Research framework.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-571-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-570-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-599-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dd81bc60e806fddc63d1ae22da1c779a",bookSignature:"Dr. Sebahattin Demirkan and Dr. Irem Demirkan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10818.jpg",keywords:"Decision Making, Blockchain, Accounting, Earnings Management, Strategic Alliances, Innovation, Performance, Corporate Governance, Accounting Quality, Digital Assets, Internationalization, MNCs",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 28th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 25th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 26th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 13th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Academician in the area of accounting who believes in the impact of interdisciplinary research. 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Such complexity is also increased by other external factors such as political, legal, cultural, technological and financial, which resulted in project risk. Project Management Institute (PMI) defines project risk as “an uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or negative effect on a project objective. … there will be a consequence on the project cost, schedule, or quality” [2]. Due to the increasing size and complexity, a wide variety of risks impact the successful completion of the construction projects. In other words, risks are threats to project success [3]. Despite trying to eliminate all the risks in construction projects is impossible, a formal risk management process is required to manage them effectively [4].
\nIn this regard, a systematic risk management process can help construction companies to identify not only the involved risks of projects but also to mitigate impacts of those uncertainties in different phases of projects [5]. The term “risk management” can be broadly defined as work that classifies, analyses and responds to unpredictable risks that exist in the processes of project implementation [6]. Risk management is about defining sources of uncertainty (risk identification), estimating the consequences of uncertain events/conditions (risk analysis), generating response strategies in the light of expected outcomes and, finally, based on the feedback received on actual outcomes and risks emerged, carrying out identification, analysis and response generation steps repetitively throughout the life cycle of a project to ensure that the project objectives are met [7]. Briefly, a traditional risk management process consists of risk identification, risk analysis or assessment, risk response or mitigation and risk monitoring and control [2, 8].
\nThe initial step of risk management is risk identification. Risk identification is the process of identifying individual project risks as well as sources of overall project risk and documenting their characteristics [2]. Although it is difficult to define and measure, it is very important to identify potential risks as early as possible. In order to manage risks properly, risk identification should be performed along with the project’s initiation stage. Construction companies usually benefit from risk checklists [9, 10] and risk breakdown structures [9, 11, 12] for the identification.
\nRisk analysis/assessment is the process that focuses on evaluating and seeking the likelihood in which potential risks in the risk identification stage may occur [13] and it is implemented by two approaches: qualitative risk analysis and quantitative risk analysis. In qualitative risk analysis process, the main focuses are rating and prioritizing individual project risks for further analysis or action by assessing their probability of occurrence and severity of consequence/impact as well as other characteristics [2, 14]. On the other hand, quantitative risk analysis process focuses on numerically analyzing the combined effect of identified individual project risks and other sources of uncertainty on overall project objectives [2]. Researchers employed Delphi [15, 16, 17], AHP/fuzzy AHP [10, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23] and Monte Carlo simulation [24, 25, 26] to assess risks in their studies.
\nRisk response process consists of developing options, selecting strategies and agreeing on actions to address overall project risk exposure, as well as to treat individual project risks, and finally implementing agreed-upon risk response plans [2]. Dealing with negative consequences, risk response is also referred to as risk mitigation, risk elimination, risk prevention and risk reduction [8]. Appropriate risk response strategies must be selected to reduce risk exposure once the risks have been identified and analyzed [27]. Researchers widely agree that the selection of risk response strategy is an important issue in project risk management [28, 29, 30]. These strategies are avoiding, reducing or accepting project risks.
\nRisk monitoring and control process is the process of monitoring the implementation of agreed-upon risk response plans, tracking identified risks, identifying and analyzing new risks and evaluating risk process effectiveness throughout the project [2]. This step ensures that all information generated by risk management process is captured, used and maintained throughout the construction period [31].
\nThe subject of risk management in construction projects has been increasingly studying since the 1980s. Most of these studies have focused on how risks are identified or analyzed/assessed in different countries such as Australia [32, 33], China [23, 34, 35], Ghana [36], Hong Kong [37, 38], India [39, 40], Indonesia [41, 42], Italy [43], Korea [44], Malaysia [31, 45], Mexico [46], New Zealand [47, 48], Nigeria [49, 50], Poland [51], Singapore [52, 53], Spain [54], Sri Lanka [55], Tanzania [56], the United Kingdom [57, 58], the United States of America [59, 60], Vietnam [61, 62] and Zambia [63]. These studies mostly used survey/interviews or case studies. Additionally, researchers proposed that various theoretical and mathematical models are also proposed for managing risks effectively and efficiently.
\nWhile literature is rich in papers addressing risk management in construction projects, few papers have researched what has already been presented. Edwards and Bowen’s [64] research is one of the exceptional studies which analytically reviews the construction risk literature over the period from 1960 to 1997. Given that two decades have passed since then, it is appropriate to review the progress in risk management research in construction. In this regard, this paper aims to analyze current literature and provide a guide for future studies on risk management in construction projects.
\nTo review the risk management literature comprehensively, a twofold procedure was adopted in this study. At first, a systematic literature review was conducted to identify the key scientific contributions in the risk management domain. The findings of the review, then, were statistically synthesized through a meta-analytical approach which is an associated procedure of systematic literature review.
\nSystematic literature review adopts a replicable, scientific and transparent process that aims to minimize bias through exhaustive literature searches of published studies [65]. On the other hand, meta-analysis helps to analyse these studies by interrelating focused areas and identifying emerging or neglected themes [66].
\nIn this regard, this study has been organized in two stages represented in Figure 1.
\nStages of the systematic literature review.
The first stage concentrates on searching for relevant papers using scientific databases, namely, American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), Elsevier, Emerald and Taylor & Francis. From these databases, relevant papers were searched in the following construction and built environment-related journals: Automation in Construction (AC), International Journal of Project Management (IJPM), Journal of Cleaner Production (JCP), Architectural Engineering and Design Management (AEDM), Construction Management and Economics (CME), International Journal of Construction Education and Research (JCER), International Journal of Construction Management (IJCM), Journal of Civil Engineering and Management (CEM), Journal of Construction Engineering and Management (JCEM), Journal of Management in Engineering (JME), Journal of Legal Affairs and Dispute Resolution in Engineering and Construction (LADR), Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice (PEEP), Journal of Architectural Engineering (JAE), Engineering Construction and Architectural Management (ECAM), Construction Innovation (CI), Journal of Financial Management of Property (JFMP), Facilities (F), Built Environment Project and Asset Management (BEPAM), Journal of Facilities Management (JFM), International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation (JBPA) and Management Decision (MD).
\nThe keywords for searching were designated as “risk management” and “construction projects,” and these keywords were searched in title/abstract/keyword fields of the selected journals in the time period between 1980 and 2018. At this point, a total of 471 papers, excluding book reviews, forums and editorials, were retrieved for further analysis. Eventually, 247 papers were considered as the most relevant to the research aim and were subject to a detailed review.
\nIn the second stage, a meta-classification framework, adopted from Betts and Lansley [66], was designed as presented in Table 1. Accordingly, the framework has nine categories, such as year, scientific database, journal, keyword, research focus, level of analysis, source of information, research output and future directions with their related subcategories.
\nCategory | \nSubcategory | \n
---|---|
Year | \nPublication date of the article | \n
Scientific database | \nASCE, Elsevier, Emerald, Taylor & Francis | \n
Journal | \nName of the journals | \n
Keyword | \n“Risk management” and “construction projects” | \n
Research focus | \nRisk identification Risk assessment/analysis Risk evaluation Risk response Risk monitoring and control | \n
Level of analysis | \nProject level Firm level Sector level | \n
Source of information | \nReview Case study Survey/interview | \n
Research output | \nGeneral insights and descriptions Statistical results Theoretical model Mathematical model Experimental/prototype model | \n
Future directions | \nFuture research identified in the articles | \n
Research framework.
The 247 papers were analyzed according to this framework and classified by one of these subcategories. In some cases, a paper may be classified in multiple subcategories, resulting in the sum of the papers distributed among the subcategories exceeding the number of papers analyzed.
\nRisk management in construction projects was analysed according to the meta-classification framework given in Table 1. It is found that 247 papers have been published on “risk management” in the specified time period in the widely accepted construction and built environment-related peer-reviewed journals.
\nTable 2 shows the chronological distribution of the selected papers by a 5-year time period. Accordingly, risk management subject shows an increasing tendency over the years. In addition, half of these papers have been published in the ASCE’s Journal of Construction Engineering and Management.
\nDatabase | \nJournal | \n≤1995 | \n1996–2000 | \n2001–2005 | \n2006–2010 | \n2011–2015 | \n>2015 | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Elsevier | \nAC | \n\n | \n | \n | 3 | \n4 | \n\n |
IJPM | \n1 | \n1 | \n2 | \n4 | \n4 | \n1 | \n|
JCP | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 3 | \n|
Taylor & Francis | \nAEDM | \n\n | \n | \n | 1 | \n1 | \n1 | \n
CME | \n1 | \n4 | \n2 | \n6 | \n2 | \n\n | |
JCER | \n\n | \n | \n | 1 | \n1 | \n\n | |
IJCM | \n\n | \n | 1 | \n1 | \n4 | \n5 | \n|
CEM | \n\n | \n | \n | 1 | \n6 | \n3 | \n|
ASCE | \nJCEM | \n6 | \n9 | \n12 | \n27 | \n29 | \n23 | \n
JME | \n\n | \n | 1 | \n2 | \n11 | \n11 | \n|
LADR | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 2 | \n|
PEEP | \n\n | 2 | \n\n | 3 | \n2 | \n\n | |
JAE | \n\n | 1 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | |
Emerald | \nECAM | \n\n | 3 | \n3 | \n2 | \n6 | \n6 | \n
CI | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 2 | \n|
JFMP | \n\n | \n | \n | 4 | \n\n | 1 | \n|
F | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | 1 | \n2 | \n|
BEPAM | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | 2 | \n1 | \n|
JFM | \n\n | \n | 1 | \n1 | \n4 | \n1 | \n|
JBPA | \n\n | \n | 1 | \n\n | \n | \n | |
MD | \n\n | \n | 1 | \n\n | \n | \n | |
Total | \n8 | \n20 | \n24 | \n56 | \n77 | \n62 | \n
Distribution of the selected papers within the time span.
Table 3 presents the research focus of the published papers over the years. As given in Table 3, research focus was classified into ten categories. These categories include four processes of risk management and their multiple combinations. It is noticeable that researchers studied the risk management subject whether discussing one of the processes, such as risk identification, risk analysis/assessment, risk response and risk monitoring and control, or examining them through a holistic approach. Despite most of the papers focused only on risk analysis/assessment, a considerable amount of papers studied other risk management processes together with risk analysis/assessment subject. Besides, risk response and risk monitoring and control seem to be neglected processes of risk management. Recently, it is seen that these processes have started to be mentioned in risk management-related researches. Still, they do not have similar impact in the construction risk management literature compared with risk identification and risk analysis/assessment processes.
\nAnalysis of selected papers according to the research focus.
RI: risk identification, RA: risk analysis/assessment, RR: risk response, RMC: risk monitoring & control.
Most commonly used keywords in the analyzed papers are given in Table 4. It is not surprising that “risk management” keyword has the largest rate with 28.9%. The second highly rated keyword is risk (financial, political, design, economic, social, legal, safety) with the rate of 23.8%. This is followed by other keywords such as construction management/project management (11.6%), risk assessment including risk prioritization, risk score and risk rating (11.2%); risk analysis (6.0%); risk identification including checklist, risk mapping and risk breakdown structure (5.8%); cost-related issues (4.7%); risk allocation/distribution (2.0%); risk modeling (1.3%); risk response (1.1%); risk control (0.6%); risk mitigation (0.6%); risk perception/attitude (0.6%); risk strategy (0.4%); risk interruptions (0.2%); risk paths (0.2%); and risk propagation (0.2%).
\nKeywords | \nNumber of papers | \nFrequency (%) | \n
---|---|---|
Risk management | \n129 | \n28.99 | \n
Risk | \n106 | \n23.82 | \n
Construction management/project management | \n52 | \n11.68 | \n
Risk assessment | \n50 | \n11.23 | \n
Risk analysis | \n27 | \n6.06 | \n
Risk identification | \n26 | \n5.84 | \n
Cost related issues | \n21 | \n4.71 | \n
Risk allocation/distribution | \n9 | \n2.02 | \n
Risk modeling | \n6 | \n1.34 | \n
Risk response | \n5 | \n1.12 | \n
Risk control | \n3 | \n0.67 | \n
Risk mitigation | \n3 | \n0.67 | \n
Risk perception/attitude | \n3 | \n0.67 | \n
Risk strategy | \n2 | \n0.44 | \n
Risk interruptions | \n1 | \n0.22 | \n
Risk paths | \n1 | \n0.22 | \n
Risk propagation | \n1 | \n0.22 | \n
Analysis of selected papers according to the keywords.
The papers are analyzed according to the study levels as project level, firm level and sector level. Figure 2 shows the distribution of these levels within the time span. As seen in Figure 2, the majority of the papers are studied in the project level. This is resulted from researchers mostly focused how risk is managed within a construction project rather than concentrating on the risks and their effect within a construction company or in the construction sector. Especially beginning with 2006, a huge focus has given to construction risk management studies at the project level. However, there are few studies which concentrate risk management related issues by discussing them through the firm and sector level.
\nAnalysis of selected papers according to the level of analysis.
Different sources of information are used in the analyzed papers which were classified as case studies, survey/interviews and reviews. As illustrated in Figure 3, among these, case studies and survey/interviews are the leading sources. After 2005, case studies and survey/interviews show a rapid increase. This reveals that secondary data and data collected from sector professionals are the main sources of information in the analyzed papers. On the other hand, reviews are relatively less preferred information source for risk management researches.
\nAnalysis of selected papers according to the sources of information.
The main outputs of the papers are shown in Figure 4, which were classified into five categories as general insights and descriptions, statistical results, theoretical model, mathematical model and experimental/prototype model. The main contribution is statistical results followed by mathematical model. Since most of the papers adopted a research methodology based on case studies and survey/interviews, it is reasonable that the research output shows a high tendency in statistical results. General insights and descriptions, theoretical models and experimental/prototype models are less adopted methodologies compared with other ones.
\nAnalysis of selected papers according to the research output.
No construction project is risk-free: risk can be managed, minimized, shared, transferred or accepted; but it cannot be ignored [67]. Construction companies should adopt an appropriate risk management approach not only to complete their projects in compliance with their project objectives but also to keep their competitiveness in the construction industry. Although researchers have drawn huge attention on every step of the risk management process, in this chapter, it is aimed to present the state-of-the-art literature by analyzing research contributions in the risk management domain.
\nDespite risk management subject found in the literature has reached saturation point, construction researchers have still been studying different aspects of risk management through implementing various research methodologies. A majority of these researches concentrated on one of the risk management processes that is found in risk identification and risk analysis/assessment. On the other hand, the remaining processes of risk management, namely, risk response and risk monitoring and control, are seemed to be neglected.
\nIn the review, highly mentioned risk-related keywords are revealed as risk management; various risk types; construction management/project management; risk assessment including prioritization, risk score and risk rating; risk analysis; risk identification and its methods such as checklist, risk mapping and risk breakdown structure; cost-related issues; risk allocation/distribution; risk modeling; risk response; risk control; and risk mitigation, respectively. As the results showed that risk response and risk monitoring and control are disregarded areas, their related keywords are less mentioned than the other ones.
\nSince researchers focused how risk is managed within a construction project instead of concentrating on the risks and their effect within a construction company or in the construction sector, a huge number of papers deal with risk management at the project level. Accordingly, studies on risk management at the firm level and sector level seem to be neglected. Besides, as much of the risk management researches in the past decades focused on identification and analysis/assessment of risks within a particular construction project, they mostly adopted survey/interview and case study approaches. This case has resulted in frequent appearance of statistical results as the main research outputs.
\nTo conclude, the review has confirmed that the researchers are directed only on the first two steps of risk management process. In addition to these directions, future studies should also discuss risk response and risk monitoring and control which are the remaining ones. Besides, it is revealed that the literature lacks a comprehensive risk management process. Future studies should adopt a holistic perspective which addresses the risk management process by identifying, analyzing/assessing, responding and monitoring and control from initiation to the completion of construction projects. Similarly, future studies should be directed to risk management-related issues by discussing them at the firm and sector level as well. This systematic review is expected to contribute to the construction profession by enlightening the research gaps in the literature and by providing future directions for potential studies.
\nThe authors of this book chapter declare no “conflict of interest.”
Formaldehyde – a simple but important member of aldehydes – is a colorless, pungent, highly flammable, irritating, and poisonous low molecular weight gas in its pure form, meanwhile it dissolves very well in water, alcohols, and other polar solvents. Due to its strong electrophilic properties, it is highly reactive, readily undergoes polymerization, and can form explosive mixtures in air. It decomposes at temperatures above 150°C to methanol and carbon monoxide. In addition, it is easily photooxidized to carbon dioxide in sunlight.
Pure formaldehyde is produced as a liquid through catalytic oxidation of methanol. This process is carried out in a closed facility and results in a formaldehyde solution in the water together with methanol in various concentrations. This product may be further refined or converted to the paraformaldehyde (polymerized form of formaldehyde) which is in the form of a white powder or flake. Formaldehyde gas is slowly given by paraformaldehyde. Pure formaldehyde is not available commercially, so it is usually transported or stored as a 37% (by weight) aqueous solution, which is known as formalin [1, 2]. The technical (specific) properties of formaldehyde, which must be taken into account during use of it and also appropriate equipment should be used with it, are given in Table 1.
Formaldehyde (CH2O) | |
---|---|
IUPAC name | Methanal |
Chemical name | Formaldehyde, methylene oxide, oxymethylene, methyl aldehyde, oxomethane, formic aldehyde |
Chemical formula | CH2O (HCHO) |
Molecular weight | 30.026 g/mol |
Color | Clear, colorless liquid |
Density | 0.8153 g/cm3 (−20°C) |
Melting point | 93–96°C (at 37% concentration) |
Boiling point | −15°C (at 37% concentration) |
Physical and chemical properties of formaldehyde.
The most common methods for formaldehyde detection are based on spectrophotometry. Besides spectrophotometric ways other methods such as high-performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography, colorimetry, infrared detection, fluorimetry, polarography, and gas detector tubes are also used. Organic and inorganic chemicals, such as sulfur dioxide, other aldehydes, and amines, can interfere with these detection methods. The most sensitive of these methods is flow injection, which has a detection limit of 9 ppt (0.011 μg/m3) and is high-performance liquid chromatography, which offers a detection limit of 0.0017 ppm (0.002 mg/m3) [3, 4].
Formaldehyde is found in small quantities in every human cell because it is taken from outside the organism or it is derived from the metabolism of serine, glycine, choline, and methionine [5, 6]. Formaldehyde is excreted from the body through urine and stool, by metabolizing formic acid catalyzed formaldehyde dehydrogenase (FDH) enzyme in the liver and erythrocytes, or excreted through respiration by converting to carbon dioxide [7, 8, 9]. Formaldehyde tends to combine strongly with protein, nucleic acids, and unsaturated fatty acids in a nonenzymatic way. This combination causes cytotoxicity, inflammatory reaction, necrosis, allergy, and mutagenic effect to be seen by producing denaturation in proteins. In addition, formaldehyde shows antimicrobial activity and function detection in tissues that have lost their vitality [7, 10, 11].
Formaldehyde is a chemical that is widely used due to its chemical properties and is also found in the natural structure of the organism. It is particularly important in the chemical industry because formaldehyde is an inexpensive starting material for a number of chemical reactions. It is used in the industrial field in the construction of plywood, chipboard, insulation materials, paint and plastic materials, textile industry, carpets, furniture, wall coverings, and household cleaning products [7, 12].
Formaldehyde is used in the storage of biological samples and mummification as it hardens proteins and prevents them from decomposition. Also, it is used as disinfectant because it kills insects and many microorganisms [13]. Formaldehyde, which has an important place in the field of medicine, is used in the anatomy laboratory for the determination of the cadaver and its long-term storage without decomposition and used in histology and pathology laboratories during the fixation stage of tissues. It is benefited from formaldehyde for the structure of coatings in dentistry, in the clinic for the treatment of persistent cystitis, and as a preservative in some drugs. In addition, the solution used in hemodialysis unit contains formalin [1, 14, 15, 16].
The use of formaldehyde in medical and other fields is 1.5% of the total production compared with its use in the manufacture of synthetic resins and chemical compounds. However, its use in these areas has great significance for human beings, because it can reach many people by means of various consumer goods. These products containing formaldehyde in medicinal and other technical areas are listed in Table 2 [7].
Area | Use |
---|---|
Agriculture | Preservation of grain, seed dressing, soil disinfection, rot protection of feed, nitrogen fertilizer in soils, and protection of dietary protein in ruminants (animal nutrition) |
Cleaning agent industry | Preservative in soaps, detergents, and cleaning agents against microbial contamination |
Cosmetics industry | Preservative in soaps, deodorants, shampoos, etc. against microbial contamination; additive in nail hardeners, products for oral hygiene, makeup, hand cream, and shaving cream; and plant and equipment sanitation |
Food industry | Preservation of dried foods, disinfection of containers, and preservation of fish and certain oils and fats, modifying starch for cold swelling |
Leather industry | Additive to tanning agents |
Medicine | Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation of preparations |
Metal industry | Anticorrosive agent; vehicle in vapor depositing and electroplating processes |
Petroleum industry | Biocide in oil well-drilling fluids and auxiliary agent in refining |
Photographic industry | Developing accelerator and hardener for gelatin layers |
Rubber industry | Biocide for latex, adhesive additive, and anti-oxidizer additive also for synthetic rubber |
Sugar industry | Infection inhibitor in producing juices |
Textile industry | Formaldehyde-releasing agentsa provide crease resistance, dimensional stability, and flame retardance and binders in textile printing |
Wood industry | Preservative |
Use of products containing formaldehyde in medicinal and other technical areas.
Some preservatives are formaldehyde releasers. Formaldehyde release upon decomposition depends mainly on the temperature and pH. Industrial and household cleaning agents, soaps, shampoos, paints/lacquers, and cutting fluids have formed the most common product categories for formaldehyde releasers. The three most common recorded formaldehyde release agents are bromonitropropanediol, bromonitrodioxane, and 2-chloroallylhexaminium chloride [17].
Formaldehyde contains significant harm to human health as well as widespread use. Formaldehyde has a sharp odor that can be detectable at low concentrations, and its vapor and solutions are known as skin and eye irritants in human beings. The common effects of formaldehyde exposure are various symptoms caused by irritation of the mucosa in the eyes and upper respiratory tract.
Formaldehyde is classified by the International Cancer Research Institute as a Group 2A carcinogenic agent in 1995. As a result of the studies, formaldehyde is reported to contribute to the development of cancer of the nose and upper respiratory tract and skin cancer [18, 19].
OSHA has identified 52 professions that are risky in terms of formaldehyde exposure. The most frequently studied groups were the ones who were at risk for the effect of formaldehyde, which are listed below:
Workers working at the production stage of formaldehyde-containing compounds
Industry workers working in formaldehyde-containing products and adhesives (furniture and goods produced from the chipboard, MDF, plywood, varnish, lacquer, fire retardants, etc.)
Workers in traffic or garages
Anatomy, pathology, and histology laboratory staff (medicine and veterinary)
Those who sterilize dialysis equipment and other medical supplies— dentists and nurses,
Foundry employees
Workers in paper, paper products, and recycling [20, 21, 22].
Research on persons working in industrial areas where formaldehyde production is performed or used showed that there is an increase in the number of people dying from brain cancer, blood cancer, and colon cancer compared to the normal population [2, 13]. Furthermore, the use of formaldehyde-containing products in homes and workplaces in daily life (wall paint, furniture, lacquer coatings, deodorants, cleaning products, etc.) and exposure to environmental factors (such as fuel oil and wood burning, exhaust gas, and cigarette smoke) further increase the impact of formaldehyde. It has been shown that formaldehyde, which is emphasized as carcinogenic by experimental studies, has harmful effects on many systems such as the respiratory system, nervous system, and digestive system [1, 7, 23]. Furthermore, it is stated that formaldehyde, which has adverse effects on the reproductive system, causes fertility problems by damaging to germinal cells, disrupts the morphological structure of testicle, and decreases sperm count and serum testosterone levels [24, 25, 26].
Formaldehyde is a genotoxic, mutagenic, teratogenic, embryotoxic, and carcinogenic chemical that includes gene mutations, chromosomal errors, single-chain fractures, sister chromatid exchange, and cell changes [2, 27, 28]. Respiratory system toxicity of formaldehyde occurs even in low concentrations (0.5 ppm). It causes clinical symptoms such as burning sensation in the nose and throat, difficulty of breathing, coughing, and wheezing in acute effects. At higher concentrations, pulmonary edema, inflammation, and pneumonia are developing [2, 11, 12, 29]. It is stated that among workers exposed to formaldehyde, the mortality rate of lung cancer is 30% higher [30, 31].
Formaldehyde has been reported to have toxic effects on the central nervous system, skin, eyes, testes, and menstrual functions as well as the respiratory system [24, 32, 33]. After oral ingestion, formaldehyde produces a local corrosive effect in the upper gastrointestinal system. Necrosis, perforation, and bleeding develop after following symptoms such as nausea, severe diarrhea, and abdominal pain. Then, circulatory failure and severe metabolic acidosis occur and result in death within a few days [1]. In addition, in some studies, it has been stated that formaldehyde inhibits the activity of some enzymes and increases some enzyme activity [13, 34].
Formaldehyde tends to perform toxic effects by combining strongly with DNA, RNA, protein, and unsaturated fatty acids in a nonenzymatic way [10]. The neurotoxicity effects of formaldehyde are shown up in the form of headache, dizziness, depression, insomnia, and loss of appetite, while in long-term exposure, permanent neurotoxicity such as mood disorders, behavioral disorders, and epilepsy occur [32, 35, 36].
Formaldehyde enters to the environment from natural sources (including forest fires) and comes directly from human resources. Formaldehyde occurs naturally in large quantities in the troposphere during the oxidation of hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons react with OH radicals and ozone forming formaldehyde and/or other aldehydes as intermediates in a series of reactions resulting in the formation of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and water [37, 38]. In addition, terpenes and isoprene spread around by foliage and react with the OH radicals to form formaldehyde as an intermediate product. Because of their short lifetimes, this potentially important formaldehyde source is only important around the vegetation [39].
Human sources of formaldehyde include direct sources such as industrial uses in the field, fuel combustion, and off-gassing from building materials and consumer products. Formaldehyde, although is not present in gasoline, is an incomplete combustion product and consequently is released from internal combustion engines. The formaldehyde amount produced depends mainly on the composition of the fuel, the type of engine, the emission control applied, the operating temperature, and the age and condition of the vehicle being repaired. Therefore, emission rates are variable.
The major man-made sources affecting human beings are in the indoor environment. Primary sources (covering a range of fuels from wood to plastics) include cigarette smoke, chipboard and plywood, wood-burning stoves, fireplaces, furnaces, power plants, agricultural burns, furniture and fabrics, waste incinerators, gas from by heating systems, and cooking [40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47].
Furniture made from wood materials are widely used in indoor and outdoor living spaces. Depending on the developments in the glue sector, the rate of using synthetic materials in the furniture industry is increasing. This situation brings with it air pollution. Urea-formaldehyde (UF) glue, which is the most widely used adhesive for wood paneling and furniture production around the world, is one of the most common contaminants in indoor environments. For this reason, formaldehyde can be found in our daily indoor areas, in homes and in offices. Formaldehyde release value can be increased by increasing the ambient temperature and humidity. The formaldehyde level should normally be below 0.03 ppm in indoor environments. The level at which symptoms occurred was determined as 0.10–1.1 ppm range [18, 48].
Therefore, the indoor formaldehyde levels are clearly different from the concentrations in the outdoor air. Temperature, humidity, ventilation rate, age of the building, product usage, the presence of combustion sources, and the smoking habits of occupants affect indoor formaldehyde concentrations.
As a result, since formaldehyde has a harmful and even toxic effect on many tissues and organs in the body, it is necessary to keep the formaldehyde concentration below the 0.3 ppm level, which is the permitted limit in formaldehyde-working environments.
In macroscopic anatomy laboratories where formaldehyde is used more frequently, some precautions should be taken to prevent the harmful effects of formaldehyde. For this purpose, a sufficient concentration of 10% should not be exceeded for the determination of a suitable tissue. Materials waiting for detection should be closed in a way that does not contain air. The area in which the macroscopic examination is performed must be equipped to remove the formaldehyde vapor immediately from the environment. Laboratory personnel with chronic conjunctivitis and upper and lower respiratory diseases are removed from this environment until they are completely passed. The contact times of formaldehyde should be reduced as much as possible by providing appropriate conversions between laboratory personnel.
In addition, employees should be trained on environmental risk factors, toxic chemicals and protection from risk factors, and the use of gloves and masks, and it is also necessary to identify and map important emission areas and operations and to arrange/adjust the existing equipment [28, 49, 50]. Measures to be taken to against emission sources include increased ventilation, treatment of cadavers, and tissues with ammonium chloride in anatomy laboratories [51], covering machines, the use of local exhaust systems [52], and improvement of general ventilation [53]. Taking these measures in environments exposed to formaldehyde is necessary to reduce the exposure and minimize the health effects that may occur.
In spite of all these harmful effects, formaldehyde is still in use all over the world because of its cheap and good detection solution.
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