africa: The cases of Ghana and South Africa. Journal of Third World Studies. 2005;22(2):121-137]'},{id:"B53",body:'[World Health Organization. International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. Vol. 1. World Health Organization; 2004]'},{id:"B54",body:'[South Africa Government Medical Schemes Act 131 of 1998. https://www.gov.za/documents/medical-schemes-act]'},{id:"B55",body:'[American Psychiatric Association. DSM-IV: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994]'},{id:"B56",body:'[World Health Organization, and Practice Management Information Corporation. ICD-9-CM: International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision: Clinical Modification. Vol. 1. PMIC (Practice Management Information Corporation); 1998]'},{id:"B57",body:'[American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic Criteria from DSM-IV-TR. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000]'},{id:"B58",body:'[Luria AR. Higher cortical Functions in Man. London: Tavistock Publications; 1966. pp. 299-463]'},{id:"B59",body:'[Luria AR. The Working Brain. London: Penguin Books; 1973. pp. 343-346]'},{id:"B60",body:'[Department Health Republic of South Africa. 2004. South African ICD-10 Technical User Guide: Technical User Guide compiled by the Ministerial ICD-10 Task Team to Define Standards and Guidelines for ICD-10 Coding Implementation. Date: June 2014 of Version 2.00. Available from: http://www.health.gov.za]'},{id:"B61",body:'[Elliott J. Response to Rod Nicolson. In: Elliott J, Nicolson R, editors. Dyslexia: Developing the Debate. London: Bloomsbury; 2016. pp. 135-149]'},{id:"B62",body:'[Rossouw P, Kostyanaya M. Alexander Luria: Life, research and contribution to neuroscience. International Journal of Neuropsychotherapy. 2013;1(2):47-55]'},{id:"B63",body:'[Ministerial ICD-10 Task Team. 2014. South African ICD-10 Technical User Guide to Define Standards and Guidelines for ICD-10 Coding Implementation. June 2014 of Version 2.00. Available from: http://www.health.gov.za]'},{id:"B64",body:'[https://ldaamerica.org/types-of-learning-disabilities/]'},{id:"B65",body:'[Weindrich D, Jennen-Steinmetz C, Laucht M, Esser G, Schmidt MH. Epidemiology and prognosis of specific disorders of language and scholastic skills. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2000;9:186-194]'},{id:"B66",body:'[Potter CS. Using phonically based E-books to develop reading fluency. In: Gradinarova B, editor. E-Learning - Instructional Design, Organizational Strategy and Management. Rijeka: InTech; 2015. DOI: 10.5772/61607 Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/e-learning-instructional-design-organizational-strategy-and-management/using-phonically-based-e-books-to-develop-reading-fluency]'},{id:"B67",body:'[http://www.charlespotter.org]'},{id:"B68",body:'[Luria AR. The Working Brain: An Introduction to Neurospychology. Harmondsworth: Penguin Education; 1973]'},{id:"B69",body:'[Luria AR. Basic Problems of Neurolinguistics. Vol. 73. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter; 1976]'},{id:"B70",body:'[Potter CS. Training reading, writing and spelling fluency: Centre-periphery dissemination through interactive multimedia. In: Cvetković D, editor. Interactive Multimedia - Multimedia Production and Digital Storytelling. London: InIntech; 2019 Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/interactive-multimedia-multimedia-production-and-digital-storytelling/training-reading-writing-and-spelling-fluency-centre-periphery-dissemination-through-interactive-mul]'},{id:"B71",body:'[Potter CS. Activity-Based Online Learning: A Response to Dyslexia and COVID. London: IntechOpen; 2021. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.96359 Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/75959]'},{id:"B72",body:'[Potter CS. 2012. The 3 x 3 Oral Impress System: A Manual. Electronic copy available from my practice by emailing me at pottercs@gmail.com]'},{id:"B73",body:'[Potter CS. 2014. The Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System: A Manual. Electronic copy available from my practice by emailing me at pottercs@gmail.com]'},{id:"B74",body:'[Potter CS. 2018. Introducing the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System: A Manual for Parent Implementers. Electronic copy available from my practice by emailing me at pottercs@gmail.com]'},{id:"B75",body:'[Potter CS. 2018. Foundation Level Manual. Electronic copy available from my practice by emailing me at pottercs@gmail.com]'},{id:"B76",body:'[Potter CS. 2018. Pre-reading Level Manual. Electronic copy available from my practice by emailing me at pottercs@gmail.com]'},{id:"B77",body:'[Potter CS. 2018. Manual for Administration of Core Tests. Electronic copy available from my practice by emailing me at pottercs@gmail.com]'},{id:"B78",body:'[Potter CS. 2019. Introducing the 3 x 3 Oral Impress Method: A Manual for Parent Implementers. Electronic copy available from my practice by emailing me at pottercs@gmail.com]'},{id:"B79",body:'[Potter CS. 2019. Introducing the Phonic Inventories: A Parent Implementer\'s Manual. Electronic copy available from my practice by emailing me at pottercs@gmail.com]'},{id:"B80",body:'[Potter CS. 2019. Using Phonological Referencing to Develop Phonic Associations: A Guide for Parent Implementers. Electronic copy available from my practice by emailing me at pottercs@gmail.com]'},{id:"B81",body:'[Potter CS. 2020. Introducing the Targeted Analysis, Revisualisation and Sequential Spelling Programme: A Manual for Parent Implementers. Electronic copy available from my practice by emailing me at pottercs@gmail.com]'},{id:"B82",body:'[Potter CS. 2020. Introducing the Foundation Level Activity Books Using the Structured Language Experience Approach: A Parent Implementer’s Manual. Electronic copy available from my practice by emailing me at pottercs@gmail.com]'},{id:"B83",body:'[Potter CS. 2020. Using the Targeted Analysis, Revisualisation and Sequential Spelling Programme: Method for Teaching Targeted Revisualisation in Implementing the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System. Electronic copy available from my practice by emailing me at pottercs@gmail.com]'},{id:"B84",body:'[Potter CS. 2020. Using the Targeted Analysis, Revisualisation and Sequential Spelling Programme: Method for Developing Working Memory for Individual Words, Rhyming Word Families and Sequences of Words in Sentences. Electronic copy available from my practice by emailing me at pottercs@gmail.com]'},{id:"B85",body:'[Potter CS. 2020. Using the Targeted Analysis, Revisualisation and Sequential Spelling Programme: Method for Increasing Span of Working Memory for Sequences of Words and Sequences of Sentences. Electronic copy available from my practice by emailing me at pottercs@gmail.com]'},{id:"B86",body:'[Potter CS. 2021. Introducing the Pre-Reading and Foundation Level Materials: A Parent Implementer’s Manual. Electronic copy available from my practice by emailing me at pottercs@gmail.com]'},{id:"B87",body:'[Rayner K, Sereno SC, Lesch MF, Pollatsek A. Phonological codes are automatically activated during reading: Evidence from an eye movement priming paradigm. Psychological Science. 1995;6:26-32]'},{id:"B88",body:'[Heckelman RG. In: Heckelman RG, editor. A Neurological Impress Method of Reading Instruction. Merced, CA: Merced County Schools Office; 1962]'},{id:"B89",body:'[Heckelman RG. A neurological-impress method of remedial-reading instruction. Academic Therapy. 1969;4(4):277-282]'},{id:"B90",body:'[Heckelman RG. N.I.M. revisited. Academic Therapy. 1986;21(4):411-420]'},{id:"B91",body:'[Jorm A, Share D. Phonological recoding and reading acquisition. Applied PsychoLinguistics. 1983;4:103-147]'},{id:"B92",body:'[Jorm A, Share D, Maclean R, Matthews R. Phonological recoding skills and learning to read: A longitudinal study. Applied PsychoLinguistics. 1984;5:201-207]'},{id:"B93",body:'[Share DL. Phonological recoding and self-teaching: Sine qua non of reading acquisition. Cognition. 1995;55(2):151-218]'},{id:"B94",body:'[Dehaene S. Reading in the Brain. New York: Penguin Books; 2009]'},{id:"B95",body:'[Dehaene S. How We Learn: Why Brains Learn Better than Any Machine... for now. New York: Penguin Books; 2020]'},{id:"B96",body:'[Bowers PG, Wolf M. Theoretical links between naming speed, precise timing mechanisms and orthographic skill in dyslexia. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal. 1993;5:69-85]'},{id:"B97",body:'[Wolf M, Bowers PG. The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias. Journal of Educational Psychology. 1999;91:415-438]'},{id:"B98",body:'[Cutting LE, Denckla MB. The relationship of serial rapid naming and word reading in normally developing readers: An exploratory model. Reading and Writing. 2001;14:673-705]'},{id:"B99",body:'[Wolf M, Bowers PG, Biddle K. Naming-speed processes, timing, and reading: A conceptual review. Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2000;33(4):387-407]'},{id:"B100",body:'[Norton ES, Wolf M. Rapid automatized Naming (RAN) and reading fluency: Implications for understanding and treatment of reading disabilities. Annual Review of Psychology. 2012;63(1):427-452]'},{id:"B101",body:'[Araújo S, Inácio F, Francisco A, Faísca L, Petersson KM, Reis A. Component processes subserving rapid automatized naming in dyslexic and non-dyslexic readers. Dyslexia. 2011;17:242-255]'},{id:"B102",body:'[Araújo S, Reis A, Petersson KM, Faísca L. Rapid automatized naming and reading performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology. 2015;107(3):868-883]'},{id:"B103",body:'[Lemoine HE, Levy BA, Hutchinson A. Increasing the naming speed of poor readers: Representations formed across repetitions. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 1993;55(3):297-328]'},{id:"B104",body:'[De Jong PF, Vrielink LO. Rapid automatic naming: Easy to measure, hard to improve (quickly). Annals of Dyslexia. 2004;54:65-88]'},{id:"B105",body:'[Conrad NJ, Levy BA. Training letter and orthographic pattern recognition in children with slow naming speed. Reading and Writing. 2011;24:91-115]'},{id:"B106",body:'[Vander Stappen C, Van Reybroeck M. Phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming are independent phonological competencies with specific impacts on word reading and spelling: An intervention study. Frontiers in Psychology. 2018;9:320]'},{id:"B107",body:'[Potter CS. 2021. Using an Electronic Tachistoscope for Increasing Fluency in Reading, Writing and Spelling: A Guide for Parent Implementers. Electronic copy available from my practice by emailing me at pottercs@gmail.com]'},{id:"B108",body:'[Share DL. Phonological recoding and orthographic learning: A direct test of the self-teaching hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 1999;72(2):95-129]'},{id:"B109",body:'[Ehri LC. Reconceptualizing the development of sight word reading and its relationship to recoding. In: Gough PB, Ehri LE, Treiman R, editors. Reading Acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; 1992. pp. 105-143]'},{id:"B110",body:'[MacArthur CA, Graham S. Learning disabled students\' composing under three methods of text production: Handwriting, word processing, and dictation. Journal of Special Education. 1987;21:22-42]'},{id:"B111",body:'[McCutchen D. “Functional Automaticity” in Children\'s Writing: A Problem of Metacognitive Control. Written Communication. 1988;5(3):306-324]'},{id:"B112",body:'[McCutchen D. The magical number three, plus or minus two: Working memory in writing. In: Carlson JS, Butterfield EC, editors. Advances in Cognition and Educational Practice, VoL 2: Children\'s Writing: Toward a Process Theory of the Development of Skilled Writing. Greenwich, CI: JAI Press; 1994. pp. 1-30]'},{id:"B113",body:'[Swanson, H. L., Berninger, V. W. (1994). Working memory as a source of individual differences in children\'s writing. In J.S. Carlson, & E.C. Butterfield, Advances in Cognition and Educational Practice, VoL 2: Children\'s Writing: Toward a Process Theory of the Development of Skilled Writing. Greenwich, CI: JAI Press, pp. 31-56]'},{id:"B114",body:'[McCutchen D. A capacity theory of writing: Working memory in composition. Educational Psychology Review. 1996;8(3):299-325]'},{id:"B115",body:'[Newcomer PL, Barenbaum EM. The written composing ability of children with learning disabilities: A review of the literature from 1980 to 1990. J. Learn. Disab. 1991;24:578-593]'},{id:"B116",body:'[McCutchen D. Knowledge, processing, and working memory: Implications for a theory of writing. Educational Psychologist. 2000;35(1):13-23]'},{id:"B117",body:'[Seymour PHK, Aro M, Erskine JM. Foundation literacy acquisition in European orthographies. British Journal of Psychology. 2003;94:143-174]'},{id:"B118",body:'[Ziegler JC, Perry C, Ma-Wyatt A, Ladner D, Körne GS. Developmental dyslexia in different languages: Language specific or universal? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 2003;86:169-193]'},{id:"B119",body:'[Ziegler JC, Goswami U. Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across languages: A psycholinguistic grain size theory. Psychological Bulletin. 2005;131(1):3-29]'},{id:"B120",body:'[Serrano F, Defior S. Dyslexia speed problems in a transparent orthography. Annals of Dyslexia. 2008;58:81]'},{id:"B121",body:'[Hengeveld K, Leufkens S. Transparent and non-transparent languages. Folia Linguistica. 2018;52(1):139-175]'},{id:"B122",body:'[Ellis NC, Hooper AM. Why learning to read is easier in Welsh than in English: Orthographic transparency effects evinced with frequency-matched tests. Applied PsychoLinguistics. 2001;22:571-599]'},{id:"B123",body:'[Spencer LH, Hanley JR. Effects of orthographic transparency on reading and phoneme awareness in children learning to read in Wales. British Journal of Psychology. 2003;94(1):1-28]'},{id:"B124",body:'[De Sousa D, Greenop K, Fry J. Cross-language transfer of spelling strategies in English and Afrikaans Grade 3 children. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. 2011;14(1):49-67]'},{id:"B125",body:'[Bruck M, Genesee F, Caravolas M. A cross-linguistic study of early literacy acquisition. In: Blachman BA, editor. Foundations of Reading Acquisition and Dyslexia: Implications for Early Intervention. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum; 1997. pp. 145-162]'},{id:"B126",body:'[Geva E, Wade-Woolley L, Shany M. The concurrent development of spelling and decoding in two different orthographies. Journal of Reading Behavior. 1993;25:383-406]'},{id:"B127",body:'[Sprenger-Charolles L, Siegel LS, Bonnet P. Reading and spelling acquisition in French: The role of phonological mediation and orthographic factors. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 1998;68:134-165]'},{id:"B128",body:'[Wimmer H, Goswami U. The influence of orthographic consistency on reading development: Word recognition in English and German children. Cognition. 1994;51:91-103]'},{id:"B129",body:'[Landerl K, Wimmer H, Frith U. The impact of orthographic consistency on dyslexia: A German–English comparison. Cognition. 1997;63:315-334]'},{id:"B130",body:'[Landerl K. Influences of orthographic consistency and reading instruction on the development of nonword reading skills. European Journal of Psychology of Education. 2000;15:239-257]'},{id:"B131",body:'[Potter CS. Multimethod research. In: Wagner C, Kawulich B, Garner M, editors. Doing Social Research: A Global Context. New York: McGrawhill; 2012. pp. 161-174]'},{id:"B132",body:'[De Jong PF, van der Leij A. Developmental changes in the manifestation of a phonological deficit in dyslexic children learning to read a regular orthography. Journal of Educational Psychology. 2003;95:22-40]'},{id:"B133",body:'[Hanley JR, Masterson J, Spencer LH, Evans D. How long do the advantages of learning a transparent orthography last? An investigation of the reading skills and incidence of dyslexia in Welsh children at 10 years of age. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology. 2004;57(A):1393-1410]'},{id:"B134",body:'[Moats LC. How spelling supports reading: And why it is more regular and predictable than you may think. American Educator. 2005;6(12–22):12-43]'},{id:"B135",body:'[Moats L. Knowledge foundations for teaching reading and spelling. Reading and Writing. 2009;22:379-399]'},{id:"B136",body:'[Potter CS. 2020. Introducing the Targeted Analysis, Revisualisation and Sequential Spelling Programme: A Manual for Parent Implementers. Electronic copy available from my practice by emailing me at pottercs@gmail.com]'},{id:"B137",body:'[Rudduck J, Hopkins D, editors. Research as a Basis for Teaching: Readings from the Work of Lawrence Stenhouse. London: Heinemann; 1985]'},{id:"B138",body:'[Stenhouse L. An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development. London: Heinemann; 1975]'},{id:"B139",body:'[Stenhouse L. Curriculum Research and the Art of the Teacher. Curriculum. 1980;1((1), (Spring Issue)):40-44]'},{id:"B140",body:'[McIntosh K, Brown JA, Borgmeier CJ. Validity of functional behavior assessment within a response to intervention framework: Evidence, recommended practice, and future directions. Assessment for Effective Intervention. 2008;34(1):6-14]'},{id:"B141",body:'[Barnett D.W., Hawkins R., Prasse D., Graden J., Nantais M., Pan W. (2007). Decision-making validity in response to intervention. In: S.R. Jimerson, M.K. Burns & A.M. Van Der Heyden (Eds)., Handbook of Response to Intervention The Science and Practice of Assessment and Intervention. Boston, MA: Springer]'},{id:"B142",body:'[Spreen O. Learning disability, neurology, and long-term outcome: Some implications for the individual and for society. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. 1989;11(3):389-408]'},{id:"B143",body:'[Doehring DG. Reading Disabilities: The Interaction of Reading, Language, and Neuro-Psychological Deficits. New York: Academic Press; 1981]'},{id:"B144",body:'[Denckla MB. Biological correlates of learning and attention: What is relevant to learning disability and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder? Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics. 1996;17:114-119]'},{id:"B145",body:'[Cherkes-Julkowski M. Learning disability, attention-deficit disorder, and language impairment as outcomes of prematurity: A longitudinal descriptive study. Journal of Learning Disabilities. 1998;31(3):294-306]'},{id:"B146",body:'[Guba EG, Lincoln YS. Epistemological and methodological bases of naturalistic inquiry. Educational Communication & Technology Journal. 1982;30(4):233-252]'},{id:"B147",body:'[Guba EG, Lincoln YS. Naturalistic Inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications; 1985. p. 1985]'},{id:"B148",body:'[Dawes RM. Two methods for studying the incremental validity of a Rorschach variable. Psychological Assessment. 1999;11:297-302]'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Dr. Charles Potter’s Reading Programme is an intervention programme linked to the author’s practice as a psychologist. The programme uses electronic materials as the basis for intervention, and has assembled an extensive database of reading fluency books as well as developmental writing and spelling materials which are implemented using methods developed as part of my clinical work as a psychologist. Training is offered to prospective users of the materials and methods, and as a result there is now a network of parent, teacher and therapist users in different countries who connect with each other by cell phone and email."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"The ICD-10 (International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems – Tenth Revision) is a diagnostic coding standard owned and maintained by the World Health Organisation (WHO) [53]. The coding standard has been adopted by the National Health Information System of South Africa (NHISSA), and forms part of the health information strategy of the South African National Department of Health (NDoH). The standard serves as the diagnostic coding standard of choice in both the public and private healthcare sectors in South Africa for morbidity coding under Regulation 5(f) of the Medical Schemes Act 131 of 1998 [54]."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"The ICD is produced by a global health agency (The World Health Organisation) with a constitutional public health mission, while the DSM is produced by a national professional association (The American Psychiatric Association). While initially using different diagnostic classification systems, the DSM and ICD have over time become very similar, due to collaboration between the two organisations, with the result that the coding system utilised by the DSM-IV [55] is designed to correspond with codes from the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification, commonly referred to as the ICD-9-CM [56]. The coding system for the later revised DSM-IV TR [57] is designed to correspond with codes from the International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision, commonly referred to as ICD-10 [53], which has been adopted by South African medical aid societies."},{id:"fn4",explanation:"In South Africa, due to the similarity between the DSM IV and ICD classification systems, the DSM IV criteria have been used since August 2005 for the purpose of deriving ICD-10 codes by all healthcare providers except pharmacists, clinical support and allied healthcare providers [60]. The mandatory submission of ICD-10 codes by these groups was postponed until 1 January 2006. As from this date. The criteria have been referred to as the ICD DSMIV criteria, and ICD-10 coding has been mandatory for all health providers (including pharmacists and clinical support and allied healthcare providers). At time of writing the ICD DSMIV criteria have been phased out by South African medical aids and replaced by the ICD DSM V criteria."},{id:"fn5",explanation:"The author has worked with children under the care of a number of paediatricians and neurologists, but particularly closely with Dr. Graeme Maxwell, neurosurgeon, of Sandton Clinic until his retirement in 2020, and more recently with Dr. Dimitri Manoussakis, neurologist, of Flora Clinic. The stabilisation of focus and attentional difficulties as well as attendant attentional lapses and symptoms of cortical irritability has been an essential feature of the fluency-based interventions provided in the author’s practice. Behavioural, emotional, parental as well as chemical interventions are also likely to contribute to the gains made by children treated by the programmes described in this chapter."},{id:"fn6",explanation:"In South Africa, due to the similarity between the DSM IV and ICD classification systems, the DSM IV criteria have been used since August 2005 for the purpose of deriving ICD-10 codes by all healthcare providers except pharmacists, clinical support and allied healthcare providers. The DSM V criteria were published in May 2013, with both ICD-9-CM and ICD-10-CM codes assigned to each of the DSM V diagnoses [63]."},{id:"fn7",explanation:"The author has applied the response to intervention classification model working in association with Robert Thomas-Stark, psychologist, of the Centre for Therapeutic Excellence, Johannesburg. To maximise validity, this has involved longitudinal and cross-sectional assessment by two therapists, leading to a collaborative diagnostic report."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Charles Potter",address:"pottercs@gmail.com",affiliation:'- Educational Psychologist in Private Practice, Johannesburg, South Africa
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10910",type:"book",title:"Learning Disabilities",subtitle:"Neurobiology, Assessment, Clinical Features and Treatments",fullTitle:"Learning Disabilities - Neurobiology, Assessment, Clinical Features and Treatments",slug:"learning-disabilities-neurobiology-assessment-clinical-features-and-treatments",publishedDate:"March 30th 2022",bookSignature:"Sandro Misciagna",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10910.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-588-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-587-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-589-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"103586",title:null,name:"Sandro",middleName:null,surname:"Misciagna",slug:"sandro-misciagna",fullName:"Sandro Misciagna"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"340674",title:"Prof.",name:"Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Kosheleva",email:"kosheleva@gsom.spbu.ru",fullName:"Sofia Kosheleva",slug:"sofia-kosheleva",position:null,biography:"Professor, Organizational Behavior and Personnel Management Department\nRESEARCH\nOrganizational psychology and Organizational Behavior\nPsychological aspects of manager’s professionalism\nPsychology of decision making process in management",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/340674/images/15551_n.jpg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"77522",title:"Inclusion of Home-Centred Women",slug:"inclusion-of-home-centred-women",abstract:"Firms are highly interested in better inclusion of women with childcare commitments, especially for leadership positions, as reward for higher work groups’ gender diversity is valuable. Gender diversity became topical issue in corporate social responsibility of companies. However, many firms report that gender diversity is stalled, due to conflicting stereotypes about social roles of employees. Hakim’s influential preference theory suggests explanations of how women choose between productive and reproductive work. According to it, there are three types of employed women: home-centred, work-centred and adaptive workers, who combine both. Three options for preference assume three alternative frames of reference. Inclusion-related initiatives aim to reshape such frames by addressing employees’ identity work through readjusting managerially inspired discourses. Current research narrows the focus to the most vulnerable of them – home-centred women. We referred to responses of 721 mothers with previous working experience, from the biggest cities in Russia to find answers to the following questions: what affects home-centred women in their decision to return to the same employer after the maternity leave and what causes them to quit. We enriched empirical analysis with a theoretical review of initiatives helping to readjust corresponding stereotypes.",signatures:"Aleksandra Bordunos, Sofia Kosheleva and Anna Zyryanova",authors:[{id:"232705",title:"Mrs.",name:"Aleksandra",surname:"Bordunos",fullName:"Aleksandra Bordunos",slug:"aleksandra-bordunos",email:"abordunos@bk.ru"},{id:"340674",title:"Prof.",name:"Sofia",surname:"Kosheleva",fullName:"Sofia Kosheleva",slug:"sofia-kosheleva",email:"kosheleva@gsom.spbu.ru"},{id:"340675",title:"Mrs.",name:"Anna",surname:"Zyryanova",fullName:"Anna Zyryanova",slug:"anna-zyryanova",email:"zyryanova-av@ranepa.ru"}],book:{id:"9032",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"226654",title:"Dr.",name:"Miftachul",surname:"Huda",slug:"miftachul-huda",fullName:"Miftachul Huda",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"321584",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Gaio",slug:"cristina-gaio",fullName:"Cristina Gaio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"321647",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Coscia",slug:"cristina-coscia",fullName:"Cristina Coscia",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"321662",title:"Ms.",name:"Ouidad",surname:"Yousfi",slug:"ouidad-yousfi",fullName:"Ouidad Yousfi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"321872",title:"Dr.",name:"Shouvik Kumar",surname:"Guha",slug:"shouvik-kumar-guha",fullName:"Shouvik Kumar Guha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"321903",title:"Prof.",name:"Christa",surname:"Thomsen",slug:"christa-thomsen",fullName:"Christa Thomsen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322418",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eddy",surname:"Winarso",slug:"eddy-winarso",fullName:"Eddy Winarso",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322737",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Frederick",surname:"Bird",slug:"frederick-bird",fullName:"Frederick Bird",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"328223",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",surname:"Henriques",slug:"rita-henriques",fullName:"Rita Henriques",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"330264",title:"Dr.",name:"Anuradha",surname:"Roychowdhury",slug:"anuradha-roychowdhury",fullName:"Anuradha Roychowdhury",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-funding-funders-list",title:"List of Funders by Country",intro:"If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\nIMPORTANT: You must be a member or grantee of the listed funders in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds. Do not attempt to contact the funders if this is not the case.
",metaTitle:"List of Funders by Country",metaDescription:"If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/open-access-funding-funders-list",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"AUSTRALIA
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nAUSTRIA
\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\n\\n\\nCANADA
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nCHINA, PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nEUROPE
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nFINLAND
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nGERMANY
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nHUNGARY
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nINTERNATIONAL (OTHER)
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nIRELAND
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\n\\n\\nLITHUANIA
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nPORTUGAL
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nSLOVENIA
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nSWITZERLAND
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nTHE NETHERLANDS
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nUNITED KINGDOM
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\t- Department for International Development (See also the Implementation Guide)
\\n\\t- UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
\\n\\t- The Leverhulme Trust (See also the FAQs)
\\n\\t- Wellcome Library
\\n\\t- Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
\\n
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'AUSTRALIA
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nAUSTRIA
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nCANADA
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nCHINA, PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nEUROPE
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nFINLAND
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nGERMANY
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nHUNGARY
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nINTERNATIONAL (OTHER)
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nIRELAND
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nLITHUANIA
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nPORTUGAL
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nSLOVENIA
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nSWITZERLAND
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nTHE NETHERLANDS
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nUNITED KINGDOM
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\t- Department for International Development (See also the Implementation Guide)
\n\t- UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
\n\t- The Leverhulme Trust (See also the FAQs)
\n\t- Wellcome Library
\n\t- Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[],filtersByRegion:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"5,6,12,13,18"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11648",title:"Current Status and Ecological Aspects of Seabirds",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"7754b354f7deebdb8576189aefbdbc5c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Nawaz Rajpar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11648.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"183095",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Nawaz",surname:"Rajpar",slug:"muhammad-nawaz-rajpar",fullName:"Muhammad Nawaz Rajpar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11620",title:"Tomato - From Cultivation to Processing Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cdc23b5aad5d52bc0f0327c453ac7a1b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Pranas Viskelis, Dr. Dalia Urbonavičienė and Dr. Jonas Viskelis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11620.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"83785",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranas",surname:"Viskelis",slug:"pranas-viskelis",fullName:"Pranas Viskelis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11020",title:"Dietary Supplements - Challenges and Future Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2283ae2d0816c17ad46cbedbe4ce5e78",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Venketeshwer Rao and Dr. Leticia Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11020.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11627",title:"Oilseed Crops - Biology, Production and Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"010cdbbb6a716d433e632b350d4dcafe",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mirza Hasanuzzaman and MSc. Kamrun Nahar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11627.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11615",title:"Humus and Humic Substances - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a9b75be6b30278fca930c4dd560a8b2b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Abdelhadi Makan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11615.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"247727",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhadi",surname:"Makan",slug:"abdelhadi-makan",fullName:"Abdelhadi Makan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11802",title:"Honey - Composition and Properties",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"60482dae5e08f5b22b0c7a2749cdfc02",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Imran, Dr. Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad and Dr. Rabia Shabir Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11802.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"208646",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Imran",slug:"muhammad-imran",fullName:"Muhammad Imran"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10744",title:"Astrocytes in Brain Communication and Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8b6a8e2bb5f070305768945fdef8eed2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Denis Larrivee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10744.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11667",title:"Marine Pollution - Recent Developments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e524cd97843b075a724e151256773631",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Monique Mancuso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11667.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"318562",title:"Dr.",name:"Monique",surname:"Mancuso",slug:"monique-mancuso",fullName:"Monique Mancuso"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11638",title:"Meat Science and Nutrition - Recent Advances and Innovative Processing Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3923d89fcf837fac59c906f9694ab1f8",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Sajid Arshad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11638.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"192998",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Sajid",surname:"Arshad",slug:"muhammad-sajid-arshad",fullName:"Muhammad Sajid Arshad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11619",title:"Root Vegetables",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2c5535e66fed5abd8f80ee521b51b2d3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Prashant Kaushik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11619.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311935",title:"Dr.",name:"Prashant",surname:"Kaushik",slug:"prashant-kaushik",fullName:"Prashant Kaushik"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11644",title:"Structural and Molecular Aspects of DNA Repair",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"83dfefc2400d2d037281f1e25bbc544b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Subrata Kumar Dey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11644.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"31178",title:"Prof.",name:"Subrata",surname:"Dey",slug:"subrata-dey",fullName:"Subrata Dey"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11622",title:"Recent Advances in Grapes and Wine Production - New Perspectives to Improve the Quality",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"79cdf0cd1a7106746cca196c1292ed36",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. António M. Jordão, Prof. Renato Vasconcelos Botelho and Dr. Uros Miljic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11622.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"186821",title:"Prof.",name:"António",surname:"M. Jordão",slug:"antonio-m.-jordao",fullName:"António M. Jordão"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:43},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:12},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:61},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:29},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:124},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:12},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:3}],offset:12,limit:12,total:77},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11001",title:"Density Functional Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82d53383af78ab41eb982086c02fb2bb",slug:"density-functional-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11001.jpg",editors:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"943e56ccaaf19ff696d25aa638ae37d6",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11752",title:"Natural Drugs from Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a0a83c0822608ef7592bf16a5ed0ada4",slug:"natural-drugs-from-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11752.jpg",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10251",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",slug:"plankton-communities",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10584",title:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"421757c56a3735986055250821275a51",slug:"engineered-wood-products-for-construction",bookSignature:"Meng Gong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10584.jpg",editors:[{id:"274242",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",slug:"meng-gong",fullName:"Meng Gong"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9670",title:"Current Trends in Wheat Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89d795987f1747a76eee532700d2093d",slug:"current-trends-in-wheat-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9670.jpg",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9032",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f609bf3251d7cc7bae0099a4374adfc3",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility",bookSignature:"Beatrice Orlando",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9032.jpg",editors:[{id:"232969",title:"Prof.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Orlando",slug:"beatrice-orlando",fullName:"Beatrice Orlando"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10681",title:"Biodegradation Technology of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a6e10e02788092872fd249436898e97",slug:"biodegradation-technology-of-organic-and-inorganic-pollutants",bookSignature:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa and Kamila Cabral Mielke",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10681.jpg",editors:[{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9808",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fb6371607c2c6c02c6a2af8892765aba",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-patient-safety-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki and Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9808.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9544",title:"Global Trade in the Emerging Business Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fb8cb09b9599246add78d508a98273d5",slug:"global-trade-in-the-emerging-business-environment",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Jingbin Wang , Md. Samim Al Azad and Selim Ahmed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9544.jpg",editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4380},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3385,editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11001",title:"Density Functional Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82d53383af78ab41eb982086c02fb2bb",slug:"density-functional-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11001.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1875,editors:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"943e56ccaaf19ff696d25aa638ae37d6",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3842,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11752",title:"Natural Drugs from Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a0a83c0822608ef7592bf16a5ed0ada4",slug:"natural-drugs-from-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11752.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3008,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10251",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",slug:"plankton-communities",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1109,editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1010,editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10584",title:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"421757c56a3735986055250821275a51",slug:"engineered-wood-products-for-construction",bookSignature:"Meng Gong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10584.jpg",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3918,editors:[{id:"274242",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",slug:"meng-gong",fullName:"Meng Gong"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9670",title:"Current Trends in Wheat Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89d795987f1747a76eee532700d2093d",slug:"current-trends-in-wheat-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9670.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1654,editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9032",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f609bf3251d7cc7bae0099a4374adfc3",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility",bookSignature:"Beatrice Orlando",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9032.jpg",publishedDate:"March 16th 2022",numberOfDownloads:7686,editors:[{id:"232969",title:"Prof.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Orlando",slug:"beatrice-orlando",fullName:"Beatrice Orlando"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10681",title:"Biodegradation Technology of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a6e10e02788092872fd249436898e97",slug:"biodegradation-technology-of-organic-and-inorganic-pollutants",bookSignature:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa and Kamila Cabral Mielke",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10681.jpg",publishedDate:"April 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3444,editors:[{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10251",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",slug:"plankton-communities",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10853",title:"Recent Advances in Polynomials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e8671bae09ccaa8b8e276c639a737fc",slug:"recent-advances-in-polynomials",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10853.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10871",title:"Computed-Tomography (CT) Scan",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"966d8cf74fa27eea1b9cbc9a6ee94993",slug:"computed-tomography-ct-scan",bookSignature:"Reda R. Gharieb",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10871.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10903",title:"Genetically Modified Plants and Beyond",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d7ed4faab99c92cd4d676dc86501df9",slug:"genetically-modified-plants-and-beyond",bookSignature:"Idah Sithole Niang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10903.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"90172",title:"Prof.",name:"Idah",middleName:null,surname:"Sithole-Niang",slug:"idah-sithole-niang",fullName:"Idah Sithole-Niang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10904",title:"Fusarium",subtitle:"An Overview of the Genus",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49d9063e43f94bd1517d65fbc58b93c3",slug:"fusarium-an-overview-of-the-genus",bookSignature:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10904.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"100573",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Mahyar",middleName:null,surname:"Mirmajlessi",slug:"seyed-mahyar-mirmajlessi",fullName:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10654",title:"Brain-Computer Interface",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5308884068cc53ed31c6baba756857f",slug:"brain-computer-interface",bookSignature:"Vahid Asadpour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10654.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10676",title:"Recent Applications in Graph Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900c60742d224080732bd16bd25ccba8",slug:"recent-applications-in-graph-theory",bookSignature:"Harun Pirim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10676.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"146092",title:"Dr.",name:"Harun",middleName:null,surname:"Pirim",slug:"harun-pirim",fullName:"Harun Pirim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11196",title:"New Updates in E-Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6afaadf68e2a0a4b370ac5ceb5ca89c6",slug:"new-updates-in-e-learning",bookSignature:"Eduard Babulak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11196.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"10086",title:"Prof.",name:"Eduard",middleName:null,surname:"Babulak",slug:"eduard-babulak",fullName:"Eduard Babulak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"104",title:"Geology and Geophysics",slug:"geology-and-geophysics",parent:{id:"10",title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"},numberOfBooks:68,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:1462,numberOfWosCitations:2116,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1212,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2613,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"104",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10013",title:"Geothermal Energy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5f5277a1c0616ce6b35f4b44a4cac7a",slug:"geothermal-energy",bookSignature:"Basel I. Ismail",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10013.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62122",title:"Dr.",name:"Basel I.",middleName:"I.",surname:"Ismail",slug:"basel-i.-ismail",fullName:"Basel I. Ismail"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10556",title:"Sedimentary Petrology",subtitle:"Implications in Petroleum Industry",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"be71a270b1196a96cdc1162f64f9a966",slug:"sedimentary-petrology-implications-in-petroleum-industry",bookSignature:"Ali Ismail Al-Juboury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10556.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58570",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Ismail",surname:"Al-Juboury",slug:"ali-al-juboury",fullName:"Ali Al-Juboury"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9870",title:"Geodetic Sciences",subtitle:"Theory, Applications and Recent Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"505f1eb75eb5cdddda4ae1b5a779c654",slug:"geodetic-sciences-theory-applications-and-recent-developments",bookSignature:"Bihter Erol and Serdar Erol",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9870.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"75478",title:"Dr.",name:"Bihter",middleName:null,surname:"Erol",slug:"bihter-erol",fullName:"Bihter Erol"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9992",title:"Updates in Volcanology",subtitle:"Transdisciplinary Nature of Volcano Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9f71037866aa5450cf23c0fb74711d1",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-transdisciplinary-nature-of-volcano-science",bookSignature:"Károly Németh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9992.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Károly",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Károly Németh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9993",title:"Earthquakes",subtitle:"From Tectonics to Buildings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1f9859a0a16af53d80bf3952fba7a272",slug:"earthquakes-from-tectonics-to-buildings",bookSignature:"Walter Salazar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9993.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"236461",title:"Dr.",name:"Walter",middleName:null,surname:"Salazar",slug:"walter-salazar",fullName:"Walter Salazar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8157",title:"Engineering Geology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f650c6c80cd6fb768152350964432e8",slug:"engineering-geology",bookSignature:"Essa Lwisa and Hasan Arman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"272012",title:"Dr.",name:"Essa",middleName:"Georges",surname:"Lwisa",slug:"essa-lwisa",fullName:"Essa Lwisa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8620",title:"Mining Techniques",subtitle:"Past, Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b65658f81d14e9e57e49377869d3a575",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Abhay Soni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8620.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",middleName:null,surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7747",title:"Isotopes Applications in Earth Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a529383ebff555e89d4e3d39c7cf20f2",slug:"isotopes-applications-in-earth-sciences",bookSignature:"Rehab O. Abdel Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7747.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92718",title:"Prof.",name:"Rehab O.",middleName:"O.",surname:"Abdel Rahman",slug:"rehab-o.-abdel-rahman",fullName:"Rehab O. Abdel Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9247",title:"Mineralogy",subtitle:"Significance and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5149699e666cbb61c220646173769f18",slug:"mineralogy-significance-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ali Ismail Al-Juboury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9247.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58570",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Ismail",surname:"Al-Juboury",slug:"ali-al-juboury",fullName:"Ali Al-Juboury"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7677",title:"Forecasting Volcanic Eruptions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5afd431dd1f4f5081355b017fd17f237",slug:"forecasting-volcanic-eruptions",bookSignature:"Angelo Paone and Sung-Hyo Yun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7677.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182871",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelo",middleName:null,surname:"Paone",slug:"angelo-paone",fullName:"Angelo Paone"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8223",title:"Processing and Analysis of Hyperspectral Data",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"02b920d9c266e28152227280ff18ebbe",slug:"processing-and-analysis-of-hyperspectral-data",bookSignature:"Jie Chen, Yingying Song and Hengchao Li",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8223.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"218017",title:"Dr.",name:"Jie",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jie-chen",fullName:"Jie Chen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8257",title:"Seismic Waves",subtitle:"Probing Earth System",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6a7acf0b6350ff87cc629283bfe248f8",slug:"seismic-waves-probing-earth-system",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao and Genti Toyokuni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8257.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:68,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"17663",doi:"10.5772/24120",title:"Relationships between Lithospheric Flexure, Thrust Tectonics and Stratigraphic Sequences in Foreland Setting: the Southern Apennines Foreland Basin System, Italy",slug:"relationships-between-lithospheric-flexure-thrust-tectonics-and-stratigraphic-sequences-in-foreland-",totalDownloads:3830,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:47,abstract:null,book:{id:"1297",slug:"new-frontiers-in-tectonic-research-at-the-midst-of-plate-convergence",title:"New Frontiers in Tectonic Research",fullTitle:"New Frontiers in Tectonic Research - At the Midst of Plate Convergence"},signatures:"Salvatore Critelli, Francesco Muto,\nVincenzo Tripodi and Francesco Perri",authors:[{id:"55590",title:"Prof.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Critelli",slug:"salvatore-critelli",fullName:"Salvatore Critelli"},{id:"55592",title:"Prof.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Muto",slug:"francesco-muto",fullName:"Francesco Muto"},{id:"55593",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Tripodi",slug:"vincenzo-tripodi",fullName:"Vincenzo Tripodi"},{id:"85117",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Perri",slug:"francesco-perri",fullName:"Francesco Perri"}]},{id:"37859",doi:"10.5772/50009",title:"Plate Tectonic Evolution of the Southern Margin of Laurussia in the Paleozoic",slug:"plate-tectonic-evolution-of-the-southern-margin-of-laurussia-in-the-paleozoic",totalDownloads:5263,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:45,abstract:null,book:{id:"2227",slug:"tectonics-recent-advances",title:"Tectonics",fullTitle:"Tectonics - Recent Advances"},signatures:"Jan Golonka and Aleksandra Gawęda",authors:[{id:"16567",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Golonka",slug:"jan-golonka",fullName:"Jan Golonka"}]},{id:"17670",doi:"10.5772/20299",title:"The Qatar–South Fars Arch Development (Arabian Platform, Persian Gulf): Insights from Seismic Interpretation and Analogue Modelling",slug:"the-qatar-south-fars-arch-development-arabian-platform-persian-gulf-insights-from-seismic-interpreta",totalDownloads:8877,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:null,book:{id:"1297",slug:"new-frontiers-in-tectonic-research-at-the-midst-of-plate-convergence",title:"New Frontiers in Tectonic Research",fullTitle:"New Frontiers in Tectonic Research - At the Midst of Plate Convergence"},signatures:"C.R. Perotti, S. Carruba, M. Rinaldi, G. Bertozzi, L. Feltre and M. Rahimi",authors:[{id:"38310",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"Carruba",slug:"stefano-carruba",fullName:"Stefano Carruba"},{id:"42459",title:"Prof.",name:"Cesare",middleName:null,surname:"Perotti",slug:"cesare-perotti",fullName:"Cesare Perotti"},{id:"42460",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Rinaldi",slug:"marco-rinaldi",fullName:"Marco Rinaldi"},{id:"42465",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Bertozzi",slug:"giuseppe-bertozzi",fullName:"Giuseppe Bertozzi"},{id:"42466",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Feltre",slug:"luca-feltre",fullName:"Luca Feltre"},{id:"42467",title:"Dr.",name:"Mashallah",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi",slug:"mashallah-rahimi",fullName:"Mashallah Rahimi"}]},{id:"57384",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71049",title:"A Review: Remote Sensing Sensors",slug:"a-review-remote-sensing-sensors",totalDownloads:3617,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:"The cost of launching satellites is getting lower and lower due to the reusability of rockets (NASA, 2015) and using single missions to launch multiple satellites (up to 37, Russia, 2014). In addition, low-orbit satellite constellations have been employed in recent years. These trends indicate that satellite remote sensing has a promising future in acquiring high-resolution data with a low cost and in integrating high-resolution satellite imagery with ground-based sensor data for new applications. These facts have motivated us to develop a comprehensive survey of remote sensing sensor development, including the characteristics of sensors with respect to electromagnetic spectrums (EMSs), imaging and non-imaging sensors, potential research areas, current practices, and the future development of remote sensors.",book:{id:"6334",slug:"multi-purposeful-application-of-geospatial-data",title:"Multi-purposeful Application of Geospatial Data",fullTitle:"Multi-purposeful Application of Geospatial Data"},signatures:"Lingli Zhu, Juha Suomalainen, Jingbin Liu, Juha Hyyppä, Harri\nKaartinen and Henrik Haggren",authors:[{id:"213512",title:"Dr.",name:"Lingli",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"lingli-zhu",fullName:"Lingli Zhu"},{id:"213522",title:"Dr.",name:"Suomalainen",middleName:null,surname:"Juha",slug:"suomalainen-juha",fullName:"Suomalainen Juha"},{id:"213523",title:"Prof.",name:"Jingbin",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"jingbin-liu",fullName:"Jingbin Liu"},{id:"220941",title:"Prof.",name:"Juha",middleName:null,surname:"Hyyppä",slug:"juha-hyyppa",fullName:"Juha Hyyppä"},{id:"220942",title:"Prof.",name:"Harri",middleName:null,surname:"Kaartinen",slug:"harri-kaartinen",fullName:"Harri Kaartinen"},{id:"220943",title:"Prof.",name:"Henrik",middleName:null,surname:"Haggren",slug:"henrik-haggren",fullName:"Henrik Haggren"}]},{id:"60049",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75493",title:"GNSS Error Sources",slug:"gnss-error-sources",totalDownloads:3090,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"This chapter discusses the most serious sources of error affecting global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) signals, classifying these in a new way, according to their nature and/or effects. For instance, errors due to clock bias or drift are grouped together. Errors related to the signal propagation medium, too, are treated in the same way. GNSS errors need to be corrected to achieve accepted positioning and navigational accuracy. We provide a theoretical description for each source, supporting these with diagrams and analytical figures where possible. Some common metrics to measure the magnitude of GNSS errors, including the user equivalent range error (UERE) and the dilution of precision (DOP), are also presented. The chapter concludes with remarks on the significance of the sources of error.",book:{id:"6540",slug:"multifunctional-operation-and-application-of-gps",title:"Multifunctional Operation and Application of GPS",fullTitle:"Multifunctional Operation and Application of GPS"},signatures:"Malek Karaim, Mohamed Elsheikh and Aboelmagd Noureldin",authors:[{id:"227711",title:"Mr.",name:"Malek",middleName:null,surname:"Karaim",slug:"malek-karaim",fullName:"Malek Karaim"},{id:"240292",title:"Prof.",name:"Aboelmagd",middleName:null,surname:"Noureldin",slug:"aboelmagd-noureldin",fullName:"Aboelmagd Noureldin"},{id:"243124",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Elsheikh",slug:"mohamed-elsheikh",fullName:"Mohamed Elsheikh"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71931",title:"Open Pit Mining",slug:"open-pit-mining",totalDownloads:1525,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Open pit mining method is one of the surface mining methods that has a traditional cone-shaped excavation and is usually employed to exploit a near-surface, nonselective and low-grade zones deposits. It often results in high productivity and requires large capital investments, low operating costs, and good safety conditions. The main topics that will be discussed in this chapter will include an introduction into the general features of open pit mining, ore body characteristics and configurations, stripping ratios and stripping overburden methods, mine elements and parameters, open pit operation cycle, pit slope angle, stability of mine slopes, types of highwall failures, mine closure and reclamation, and different variants of surface mining methods including opencast mining, mountainous mining, and artisan mining.",book:{id:"8620",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",title:"Mining Techniques",fullTitle:"Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future"},signatures:"Awwad H. Altiti, Rami O. Alrawashdeh and Hani M. Alnawafleh",authors:[{id:"313182",title:"Prof.",name:"Rami",middleName:null,surname:"Alrawashdeh",slug:"rami-alrawashdeh",fullName:"Rami Alrawashdeh"},{id:"313522",title:"Dr.",name:"Awwad",middleName:null,surname:"Altiti",slug:"awwad-altiti",fullName:"Awwad Altiti"},{id:"313523",title:"Prof.",name:"Hani",middleName:null,surname:"Alnawafleh",slug:"hani-alnawafleh",fullName:"Hani Alnawafleh"}]},{id:"64027",title:"Stages of a Integrated Geothermal Project",slug:"stages-of-a-integrated-geothermal-project",totalDownloads:4234,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"A geothermal project constitutes two big stages: the exploration and the exploitation. Each one has a single task whose results allow defining the feasibility of a geothermal project, until achieving the construction and operation stage of the power generation plant. The first stage contains the area recognition, its limitation to the target, and elimination of external factors until defining a geothermal zone with characteristics to be commercially exploited. The main studies and analysis that can be applied during the exploration stage are listed, and the major indicator to continue with the project or suspend is the prefeasibility report. The major risks in the exploration stage are due to studies that are carried out on the surface; at this stage, the costs can be considered low. The main results of the exploration are the selection of sites to drill three or four initial wells. Each well provides a direct overview of the reservoir: depth, production thicknesses, thermodynamic parameters, and production characteristics. The drilling of three to four exploratory wells is recommended, as far as there is certainty of the feasibility of the project, and the development of the field begins with drilling of sufficient wells to feed the plant. In this stage, the cost increases, but the risks decrease.",book:{id:"7504",slug:"renewable-geothermal-energy-explorations",title:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations",fullTitle:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations"},signatures:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar, Georgina Izquierdo-Montalvo,\nDaniel Octavio Aragón-Gaspar and Denise N. Barreto-Rivera",authors:[{id:"258358",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Aragón-Aguilar",slug:"alfonso-aragon-aguilar",fullName:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar"}]},{id:"63059",title:"Generation, Evolution, and Characterization of Turbulence Coherent Structures",slug:"generation-evolution-and-characterization-of-turbulence-coherent-structures",totalDownloads:3518,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Turbulence stands as one of the most complicated and attractive physical phenomena. The accumulated knowledge has shown turbulent flow to be composed of islands of vortices and uniform-momentum regions, which are coherent in both time and space. Research has been concentrated on these structures, their generation, evolution, and interaction with the mean flow. Different theories and conceptual models were proposed with the aim of controlling the boundary layer flow and improving numerical simulations. Here, we review the different classes of turbulence coherent structures and the presumable generation mechanisms for each. The conceptual models describing the generation of turbulence coherent structures are generally classified under two categories, namely, the bottom-up mechanisms and the top-down mechanisms. The first assumes turbulence to be generated near the surface by some sort of instabilities, whereas the second assigns an active role to the large outer layer structures, perhaps the turbulent bulges. Both categories of models coexist in the flow with the first dominating turbulence generation at low Reynolds number and the second at high Reynolds number, such as the case in the atmospheric boundary layer.",book:{id:"7214",slug:"turbulence-and-related-phenomena",title:"Turbulence and Related Phenomena",fullTitle:"Turbulence and Related Phenomena"},signatures:"Zambri Harun and Eslam Reda Lotfy",authors:[{id:"243152",title:"Dr.",name:"Zambri",middleName:null,surname:"Harun",slug:"zambri-harun",fullName:"Zambri Harun"},{id:"252195",title:"Dr.",name:"Eslam",middleName:null,surname:"Reda",slug:"eslam-reda",fullName:"Eslam Reda"}]},{id:"64562",title:"Electrical Resistivity Tomography: A Subsurface-Imaging Technique",slug:"electrical-resistivity-tomography-a-subsurface-imaging-technique",totalDownloads:3152,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is a popular geophysical subsurface-imaging technique and widely applied to mineral prospecting, hydrological exploration, environmental investigation and civil engineering, as well as archaeological mapping. This chapter offers an overall review of technical aspects of ERT, which includes the fundamental theory of direct-current (DC) resistivity exploration, electrode arrays for data acquisition, numerical modelling methods and tomographic inversion algorithms. The section of fundamental theory shows basic formulae and principle of DC resistivity exploration. The section of electrode arrays summarises the previous study on all traditional-electrode arrays and recommends 4 electrode arrays for data acquisition of surface ERT and 3 electrode arrays for cross-hole ERT. The section of numerical modelling demonstrates an advanced version of finite-element method, called Gaussian quadrature grid approach, which is advantageous to a numerical simulation of ERT for complex geological models. The section of tomographic inversion presents the generalised standard conjugate gradient algorithms for both the l1- and l2-normed inversions. After that, some synthetic and real imaging examples are given to show the near-surface imaging capabilities of ERT.",book:{id:"8361",slug:"applied-geophysics-with-case-studies-on-environmental-exploration-and-engineering-geophysics",title:"Applied Geophysics with Case Studies on Environmental, Exploration and Engineering Geophysics",fullTitle:"Applied Geophysics with Case Studies on Environmental, Exploration and Engineering Geophysics"},signatures:"Bing Zhou",authors:null},{id:"17670",title:"The Qatar–South Fars Arch Development (Arabian Platform, Persian Gulf): Insights from Seismic Interpretation and Analogue Modelling",slug:"the-qatar-south-fars-arch-development-arabian-platform-persian-gulf-insights-from-seismic-interpreta",totalDownloads:8877,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:null,book:{id:"1297",slug:"new-frontiers-in-tectonic-research-at-the-midst-of-plate-convergence",title:"New Frontiers in Tectonic Research",fullTitle:"New Frontiers in Tectonic Research - At the Midst of Plate Convergence"},signatures:"C.R. Perotti, S. Carruba, M. Rinaldi, G. Bertozzi, L. Feltre and M. Rahimi",authors:[{id:"38310",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"Carruba",slug:"stefano-carruba",fullName:"Stefano Carruba"},{id:"42459",title:"Prof.",name:"Cesare",middleName:null,surname:"Perotti",slug:"cesare-perotti",fullName:"Cesare Perotti"},{id:"42460",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Rinaldi",slug:"marco-rinaldi",fullName:"Marco Rinaldi"},{id:"42465",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Bertozzi",slug:"giuseppe-bertozzi",fullName:"Giuseppe Bertozzi"},{id:"42466",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Feltre",slug:"luca-feltre",fullName:"Luca Feltre"},{id:"42467",title:"Dr.",name:"Mashallah",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi",slug:"mashallah-rahimi",fullName:"Mashallah Rahimi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"104",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81184",title:"Introduction to the Volcanology",slug:"introduction-to-the-volcanology",totalDownloads:48,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102771",abstract:"The main volcanological concept is shown and expressed so that any volcano can be understood easily. Volcanic products are listed and explained in plain language from lava flow to various pyroclastic products. The volcanic products have been explained schematically and their textural, field relationships characteristics are highlighted. The origin of magma within the interior of the Earth is also explained and the link between mantle and crust has been shown. The relationship among crust, mantle, and core has been highlighted embracing the source-to-surface model. An updated explanation of the Pyroclastic Density Currents (PDC) has been done to perceive their danger. Some of the most successful Volcanology books have been used. This will help the students, with a passion for Volcanology, to understand the principles of Volcanology.",book:{id:"10851",title:"Progress in Volcanology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10851.jpg"},signatures:"Angelo Paone and Sung-Hyo Yun"},{id:"79332",title:"The Geothermal Power Plants of Amiata Volcano, Italy: Impacts on Freshwater Aquifers, Seismicity and Air",slug:"the-geothermal-power-plants-of-amiata-volcano-italy-impacts-on-freshwater-aquifers-seismicity-and-ai",totalDownloads:129,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100558",abstract:"Production of geothermal energy for electricity at Amiata Volcano uses flash-type power plants with cooling towers that evaporate much of the geothermal fluid to the atmosphere to condense the geothermal vapour extracted. Because the flash occurs also within the geothermal reservoir, it causes a significant depressurization within it that, in turns, results in a drop of the water table inside the volcano between 200 and 300 m. The flow rates of natural springs around the volcano have also substantially decreased or ceased since the start of geothermal energy exploitation. Continuous recording of aquifer conditions shows substantial increases in salinity (>20%) and temperature (>2°C) as the water table falls below about 755–750 m asl. In addition to hydrologic impacts, there are also a large numbers of induced earthquakes, among which the ML 3.9, April 1, 2000 earthquake that generated significant damage in the old villages and rural houses. Relevant impacts on air quality occur when emissions are considered on a per-MW basis. For example, CO2+CH4 emissions at Amiata are comparable to those of gas-fired power plants, while the acid-rain potential is about twice that of coal-fired power plants. Also, a significant emission of primary and secondary fine particles is associated with the cooling towers. These particles contain heavy metals and are enriched in sodium, vanadium, zinc, phosphorous, sulphur, tantalium, caesium, thallium, thorium, uranium, and arsenic relative to comparable aerosols collected in Florence and Arezzo. Measurements have shown that mercury emitted at Amiata comprises 42% of the mercury emitted from all Italian industries, while an additional comparable amount is emitted from the other geothermal power plants of Tuscany. We believe that the use of air coolers in place of the evaporative cooling towers, as suggested in 2010 by the local government of Tuscany, could have and can now drastically reduced the environmental impact on freshwater and air. On the opposite side of the coin, air-coolers would increase the amount of reinjection, increasing the risk of induced seismicity. We conclude that the use of deep borehole heat exchangers could perhaps be the only viable solution to the current geothermal energy environmental impacts.",book:{id:"10851",title:"Progress in Volcanology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10851.jpg"},signatures:"Andrea Borgia, Alberto Mazzoldi, Luigi Micheli, Giovanni Grieco, Massimo Calcara and Carlo Balducci"},{id:"78173",title:"Miocene Volcaniclastic Environments Developed in the Distal Sector of the Bermejo Basin, Argentina",slug:"miocene-volcaniclastic-environments-developed-in-the-distal-sector-of-the-bermejo-basin-argentina",totalDownloads:125,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99081",abstract:"During the Miocene, in the distal sectors of the Bermejo Basin, a complex relationship developed between a floodplain and contemporary volcanic activity. Seven stages of sedimentation are established to interpret this paleoenvironmental relationship. Stage I corresponds to the development of the floodplain previous to pyroclastic activity; in Stage II, pyroclastic activity is manifested by fall deposits and dry pyroclastic surges. A probable calm in the volcanic activity, associated with exceptional rains, generates laharic deposits (Stage III). Stage IV is dry pyroclastic surges that collapse the floodplain. Subsequently, the river system is reestablished (Stage V) under a regime of low to null volcanic activity. During Stages VI and VII, thick deposits of dry and wet pyroclastic surges, which have records of contemporary seismic activity. The presence of deformational structures within the pyroclastic deposits and lahars indicate that the volcanic centers were in distant areas. The volcanism that generated these deposits is probably associated with the migration to the east of the Miocene volcanic arc of the Cordillera de Los Andes or could be associate with the volcanism of the Sierra de Famatina.",book:{id:"10851",title:"Progress in Volcanology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10851.jpg"},signatures:"José L. Lagos and Ana M. Combina"},{id:"77349",title:"Effusive Badi Silicic Volcano (Central Afar, Ethiopian Rift); Sparse Evidence for Pyroclastic Rocks",slug:"effusive-badi-silicic-volcano-central-afar-ethiopian-rift-sparse-evidence-for-pyroclastic-rocks",totalDownloads:124,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98558",abstract:"We report field observation, textural description (thin section and scanning electron microscope (SEM)) and mineral chemistry (backscattered electron imaging and dispersive X-ray analysis) for rhyolitic obsidian lavas from previously under described effusive Badi volcano, central Afar within the Ethiopian rift. These rhyolitic obsidian lavas are compositionally homogeneous and contain well developed flow bands. Textural analysis is undertaken to understand the formation of flow band, and to draw inferences on the mechanism of emplacement of this silicic volcano. Flow band arises from variable vesicularity (i.e., alternating domains of vesicular, light glass and non-vesicular, brown glass). Such textural heterogeneities have been developed during distinct cooling and degassing of the melt in the conduit.",book:{id:"10851",title:"Progress in Volcanology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10851.jpg"},signatures:"Dereje Ayalew, David Pyle and David Ferguson"},{id:"77437",title:"Petrology and Geochemistry of Nakora Ring Complex with Emphasis on Tectonics and Magmatism, Neoproterozoic Malani Igneous Suite, Western Rajasthan, India",slug:"petrology-and-geochemistry-of-nakora-ring-complex-with-emphasis-on-tectonics-and-magmatism-neoproter",totalDownloads:113,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98609",abstract:"The present contribution reports on the field, petrographical and geochemical observations of the volcano-plutonic rocks of the Nakora Ring Complex (NRC) from the Neoproterozoic, Malani Igneous Suite (MIS) (Northwestern Peninsular India) and confers about their magmatic evolution and tectonic implications. Three magmatic phases are notable in the NRC which is Extrusive, Intrusive and Dyke phase where with small quantities of basaltic flows was initiated and accompanied by extensive/voluminous acidic flows. Petrographically, rhyolite shows flow bands, porphyritic, spherulitic, aphyritic and perlitic textures whereas basalt flows are distinguished by the presence of labradorite in lath-shaped crystals (plagioclase feldspar) and clinopyroxene (augite). The presence of high silica and total alkalis in NRC rocks, as well as high field strength elements (HFSE), enrichment of trace elements and negative anomalies of Sr., Eu, P, and Ti indicates that the emplacement of the lava flows was controlled by complex magmatic processes such as fractional crystallization, crustal contamination and partial melting. The association of basalt-trachyte-rhyolite means that the magma chamber was supplied a significant amount of heat to the crust before the eruption. Moreover, a volcanic vent was also reported at NRC where rhyolite was associated with agglomerate, volcanic breccia, perlite and tuff. The current research proposed that the Neoproterozoic magmatism at NRC was controlled by rift-related mechanism and produced from crustal source where the heat was supplied by mantle plume.",book:{id:"10851",title:"Progress in Volcanology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10851.jpg"},signatures:"Naresh Kumar and Radhika Sharma"},{id:"76904",title:"Tropical Volcanic Residual Soil",slug:"tropical-volcanic-residual-soil",totalDownloads:217,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98285",abstract:"In West Lampung, Sumatra, Indonesia, tropical volcanic residual soils are formed from weathering of volcanic breccias in hydrothermal alteration areas with a thickness of up to 20 m. This soil has the characteristics of clayey silt, low to high plasticity, brownish-red color, has the potential to swelling, easily eroded, and slide when it is saturated, and contains the minerals kaolinite, halloysite, illite, dickite, nacrite, montmorillonite, despujolsite, hematite, and magnetite. The results showed that this soil can cause corrosion of steel and is widely used by the community as a medium for growing plants and vegetables and as a foundation for infrastructure (for example, houses). The volcanic residual soil of the research area had Low Rare Earth Element (LREE) potential and specific uses. The soil with characteristic low plasticity has Liquid Limit (LL) brine value <50% will be suitable for agriculture purposes, building foundations, and earth construction. At the same time, the other category is soil with intermediate to high plasticity characteristics, which has an Liquid Limit (LL) brine value >50%, was more ideal for the primary forest.",book:{id:"10851",title:"Progress in Volcanology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10851.jpg"},signatures:"Prahara Iqbal, Dicky Muslim, Zufialdi Zakaria, Haryadi Permana, Arifan Jaya Syahbana, Nugroho Aji Satriyo, Yunarto Yunarto, Jakah Jakah and Nur Khoirullah"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published more than ninety scientific papers and serves as an editorial board member for Plant Methods, Biomolecules, and International Journal of Molecular Sciences.",institutionString:"National University of Kaohsiung",institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:43,paginationItems:[{id:"81796",title:"Apoptosis-Related Diseases and Peroxisomes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105052",signatures:"Meimei Wang, Yakun Liu, Ni Chen, Juan Wang and Ye Zhao",slug:"apoptosis-related-diseases-and-peroxisomes",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81723",title:"Peroxisomal Modulation as Therapeutic Alternative for Tackling Multiple Cancers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104873",signatures:"Shazia Usmani, Shadma Wahab, Abdul Hafeez, Shabana Khatoon and Syed Misbahul Hasan",slug:"peroxisomal-modulation-as-therapeutic-alternative-for-tackling-multiple-cancers",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81638",title:"Aging and Neuropsychiatric Disease: A General Overview of Prevalence and Trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103102",signatures:"Jelena Milić",slug:"aging-and-neuropsychiatric-disease-a-general-overview-of-prevalence-and-trends",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81566",title:"New and Emerging Technologies for Integrative Ambulatory Autonomic Assessment and Intervention as a Catalyst in the Synergy of Remote Geocoded Biosensing, Algorithmic Networked Cloud Computing, Deep Learning, and Regenerative/Biomic Medicine: Further Real",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104092",signatures:"Robert L. Drury",slug:"new-and-emerging-technologies-for-integrative-ambulatory-autonomic-assessment-and-intervention-as-a-",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Autonomic Nervous System - Special Interest Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10835.jpg",subseries:{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7264",title:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7264.jpg",slug:"calcium-and-signal-transduction",publishedDate:"October 24th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"John N. Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",biography:"Full Professor and Vice Chair, Division of Pharmacology, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine. He received his B.S. Degree in Biology at La Sierra University, Riverside California (1980) and a PhD in Pharmacology from Loma Linda University School of Medicine (1988). Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine 1989-1992 with a focus on autonomic nerve function in blood vessels and the impact of aging on the function of these nerves and overall blood vessel function. Twenty years of research funding and served on NIH R01 review panels, Editor-In-Chief of Edorium Journal of Aging Research. Serves as a peer reviewer for biomedical journals. Military Reserve Officer serving with the 100 Support Command, 100 Troop Command, 40 Infantry Division, CA National Guard.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6925",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6925.jpg",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Angel Català",hash:"a9e90d2dbdbc46128dfe7dac9f87c6b4",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6924",title:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6924.jpg",slug:"adenosine-triphosphate-in-health-and-disease",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Gyula Mozsik",hash:"04106c232a3c68fec07ba7cf00d2522d",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",editors:[{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"8008",title:"Antioxidants",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8008.jpg",slug:"antioxidants",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Emad Shalaby",hash:"76361b4061e830906267933c1c670027",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Antioxidants",editors:[{id:"63600",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",middleName:null,surname:"Shalaby",slug:"emad-shalaby",fullName:"Emad Shalaby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63600/images/system/63600.png",biography:"Dr. Emad Shalaby is a professor of biochemistry on the Biochemistry Department Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University. He\nreceived a short-term scholarship to carry out his post-doctoral\nstudies abroad, from Japan International Cooperation Agency\n(JICA), in coordination with the Egyptian government. Dr.\nShalaby speaks fluent English and his native Arabic. He has 77\ninternationally published research papers, has attended 15 international conferences, and has contributed to 18 international books and chapters.\nDr. Shalaby works as a reviewer on over one hundred international journals and is\non the editorial board of more than twenty-five international journals. He is a member of seven international specialized scientific societies, besides his local one, and\nhe has won seven prizes.",institutionString:"Cairo University",institution:{name:"Cairo University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{paginationCount:617,paginationItems:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. Neiva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/213786/images/system/213786.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Beira Interior",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"39275",title:"Prof.",name:"Herbert Ryan",middleName:null,surname:"Marini",slug:"herbert-ryan-marini",fullName:"Herbert Ryan Marini",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/39275/images/9459_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Messina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"196218",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquale",middleName:null,surname:"Cianci",slug:"pasquale-cianci",fullName:"Pasquale Cianci",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196218/images/system/196218.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Foggia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{},publishedBooks:{},testimonialsList:[{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/340674",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"340674"},fullPath:"/profiles/340674",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()