Tools used per step of data science.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6339",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Towards Malaria Elimination - A Leap Forward",title:"Towards Malaria Elimination",subtitle:"A Leap Forward",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'Towards Malaria Elimination - A Leap Forward was started to mark the occasion for renewed commitment to end malaria transmission for good (the WHO\'s call for "Malaria Free World" by 2030). This book is dedicated for the benefit of researchers, scientists, program and policy managers, students and anyone interested in malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases with the goal of sharing recent information on success stories, innovative control approaches and challenges in different regions of the world. Some main issues that emerged included multidrug-resistant malaria and pandemic risk, vaccines, cross-border malaria, asymptomatic parasite reservoir, the threat of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium knowlesi, insecticide resistance in Anopheles vectors and outdoor malaria transmission. This book is one little step forward to bring together in 17 chapters the experiences of malaria-expert researchers from five continents to present updated information on disease epidemiology and control at the national/regional level, highlighting the constraints, challenges, accomplishments and prospects of malaria elimination.',isbn:"978-1-78923-551-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-550-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-413-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69750",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"towards-malaria-elimination-a-leap-forward",numberOfPages:452,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2ab88726cd9291b2b1c29889c948c902",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin and Vas Dev",publishedDate:"July 18th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6339.jpg",numberOfDownloads:28136,numberOfWosCitations:103,numberOfCrossrefCitations:80,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:4,numberOfDimensionsCitations:197,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:5,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:380,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 15th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 30th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 1st 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 28th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 25th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",middleName:null,surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/50017/images/3936_n.png",biography:"Sylvie Manguin is a Full Research Professor at the Institute of Research for Development (IRD), based at the University of Montpellier, France. She is a leading medical entomologist and academician researcher whose main interest concerns mosquitoes and vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue. She has developed studies on Anopheles mosquitoes from three continents (Asia, Africa, Americas) including molecular species identification, population genetics, phylogenetic, vectorial capacities, spatial surveillance, midgut microbiota biodiversity, salivary immunological markers and vector control approaches. She is the author of 90 indexed publications, six book chapters, three books including “Anopheles mosquitoes: New insights into malaria vectors” for which she is the Editor (InTech Open Access) and “Biodiversity of malaria in the World” (John Libbey Ed.), respectively published in 2013 and 2008. She is also the Secretary General of the International Federation of Tropical Medicine (IFTM) http://www.iftm-hp.org/board.html, member of the Editorial Boards of the Malaria Journal and Acta Tropica and she serves as reviewer in several international institutions and more than 20 scientific journals.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Institut de Recherche pour le Développement",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"151166",title:"Dr.",name:"Vas",middleName:null,surname:"Dev",slug:"vas-dev",fullName:"Vas Dev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151166/images/5604_n.jpg",biography:"Vas Dev has superannuated from services from the National Institute of Malaria Research, a premier research organization for malaria research, and served as Officer-in-Charge of one of its field stations based in Assam, north-eastern region of India for over 25 years. He was actively involved in operational research for evaluation of newer technologies for vector control, routine surveillance of antimalarial medicines for treatment of malaria, diagnostics and human resource development. His primary research interests are in vector biology with special reference to epidemiology and control of malaria. His research efforts have culminated in number of technologies, viz., long-lasting insecticidal nets, artemisinin-based combination therapy for treatment of drug-resistant malaria, rapid diagnostic test kits that all have been incorporated for benefit of State healthcare services of north-eastern states, major public and private sectors, and defense establishments alike resulting in substantial disease transmission reduction. He has over 150 research publications in index journals and serves as the member of editorial board of several scientific journals. He is the recipient of numerous coveted fellowships, awards and distinctions in his field of research, and is currently an active member of learned societies",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Malaria Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1131",title:"Global Health",slug:"global-health"}],chapters:[{id:"61376",title:"Malaria Elimination: Challenges and Opportunities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77092",slug:"malaria-elimination-challenges-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:1551,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In 2016, 91 countries reported a total of 216 million cases of malaria, an increase of 5 million cases over the previous year, and the estimated malaria deaths worldwide were 445,000 like in 2015. This suggests that despite a substantial reduction in the malaria burden observed since 2010, largely attributed to the scale-up of effective control measures (vector control interventions, efficacious antimalarial treatment), the rate of decline of both clinical cases and malaria deaths has stalled since 2014 and in some regions even reversed. Achieving universal access to standard control interventions, such as case management, implementation of vector control methods, seasonal malaria chemoprevention, and intermittent preventive treatment for pregnant women, remains a priority. It is essential to contain emerging drug resistance in malarial parasite and insecticide resistance in mosquito vector species. Additional new interventions to accelerate interruption of transmission are in crucial need for their rapid integration within the standard control activities. These integrated control approaches must be implemented at community level with the active involvement of the local populations to reach high coverage. Finally, political and financial supports should be maintained and even doubled to reach the 2030 targets of the WHO global technical strategy for malaria.",signatures:"Umberto D’Alessandro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61376",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61376",authors:[{id:"214368",title:"Prof.",name:"Umberto",surname:"D'Alessandro",slug:"umberto-d'alessandro",fullName:"Umberto D'Alessandro"}],corrections:null},{id:"60988",title:"The Artemisinin Resistance in Southeast Asia: An Imminent Global Threat to Malaria Elimination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76519",slug:"the-artemisinin-resistance-in-southeast-asia-an-imminent-global-threat-to-malaria-elimination",totalDownloads:1738,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Malaria remains a leading cause of mortality and morbidity in many low- and middle-income countries. Artemisinin combination therapies (ACTs) have contributed to the substantial decline in the worldwide malaria burden, renewing the optimism that malaria elimination is achievable in some regions of the world. However, this prospect is threatened by the emergence of artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum leading to clinical failure of ACTs in Southeast Asia. Historically, drug resistance in P. falciparum has emerged in SEA and spread to Africa. Today, resistance to ACTs could reverse all the achievements of control and elimination efforts globally. With no new drug available, P. falciparum malaria must be eliminated from the Greater Mekong before it becomes untreatable.",signatures:"Aung Pyae Phyo and François Nosten",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60988",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60988",authors:[{id:"214099",title:"Dr.",name:"Aung",surname:"Pyae Phyo",slug:"aung-pyae-phyo",fullName:"Aung Pyae Phyo"},{id:"215774",title:"Prof.",name:"Francois",surname:"Nosten",slug:"francois-nosten",fullName:"Francois Nosten"}],corrections:null},{id:"62029",title:"Preparing for the Next Global Threat: A Call for Targeted, Immediate Decisive Action in Southeast Asia to Prevent the Next Pandemic in Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78261",slug:"preparing-for-the-next-global-threat-a-call-for-targeted-immediate-decisive-action-in-southeast-asia",totalDownloads:1412,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Global investments have had great impact on malaria—these are now at risk of being reversed. Cambodia is where drug resistance historically emerges and spreads globally to drive resulting pandemics—we are currently watching history repeat itself. Despite large investments and recent success in driving down overall rates of malaria, high levels of resistance to nearly all antimalarial drugs are now widespread in Cambodia. Malaria cases are again rising in both Cambodia and Vietnam. Nearly incurable malaria in this region is a real and present threat. Critical actions to prevent further spread of the emerging incurable parasites are: (1) Commitment and real sense of urgency through declaration of a “Public Health Emergency of International Concern” or a similar set of directives; (2) Establish leadership with sufficient authority, respect, expertise and operational funding; (3) Engage affected security forces to stop disease transmission and support elimination operations; (4) Utilize surveillance as a core intervention with result-based funding targeting malaria transmission foci with rapid and effective action. Immediate decisive action is needed in Southeast Asia to prevent the next malaria pandemic. This chapter highlights persistent gaps in the region with methods to address them. In 2015–2016, our collaboration with NIMPE pilot tested tools to intervene in actual forest transmission foci. Our study district saw a 96% decrease in malaria from 2014 to 2017, with the entire province seeing the largest decrease in Central Vietnam in this same timeframe. We describe methods to tackle transmission foci, with both an integrated prevention and treatment package. We call on all stakeholders to make changes to current investments to address this critical challenge.",signatures:"Colin Ohrt, Thang Duc Ngo and Thieu Quang Nguyen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62029",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62029",authors:[{id:"217746",title:"Dr.",name:"Colin",surname:"Ohrt",slug:"colin-ohrt",fullName:"Colin Ohrt"},{id:"240534",title:"Dr.",name:"Thang Duc",surname:"Ngo",slug:"thang-duc-ngo",fullName:"Thang Duc Ngo"},{id:"240535",title:"Dr.",name:"Thieu Quang",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"thieu-quang-nguyen",fullName:"Thieu Quang Nguyen"}],corrections:null},{id:"61584",title:"Challenges in the Control and Elimination of Plasmodium vivax Malaria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77082",slug:"challenges-in-the-control-and-elimination-of-plasmodium-vivax-malaria",totalDownloads:1673,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The human malaria parasite Plasmodium vivax imposes unique challenges to its control and elimination. Primary among those is the hypnozoite reservoir of infection in endemic communities. It is the dominant source of incident malaria and exceedingly difficult to attack due to both inability to diagnose latent carriers and the potentially life-threatening toxicity of primaquine in patients with an inborn deficiency of G6PD, the only therapeutic option against hypnozoites. Large segments of endemic populations are not eligible for primaquine, and alternative strategies for managing the threat of relapse in any group have not been optimized or validated. Association of risk of primaquine failure against latent P. vivax with impaired alleles of P450 2D6 exacerbates the substantial pool of primaquine ineligibles. Resistance to chloroquine against acute P. vivax malaria commonly occurs; alternative therapies like ACTs are effective but seldom evaluated as a partner drug to primaquine in the essential radical cure. Many of the Anopheles mosquito vector of P. vivax in South and Southeast Asia, where >90% of infections occur, thrive in a diversity of habitats and exhibit wide ranges of feeding and breeding behavior. This chapter explores many of these challenges and possible approaches in controlling and eliminating endemic vivax malaria.",signatures:"Puji BS Asih, Din Syafruddin and John Kevin Baird",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61584",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61584",authors:[{id:"216332",title:"Dr.",name:"Puji",surname:"Budi Setia Asih",slug:"puji-budi-setia-asih",fullName:"Puji Budi Setia Asih"},{id:"216335",title:"Dr.",name:"Kevin",surname:"Baird",slug:"kevin-baird",fullName:"Kevin Baird"},{id:"239838",title:"Prof.",name:"Din",surname:"Syafruddin",slug:"din-syafruddin",fullName:"Din Syafruddin"}],corrections:null},{id:"61329",title:"Human and Simian Malaria in the Greater Mekong Subregion and Challenges for Elimination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76901",slug:"human-and-simian-malaria-in-the-greater-mekong-subregion-and-challenges-for-elimination",totalDownloads:1241,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent years malaria initiatives have increasingly shifted from malaria control to a focus on achieving malaria elimination in the Southeast Asia region. However, this region experiences unique challenges in this transition due to its distinctive malaria ecosystem (mainly related to forests) and high volume of population movement (both within and between countries). These bioenvironmental factors increase the exposure of populations at higher risk due to their close association with forest, and contributes to outdoor and residual transmission. Given that this region has also historically been the source of resistance to anti-malarial drugs, the potential spread of artemisinin resistance via global transportation routes would pose a major threat to malaria control and elimination efforts worldwide. In addition, other factors also hinder the malaria elimination goal such as importation of parasite infection, uncontrolled monkey malaria (Plasmodium knowlesi), or the fact that many countries in this region experience mixed infections where P. vivax becomes a more predominant species as overall malaria transmission decreases. This chapter addresses these challenges in detail and provide recommendations and key priorities to overcome these obstacles to accelerate efforts for achieving malaria elimination.",signatures:"Jeffrey Hii, Indra Vythilingam and Arantxa Roca-Feltrer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61329",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61329",authors:[{id:"151116",title:"Dr.",name:"Indra",surname:"Vythilingam",slug:"indra-vythilingam",fullName:"Indra Vythilingam"},{id:"214902",title:"Dr.",name:"Arantxa",surname:"Roca-Feltrer",slug:"arantxa-roca-feltrer",fullName:"Arantxa Roca-Feltrer"},{id:"215079",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeffrey",surname:"Hii",slug:"jeffrey-hii",fullName:"Jeffrey Hii"}],corrections:null},{id:"61559",title:"Understanding the Importance of Asymptomatic and Low- Density Infections for Malaria Elimination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77293",slug:"understanding-the-importance-of-asymptomatic-and-low-density-infections-for-malaria-elimination",totalDownloads:1740,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In recent years, the use of more sensitive diagnostic techniques has demonstrated a significant number of malaria infections at densities beneath the limit of detection of conventional microscopy and rapid diagnostic tests (RDT). These low-density infections are almost always asymptomatic, found in all endemic settings, including those nearing elimination, and in all ages of the population. They typically account for a high proportion of all infections and since they have also been shown to be infectious to mosquitoes, low-density infections are thought to be important contributors to maintaining malaria transmission. However, there is currently no direct evidence that specifically targeting this low-density parasite reservoir will hasten progress towards elimination. In this chapter we review the data to date and identify knowledge gaps. We present potential scenarios for the causes of low-density infections, if and how these might drive transmission, and the likely impact of specifically targeting them.",signatures:"Chris Drakeley, Bronner Gonçalves, Lucy Okell and Hannah Slater",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61559",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61559",authors:[{id:"215238",title:"Prof.",name:"Chris",surname:"Drakeley",slug:"chris-drakeley",fullName:"Chris Drakeley"},{id:"215831",title:"Dr.",name:"Bronner",surname:"Goncalves",slug:"bronner-goncalves",fullName:"Bronner Goncalves"},{id:"215834",title:"Dr.",name:"Hannah",surname:"Slater",slug:"hannah-slater",fullName:"Hannah Slater"},{id:"215835",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucy",surname:"Okell",slug:"lucy-okell",fullName:"Lucy Okell"}],corrections:null},{id:"62169",title:"Insecticide Resistance in Malaria Vectors: An Update at a Global Scale",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78375",slug:"insecticide-resistance-in-malaria-vectors-an-update-at-a-global-scale",totalDownloads:2329,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:38,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Malaria remains the deadliest vector-borne disease in the world. With nearly half of the world’s population at risk, 216 million people suffered from malaria in 2016, with over 400,000 deaths, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa. Important global efforts have been made to eliminate malaria leading to significant reduction in malaria cases and mortality in Africa by 42% and 66%, respectively. Early diagnosis, improved drug therapies and better health infrastructure are key components, but this extraordinary success is mainly due the use of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and indoor residual sprayings (IRS) of insecticide. Unfortunately, the emergence and spread of resistance in mosquito populations against insecticides is jeopardising the effectiveness of the most efficient malaria control interventions. To help establish suitable resistance management strategies, it is vital to better understand the distribution of resistance, its mechanisms and impact on effectiveness of control interventions and malaria transmission. In this chapter, we present the current status of insecticide resistance worldwide in main malaria vectors as well as its impact on malaria transmission, and discuss the molecular mechanisms and future perspectives.",signatures:"Jacob M. Riveron, Magellan Tchouakui, Leon Mugenzi, Benjamin D.\nMenze, Mu-Chun Chiang and Charles S. Wondji",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62169",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62169",authors:[{id:"212661",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",surname:"Wondji",slug:"charles-wondji",fullName:"Charles Wondji"},{id:"215729",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacob",surname:"Riveron",slug:"jacob-riveron",fullName:"Jacob Riveron"},{id:"215730",title:"MSc.",name:"Magellan",surname:"Tchouakui",slug:"magellan-tchouakui",fullName:"Magellan Tchouakui"},{id:"215731",title:"MSc.",name:"Leon",surname:"Mugenzi",slug:"leon-mugenzi",fullName:"Leon Mugenzi"},{id:"215732",title:"MSc.",name:"Benjamin",surname:"Menze",slug:"benjamin-menze",fullName:"Benjamin Menze"},{id:"240599",title:"MSc.",name:"Mu-Chun",surname:"Chiang",slug:"mu-chun-chiang",fullName:"Mu-Chun Chiang"}],corrections:null},{id:"60966",title:"Malaria Elimination in the Greater Mekong Subregion: Challenges and Prospects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76337",slug:"malaria-elimination-in-the-greater-mekong-subregion-challenges-and-prospects",totalDownloads:1416,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:19,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Malaria is a significant public health problem and impediment to socioeconomic development in countries of the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS), which comprises Cambodia, China’s Yunnan Province, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. Over the past decade, intensified malaria control has greatly reduced the regional malaria burden. Driven by increasing political commitment, motivated by recent achievements in malaria control, and urged by the imminent threat of emerging artemisinin resistance, the GMS countries have endorsed a regional malaria elimination plan with a goal of eliminating malaria by 2030. However, this ambitious, but laudable, goal faces a daunting array of challenges and requires integrated strategies tailored to the region, which should be based on a mechanistic understanding of the human, parasite, and vector factors sustaining continued malaria transmission along international borders. Malaria epidemiology in the GMS is complex and rapidly evolving. Spatial heterogeneity requires targeted use of the limited resources. Border malaria accounts for continued malaria transmission and represents sources of parasite introduction through porous borders by highly mobile human populations. Asymptomatic infections constitute huge parasite reservoir requiring interventions in time and place to pave the way for malaria elimination. Of the two most predominant malaria parasites, Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax, the prevalence of the latter is increasing in most member GMS countries. This parasite requires the use of 8-aminoquinoline drugs to prevent relapses from liver hypnozoites, but high prevalence of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency in the endemic human populations makes it difficult to adopt this treatment regimen. The recent emergence of resistance to artemisinins and partner drugs in P. falciparum has raised both regional and global concerns, and elimination efforts are invariably prioritized against this parasite to avert spread. Moreover, the effectiveness of the two core vector control interventions—insecticide-treated nets and indoor residual spraying—has been declining due to insecticide resistance and increased outdoor biting activity of mosquito vectors. These technical challenges, though varying from country to country, require integrated approaches and better understanding of the malaria epidemiology enabling targeted control of the parasites and vectors. Understanding the mechanism and distribution of drug-resistant parasites will allow effective drug treatment and prevent, or slow down, the spread of drug resistance. Coordination among the GMS countries is essential to prevent parasite reintroduction across the international borders to achieve regional malaria elimination.",signatures:"Liwang Cui, Yaming Cao, Jaranit Kaewkungwal, Amnat\nKhamsiriwatchara, Saranath Lawpoolsri, Than Naing Soe, Myat\nPhone Kyaw and Jetsumon Sattabongkot",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60966",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60966",authors:[{id:"217491",title:"Dr.",name:"Liwang",surname:"Cui",slug:"liwang-cui",fullName:"Liwang Cui"},{id:"240119",title:"Prof.",name:"Yaming",surname:"Cao",slug:"yaming-cao",fullName:"Yaming Cao"},{id:"240120",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaranit",surname:"Kaewkungwal",slug:"jaranit-kaewkungwal",fullName:"Jaranit Kaewkungwal"},{id:"240121",title:"Mr.",name:"Amnat",surname:"Khamsiriwatchara",slug:"amnat-khamsiriwatchara",fullName:"Amnat Khamsiriwatchara"},{id:"240122",title:"Prof.",name:"Saranath",surname:"Lawpoolsri",slug:"saranath-lawpoolsri",fullName:"Saranath Lawpoolsri"},{id:"240123",title:"MSc.",name:"Than Naing",surname:"Soe",slug:"than-naing-soe",fullName:"Than Naing Soe"},{id:"240124",title:"Dr.",name:"Myat Phone",surname:"Kyaw",slug:"myat-phone-kyaw",fullName:"Myat Phone Kyaw"},{id:"240125",title:"Prof.",name:"Jetsumon",surname:"Sattabongkot",slug:"jetsumon-sattabongkot",fullName:"Jetsumon Sattabongkot"}],corrections:null},{id:"59967",title:"Ending Malaria Transmission in the Asia Pacific Malaria Elimination Network (APMEN) Countries: Challenges and the Way Forward",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75405",slug:"ending-malaria-transmission-in-the-asia-pacific-malaria-elimination-network-apmen-countries-challeng",totalDownloads:1515,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Member countries in the Asia Pacific Malaria Elimination Network (APMEN) are pursuing the global goal of malaria elimination by 2030. Different countries are in various phases of malaria elimination and this review aims to present a compilation of available evidence on the challenges and way forward for malaria elimination in APMEN countries. Malaria transmission in these States is complex. APMEN member countries include the largest populations living in areas of malaria transmission risk outside Africa. They are a global source for spread of artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) resistance, include the biggest burden of Plasmodium vivax and zoonotic malaria, and face many geopolitical and socio-economic factors that will challenge malaria elimination efforts. These challenges can be addressed in part through operational research to identify country-specific solutions, making better use of operational data such as through spatial decision support system (SDSS) approaches, strengthening surveillance, and cross-border initiative for coordinated action.",signatures:"Kinley Wangdi and Archie CA Clements",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59967",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59967",authors:[{id:"212325",title:"Dr.",name:"Kinley",surname:"Wangdi",slug:"kinley-wangdi",fullName:"Kinley Wangdi"},{id:"221224",title:"Prof.",name:"Archie",surname:"Clements",slug:"archie-clements",fullName:"Archie Clements"}],corrections:null},{id:"61600",title:"Malaria Elimination in the People’s Republic of China: Current Progress, Challenges, and Prospects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77282",slug:"malaria-elimination-in-the-people-s-republic-of-china-current-progress-challenges-and-prospects",totalDownloads:1597,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In China, the malaria elimination program was launched in 2010 with the objective to eliminate this disease by 2020. Large-scale malaria control and elimination actions have been conducted with significant success since inception of the nationwide program. The incidence of locally acquired malaria has declined sharply along with the concomitant decrease of malaria-endemic areas from 762 counties reporting malaria in 2010 to just two counties adjacent to border areas (Yunnan, China-Myanmar and Tibet, China-India) in 2016. In total, 1723 counties (79%) and 134 prefectures (52%) had completed the malaria elimination internal assessment by the end of 2016. The year 2017 was the first year without report of indigenous malaria cases throughout the country. Hence, this chapter is meant to share the lessons learned from malaria elimination in China benefiting countries on the way to malaria elimination.",signatures:"Shaosen Zhang, Li Zhang, Jun Feng, Jianhai Yin, Xinyu Feng, Zhigui\nXia, Roger Frutos, Sylvie Manguin and Shuisen Zhou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61600",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61600",authors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"},{id:"222596",title:"Prof.",name:"Roger",surname:"Frutos",slug:"roger-frutos",fullName:"Roger Frutos"},{id:"241436",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaosen",surname:"Zhang",slug:"shaosen-zhang",fullName:"Shaosen Zhang"},{id:"249302",title:"Prof.",name:"Shuisen",surname:"Zhou",slug:"shuisen-zhou",fullName:"Shuisen Zhou"},{id:"249874",title:"Ms.",name:"Li",surname:"Zhang",slug:"li-zhang",fullName:"Li Zhang"},{id:"249875",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun",surname:"Feng",slug:"jun-feng",fullName:"Jun Feng"},{id:"249876",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianhai",surname:"Yin",slug:"jianhai-yin",fullName:"Jianhai Yin"},{id:"249877",title:"Dr.",name:"Xinyu",surname:"Feng",slug:"xinyu-feng",fullName:"Xinyu Feng"},{id:"249880",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhigui",surname:"Xia",slug:"zhigui-xia",fullName:"Zhigui Xia"}],corrections:null},{id:"61663",title:"Declining Transmission of Malaria in India: Accelerating Towards Elimination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77046",slug:"declining-transmission-of-malaria-in-india-accelerating-towards-elimination",totalDownloads:1887,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"India is ecologically vast and has close to a billion-population living at risk of malaria. Given the evidence-based present-day intervention tools and large-scale implementation, India has recorded declining trends in disease transmission from 2 million cases in 2001 to close to a million cases in 2017 and embarked upon malaria elimination in keeping with the Global Technical Strategy by 2030. India is malaria endemic, but transmission intensities varied across its landscape with just few States of the east, central and northeast contributing bulk (80%) of total positive cases. Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax are the predominant infections of which there has been steady increase in proportions of the former for constituting >60% of total cases what was 50:50 in 2001, a phenomenon attributed to emerging drug resistance. With the rolling out of the available intervention tools, malaria elimination is foreseeable yet there are multiple challenges which must be addressed to overcome the constraints. We strongly advocate continued disease surveillance and monitoring, universal coverage and intensification of core-interventions for prevention and treatment prioritizing high-risk States, strengthening cross-border collaborations for information sharing and coordinated activities, and above all sustained allocation of resources, creating the enabling environment to end malaria transmission.",signatures:"Sunil Dhiman, Vijay Veer and Vas Dev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61663",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61663",authors:[{id:"244465",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunil",surname:"Dhiman",slug:"sunil-dhiman",fullName:"Sunil Dhiman"},{id:"244466",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",surname:"Veer",slug:"vijay-veer",fullName:"Vijay Veer"},{id:"249455",title:"Dr.",name:"Vas",surname:"Dev",slug:"vas-dev",fullName:"Vas Dev"}],corrections:null},{id:"62219",title:"Malaria Transmission in South America—Present Status and Prospects for Elimination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76964",slug:"malaria-transmission-in-south-america-present-status-and-prospects-for-elimination",totalDownloads:1564,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Four countries (Brazil, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela) together contributed ~80% of the 875,000 malaria cases reported in the Latin American region (2016). During the 10-year period (2005–2015) when global malaria incidence was dramatically reduced, Brazil and Colombia were an integral part of this trend, on track to meet the mid-term 2020 goal established by the World Health Organization. In Colombia, since 2015 at the cessation of a five-year globally funded malaria program, both incidence and proportion of Plasmodium falciparum infections have increased, mainly due to the budget constraints. Similarly, despite a strong record and major recognition for reducing malaria, in 2017, Brazil has seen a resurgence of malaria cases, but no increase in the proportion of Plasmodium falciparum to P. vivax. A globally funded malaria control program in Peru from 2005 to 2010 resulted in appreciable reduction in the annual parasitic incidence down to 1/1000 by 2011–2012, but soon after, the annual malaria incidence began to rise and by the end of 2017, there were 53,261 reported cases. To add to Venezuela’s political and financial woes, malaria continues to increase, such that, 300,189 cases were reported by the end of week 42, 2017. The only rational pathway to malaria elimination is sustained nation-level financial support that does not fall prey to political vicissitudes.",signatures:"Jan Evelyn Conn, Maria Eugenia Grillet, Margarita Correa and Maria\nAnice Mureb Sallum",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62219",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62219",authors:[{id:"154256",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Anice",surname:"Sallum",slug:"maria-anice-sallum",fullName:"Maria Anice Sallum"},{id:"214033",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Conn",slug:"jan-conn",fullName:"Jan Conn"}],corrections:null},{id:"60602",title:"Malaria Eradication in the European World: Historical Perspective and Imminent Threats",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76435",slug:"malaria-eradication-in-the-european-world-historical-perspective-and-imminent-threats",totalDownloads:1534,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Malaria was introduced to Europe from the southeast during the Neolithic period and subsequently became established throughout the continent, due to the combination of favorable geomorphological and climatic conditions with the presence of adequately sized human and competent vector populations. Plasmodium vivax, P. malariae and P. falciparum all occurred in various areas of the continent, transmitted by numerous Anopheles species, mainly An. atroparvus in the northwest, An. labranchiae and An. sacharovi in the south. The height of malaria endemicity in the Early Modern Age was followed by decline in the twentieth century, particularly in the northwest, owing mainly to man-made contraction of vector breeding sites and improvement of living standards. Eradication was accomplished in 1974 through widespread drug treatment and residual insecticide spraying. Since then, despite the sustained presence of competent vectors and numerous malaria cases imported by travelers and immigrants, autochthonous transmission has been sporadic in Europe, probably due to prompt diagnosis and treatment afforded by robust healthcare services. Current and projected climatic conditions are conducive to malaria transmission, particularly vivax malaria, in several areas of Southern Europe. Moreover, the continuing immigration crisis may facilitate the buildup of an infectious parasite reservoir in the area. Although malaria resurgence is currently unlikely particularly in northwest Europe, it is of crucial importance to maintain disease awareness, diagnostic and clinical competence and robust public health infrastructure for surveillance and vector control to diminish the possibility of malaria transmission in Europe’s most vulnerable areas.",signatures:"Evangelia-Theophano Piperaki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60602",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60602",authors:[{id:"213542",title:"Dr.",name:"Evangelia - Theophano",surname:"Piperaki",slug:"evangelia-theophano-piperaki",fullName:"Evangelia - Theophano Piperaki"}],corrections:null},{id:"61237",title:"Assessing Malaria Vaccine Efficacy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77044",slug:"assessing-malaria-vaccine-efficacy",totalDownloads:1316,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"After many years of silence, eradication of malaria is, once again, one of the top priorities on the agenda of many international health and development agencies. To meet this idealistic goal, a combination of control tools is needed. From this armentarium, a malaria vaccine is central to prevent infection and/or disease. However, numerous malaria vaccine candidates have shown limited efficacy in Phase II and III studies. One reason for these failures has been that the assessment of efficacy in the context of malaria has been difficult to standardize. In this article, we have reviewed and discussed the different ways to assess the outcome of a malaria vaccination.",signatures:"Laurent Rénia, Yun Shan Goh, Kaitian Peng, Marjorie Mauduit and\nGeorges Snounou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61237",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61237",authors:[{id:"215401",title:"Prof.",name:"Laurent",surname:"Renia",slug:"laurent-renia",fullName:"Laurent Renia"},{id:"243625",title:"Dr.",name:"Yun Shan",surname:"Goh",slug:"yun-shan-goh",fullName:"Yun Shan Goh"},{id:"243626",title:"Dr.",name:"Katian",surname:"Peng",slug:"katian-peng",fullName:"Katian Peng"},{id:"243628",title:"Dr.",name:"Marjorie",surname:"Mauduit",slug:"marjorie-mauduit",fullName:"Marjorie Mauduit"},{id:"243629",title:"Dr.",name:"Georges",surname:"Snounou",slug:"georges-snounou",fullName:"Georges Snounou"}],corrections:null},{id:"61993",title:"Malaria Transmission-Blocking Vaccines: Present Status and Future Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77241",slug:"malaria-transmission-blocking-vaccines-present-status-and-future-perspectives",totalDownloads:1723,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Transmission-blocking vaccines (TBVs) utilize Plasmodium sexual stage proteins to induce antibodies that prevent parasites from infecting blood-fed mosquitoes. This type of vaccine, which can be considered a “vaccine of solidarity,” reduces Plasmodium infections within communities without conferring direct protective immunity to the vaccine recipients. The leading TBV candidates have advanced to field clinical trials, where vaccine-induced antibody function has been demonstrated in mosquito-feeding assays. However, the duration of functional antibody responses has been short-lived; hence current development has focused on improved adjuvant and vaccine delivery systems to generate long-lasting immune responses. For the future implementation of TBVs, community perceptions and understandings should be considered, and education should be provided on the concept and its value. Implementation will need to be undertaken in harmony with current malaria control policies.",signatures:"Ogobara K. Doumbo, Karamoko Niaré, Sara A. Healy, Issaka Sagara\nand Patrick E. Duffy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61993",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61993",authors:[{id:"220804",title:"Prof.",name:"Ogobara",surname:"Doumbo",slug:"ogobara-doumbo",fullName:"Ogobara Doumbo"}],corrections:null},{id:"60183",title:"Newer Approaches for Malaria Vector Control and Challenges of Outdoor Transmission",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75513",slug:"newer-approaches-for-malaria-vector-control-and-challenges-of-outdoor-transmission",totalDownloads:2029,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The effective and reliable management of malaria vectors is still a global challenge. Recently, it has been noted that the first vaccine against Plasmodium falciparum malaria, RTS,S/AS01 showed only transient protection, particularly in infants, and rapid resistance has been developing to artemisinin-based drugs. Therefore, the control of malaria mosquito vectors according to strategies of integrated vector management (IVM) is receiving emphasis. A rather wide number of novel mosquito control tools have been tested, including attractive toxic sugar baits, eave tubes, nano-synthesized pesticides loaded with microbial- and plant-borne compounds, biocontrol agents with little non-target effects, new adult repellents, oviposition deterrents, and even acoustic larvicides. However, their real-world applications remain limited. Most National Malaria Control Programs in Africa still rely on indoor residual spraying (IRS) and long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) to reduce malaria incidence but generally have insufficient impact on malaria prevalence. Here, we focus on facts, trends, and current challenges in the employment of the above-mentioned vector control tools in the fight against malaria. We emphasize the needs for better vector control tools used in IVM to overcome the challenges posed by outdoor transmission and growing levels of insecticide resistance, which are threatening the efficacy of LLINs and IRS.",signatures:"John C. Beier, André B.B. Wilke and Giovanni Benelli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60183",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60183",authors:[{id:"212309",title:"Prof.",name:"John C.",surname:"Beier",slug:"john-c.-beier",fullName:"John C. Beier"},{id:"238235",title:"Dr.",name:"Andre",surname:"Wilke",slug:"andre-wilke",fullName:"Andre Wilke"},{id:"238241",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanni",surname:"Benelli",slug:"giovanni-benelli",fullName:"Giovanni Benelli"}],corrections:null},{id:"61802",title:"Entomological Surveillance as a Cornerstone of Malaria Elimination: A Critical Appraisal",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78007",slug:"entomological-surveillance-as-a-cornerstone-of-malaria-elimination-a-critical-appraisal",totalDownloads:1871,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:22,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Global capacity for developing new insecticides and vector control products, as well as mathematical models to evaluate their likely impact upon malaria transmission has greatly improved in recent years. Given that a range of new vector control products are now emerging that target a greater diversity of adult mosquito behaviours, it should soon be feasible to effectively tackle a broader range of mosquito species and settings. However, the primary obstacles to further progress towards more effective malaria vector control are now paucities of routine programmatic entomological surveillance, and capacity for data processing, analysis and interpretation in endemic countries. Well-established entomological methods need to be more widely utilized for routine programmatic surveillance of vector behaviours and insecticide susceptibility, the effectiveness of vector control products and processes, and their impacts on mosquito populations. Such programmatic data may also be useful for simulation analyses of mosquito life histories, to identify opportunities for pre-emptively intervening early in the life cycle of mosquitoes, rather than targeting transmission events occurring when they are older. Current obstacles to more effective utilization, archiving and sharing of entomological data largely centre around global inequities of analytical capacity. These prohibitive and unfair imbalances can be addressed by reorienting funding schemes to emphasize south-centred collaborations focused on malaria-endemic countries.",signatures:"Gerry F. Killeen, Prosper P. Chaki, Thomas E. Reed, Catherine L.\nMoyes and Nicodem J. Govella",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61802",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61802",authors:[{id:"217064",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerry",surname:"Killeen",slug:"gerry-killeen",fullName:"Gerry Killeen"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:[{id:"65",label:"highly cited contributor"}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3432",title:"Current Topics in Public Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bbfaa5b624db308171170cb70e9de196",slug:"current-topics-in-public-health",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1809",title:"Insight and Control of Infectious Disease in Global Scenario",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3ef57f4cdbc59a806312c24bff4e3097",slug:"insight-and-control-of-infectious-disease-in-global-scenario",bookSignature:"Priti Kumar Roy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1809.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"95723",title:"Dr.",name:"Roy",surname:"Priti",slug:"roy-priti",fullName:"Roy Priti"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"670",title:"Addictions",subtitle:"From Pathophysiology to Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9c807a142be4c589ba8d325568a2d9ae",slug:"addictions-from-pathophysiology-to-treatment",bookSignature:"David Belin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/670.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"97877",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Belin",slug:"david-belin",fullName:"David Belin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"762",title:"Contemporary and Innovative Practice in Palliative Care",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"243832000765abc39fee7009494c2ab0",slug:"contemporary-and-innovative-practice-in-palliative-care",bookSignature:"Esther Chang and Amanda Johnson",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/762.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"86476",title:"Prof.",name:"Esther",surname:"Chang",slug:"esther-chang",fullName:"Esther Chang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5171",title:"Recent Advances in Drug Addiction Research and Clinical Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d4d43741fe591f3102735d26db3c51a0",slug:"recent-advances-in-drug-addiction-research-and-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"William M. Meil and Christina L. Ruby",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5171.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"87876",title:"Dr.",name:"William M.",surname:"Meil",slug:"william-m.-meil",fullName:"William M. Meil"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1886",title:"Primary Care at a Glance",subtitle:"Hot Topics and New Insights",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aa9970e335b085064f8b2b9cc44fb81d",slug:"primary-care-at-a-glance-hot-topics-and-new-insights",bookSignature:"Oreste Capelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1886.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"110047",title:"Dr.",name:"Oreste",surname:"Capelli",slug:"oreste-capelli",fullName:"Oreste Capelli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5796",title:"Dengue",subtitle:"Immunopathology and Control Strategies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea7594d938547fcd4fe8d358527695b0",slug:"dengue-immunopathology-and-control-strategies",bookSignature:"Márcia Aparecida Sperança",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5796.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"176579",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Márcia Aparecida",surname:"Sperança",slug:"marcia-aparecida-speranca",fullName:"Márcia Aparecida Sperança"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7222",title:"Current Topics in Tropical Emerging Diseases and Travel Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"35b395a032b539cba98549da7d337bd1",slug:"current-topics-in-tropical-emerging-diseases-and-travel-medicine",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7222.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. 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\r\n\tAt present days the expeditious growth of technology and the global population leads to the intemperance of natural gas and fossil fuels. The adequate solution to this issue is energy conversion. Renewable energy resources such as hydropower, wind, tribo, geothermal are most sustainable. In most cases, the wasted energy in day-to-day living is effectively converted into a consumable form of energy. For example, scavenging electrical energy from small-scale physical change with the help of a triboelectric nanogenerator. A greater number of techniques facilitate energy conversion in both the macro and nano units. Hydroelectric, geothermal, electrochemical conversion is widely used energy conversion methods. Meanwhile piezoelectric, triboelectric are blooming techniques in nano energy conversion. This book will intend to provide an overview of existing energy conversion techniques and prominently focus on the development of nano energy conversion to overcome small-scale energy exhaustion. Also features the importance of energy conversion and energy storage systems
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Ragheb and Magdi Ragheb",authors:[{id:"32344",title:"Mr",name:"Adam",middleName:null,surname:"Ragheb",fullName:"Adam Ragheb",slug:"adam-ragheb"},{id:"33227",title:"Prof.",name:"Magdi",middleName:null,surname:"Ragheb",fullName:"Magdi Ragheb",slug:"magdi-ragheb"}]},{id:"16249",title:"Monitoring and Damage Detection in Structural Parts of Wind Turbines",slug:"monitoring-and-damage-detection-in-structural-parts-of-wind-turbines",signatures:"Andreas Friedmann, Dirk Mayer, Michael Koch and Thomas Siebel",authors:[{id:"43154",title:"Mr",name:"Andreas",middleName:null,surname:"Friedmann",fullName:"Andreas Friedmann",slug:"andreas-friedmann"},{id:"43159",title:"Dr.",name:"Dirk",middleName:null,surname:"Mayer",fullName:"Dirk Mayer",slug:"dirk-mayer"},{id:"43160",title:"Mr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Koch",fullName:"Michael Koch",slug:"michael-koch"},{id:"43161",title:"Mr",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Siebel",fullName:"Thomas Siebel",slug:"thomas-siebel"}]},{id:"16250",title:"Magnetic Suspension and Self-pitch for Vertical-axis Wind Turbines",slug:"magnetic-suspension-and-self-pitch-for-vertical-axis-wind-turbines",signatures:"Liu Shuqin",authors:[{id:"48348",title:"Prof.",name:"Shuqin",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Shuqin Liu",slug:"shuqin-liu"}]},{id:"16251",title:"The Analysis and Modelling of a Self-excited Induction Generator Driven by a Variable Speed Wind Turbine",slug:"the-analysis-and-modelling-of-a-self-excited-induction-generator-driven-by-a-variable-speed-wind-tur",signatures:"Ofualagba, G and Ubeku, E.U",authors:[{id:"30605",title:"Dr.",name:"G",middleName:null,surname:"Ofualagba",fullName:"G Ofualagba",slug:"g-ofualagba"},{id:"43239",title:"Dr.",name:"E",middleName:null,surname:"Ubeku",fullName:"E Ubeku",slug:"e-ubeku"}]},{id:"16252",title:"Optimisation of the Association of Electric Generator and Static Converter for a Medium Power Wind Turbine",slug:"optimisation-of-the-association-of-electric-generator-and-static-converter-for-a-medium-power-wind-t",signatures:"Daniel Matt, Philippe Enrici, Florian Dumas and Julien Jac",authors:[{id:"28315",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Matt",fullName:"Daniel Matt",slug:"daniel-matt"},{id:"44319",title:"Dr.",name:"Philippe",middleName:null,surname:"ENRICI",fullName:"Philippe ENRICI",slug:"philippe-enrici"},{id:"44320",title:"Dr.",name:"Julien",middleName:null,surname:"JAC",fullName:"Julien JAC",slug:"julien-jac"},{id:"86073",title:"Dr.",name:"Florian",middleName:null,surname:"Dumas",fullName:"Florian Dumas",slug:"florian-dumas"}]},{id:"16253",title:"Advanced Control of Wind Turbines",slug:"advanced-control-of-wind-turbines",signatures:"Abdellatif Khamlichi, Brahim Ayyat, Mohammed Bezzazi and Carlos Vivas",authors:[{id:"29938",title:"Prof.",name:"Khamlichi",middleName:null,surname:"Abdellatif",fullName:"Khamlichi Abdellatif",slug:"khamlichi-abdellatif"},{id:"29942",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayyat",middleName:null,surname:"Brahim",fullName:"Ayyat Brahim",slug:"ayyat-brahim"},{id:"29943",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bezzazi",fullName:"Mohammed Bezzazi",slug:"mohammed-bezzazi"},{id:"29944",title:"Prof.",name:"Vivas Venegas",middleName:null,surname:"Carlos",fullName:"Vivas Venegas Carlos",slug:"vivas-venegas-carlos"}]},{id:"16254",title:"A Complete Control Scheme for Variable Speed Stall Regulated Wind Turbines",slug:"a-complete-control-scheme-for-variable-speed-stall-regulated-wind-turbines",signatures:"Dimitris Bourlis",authors:[{id:"28729",title:"Dr",name:"Dimitris",middleName:null,surname:"Bourlis",fullName:"Dimitris Bourlis",slug:"dimitris-bourlis"}]},{id:"16255",title:"MPPT Control Methods in Wind Energy Conversion Systems",slug:"mppt-control-methods-in-wind-energy-conversion-systems",signatures:"Jogendra Singh Thongam and Mohand Ouhrouche",authors:[{id:"44144",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohand",middleName:null,surname:"Ouhrouche",fullName:"Mohand Ouhrouche",slug:"mohand-ouhrouche"}]},{id:"16256",title:"Modelling and Environmental/Economic Power Dispatch of MicroGrid Using MultiObjective Genetic Algorithm Optimization",slug:"modelling-and-environmental-economic-power-dispatch-of-microgrid-using-multiobjective-genetic-algori",signatures:"Faisal A. 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Papadimitriou and Nicholas A. Vovos",authors:[{id:"29829",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicholas",middleName:null,surname:"Vovos",fullName:"Nicholas Vovos",slug:"nicholas-vovos"},{id:"29832",title:"Mrs.",name:"Christina",middleName:null,surname:"Papadimitriou",fullName:"Christina Papadimitriou",slug:"christina-papadimitriou"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"115",title:"Wind Turbines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"wind-turbines",bookSignature:"Ibrahim Al-Bahadly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/115.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19588",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim H.",surname:"Al-Bahadly",slug:"ibrahim-h.-al-bahadly",fullName:"Ibrahim H. Al-Bahadly"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"148",title:"Wind Farm",subtitle:"Technical Regulations, Potential Estimation and Siting Assessment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f7a3aafd9530aba9911c69ec17d31673",slug:"wind-farm-technical-regulations-potential-estimation-and-siting-assessment",bookSignature:"Gastón O. 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Giridhar Kini",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/214.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"42436",title:"Dr.",name:"Giridhar",surname:"Kini",slug:"giridhar-kini",fullName:"Giridhar Kini"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"72346",title:"Looking at Data Science through the Lens of Scheduling and Load Balancing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92578",slug:"looking-at-data-science-through-the-lens-of-scheduling-and-load-balancing",body:'\nPrivate corporate networks, as well as the Internet, generate and share data at ever increasing rates. This unconstrained growth can easily lead disorganization and, as a consequence, missed opportunities to analyze and extract knowledge for these data. There is an essential difference between the concepts of data and information. Data cannot express something outside a particular field of expertise. In turn, information enables the coherent transmission of knowledge. Data science aims to close the gap between data and knowledge through the use of computational tools. More specifically, data science is a tool for converting raw data into knowledge [1]. The field of data science leverages many methods originating from computer science and statistics [2]. Figure 1 illustrates a Venn’s diagram that correlates the research areas with major influence in data science.
\nVenn’s diagram for correlating the influence of other research areas on data science.
Although data science receives significant influence from expert knowledge, it is plausible to say that a data scientist knows more about computer science than a statistician and more about statistics than a computer scientist [3]. Besides, it also encompasses the intersection of data analytics and machine learning. Therefore, data science encompasses a heterogeneous group of studies and methodologies such as big data, machine learning, data analytics, and statistics, which challenge the implementation of a single platform capable of incorporating all the available techniques.
\nThere are a variety of widely adopted platforms available for data analysis and knowledge extraction, for example, Tableau,1 Dataiko,2 Microsoft Azure Machine Learning Studio,3 Orange BioLab,4 each one suitable for a specific step of a data science process. A workflow can be formulated based on the coordinated application of different tools to extract knowledge from massive datasets. In this context, the use of cloud platforms for data science steadily grows because they offer scalability and distributed execution of individual tasks.
\nIn data science, a large dataset allows the generation of a more in-depth model, which provides more robust insights because there are more instances to compose the statistical analysis of data. One of the most relevant aspects regarding a dataset is the quality of available data. Thus, before the use of any statistical method, the dataset must go through a cleaning process that ensures the uniformity of values and the elimination of duplicated data. On one hand, a large dataset with high-quality data enables an insightful model. On the other hand, the computational power required to process data is directly proportional to the size of the available dataset. In this scenario, high-performance computing (HPC) provides the infrastructure (clusters, grids, and cloud platforms) required to optimize the processing time of data science workflows. In particular, data science demands are transformed in a collection of tasks, with or without the notion of dependency among them, which must be efficiently scheduled along the computational resources [memory, processors, cores, cluster nodes, graphical processing unit (GPU) cores, grid nodes, and virtual machines, for example] to provide the results in an acceptable time interval. To map such tasks to resources, a scheduling policy takes place where load balancing algorithms are important to provide a better execution equilibrium among the tasks and a fast response time, mainly when considering either dynamic or heterogeneous environments. While some articles explore the use of HPC for data science tasks [4, 5, 6], in the best of our knowledge, there are no studies that conduct an in-depth analysis of how the aspects of scheduling and load balancing affect data science workflows.
\nHence, the present book chapter proposes an analysis of scheduling and load balancing from the perspective of data science scenarios. Furthermore, it presents concepts, environments, and tools for data science to summarize the theoretical background required to understand the definition and execution of data science workflows. Even though its focus lies on presenting concepts, the chapter also illustrates new trends concerning the intersection of data science, scheduling, and load balance.
\nThe remainder of this chapter is organized as follows: Section 2 presents an in-depth explanation of concepts, workflow, problem classes, and tools used by data science. Section 3 explores scheduling and load balancing as tools to leverage the computational power required by data science applications. Section 4 points to open challenges and trends in the use of HPC applied to data science problems. Finally, Section 5 concludes the chapter with closing remarks and directions for future work.
\nThis section presents the fundamental concepts related to data science. These are key to understand the concept of HPC, more specifically scheduling and load balancing, impact data science processes, as discussed later in the chapter. The remainder of the section discusses the fundamental components of a data science pipeline, as observed in real-world scenarios.
\nData science is highly dependent on its application domain and employs complex methods. Nevertheless, it has a very organized pipeline, which varies in the number of steps required to extract knowledge. Current work explores a pipeline that varies between five and seven steps, but in all cases, the process yields similar outputs. This section aims at presenting the most complete process, composed of seven steps, widely used by both companies and researchers. Figure 2 depicts the flow of information step by step. Moreover, the seven proposed steps can be enumerated as:
business understanding;
data extraction;
data preparation;
data exploring;
data model;
results evaluation; and
implementation.
Flow diagram of data science steps.
Step 1 refers to the process of understanding in which context the data are inserted on, and what is the expected output. This is a high time-consuming process in a project. However, data scientist must have a deep understanding about the application domain to validate the model’s structure as well as its outputs. After understanding the scope of the project, on Step 2, exploring the data that correlate with the problem understood in the last step. These data can be hosted at the client or not. If the client does not have useful data available, the data scientist must look for a synthetic or publicly available dataset to extract the knowledge. Furthermore, on Step 3, techniques are employed to clean data because there is a high chance that it is unorganized or unreadable, so it is necessary to preprocess and standardize it. An example of this step is a dataset that has a column with country names, but in some registers, the value of this column is “Brasil” and in others, it is “Brazil,” both values symbolize the same information but are encoded in different languages. Regarding Step 4, the data are organized, and it is indispensable to execute a detailed analysis in order to figure out patterns or insights that would be valuable to the client. In this stage, the data scientist usually uses plotting techniques to make the data more readable and figure out information.
\nOn Step 5, previously identified insights serve as input. But at this step, it is vital to fully understand the data since, without formal knowledge, it is very hard to fit a model that correctly represents it. At this stage, it is required that the data scientist uses computer science expertise to choose the better approach to plan and validate the model. In Step 6, outputs generated by the model are evaluated in order to analyze how useful they actually are. Usually, this evaluation is conducted by the client and the data scientist together, to examine graphs, numbers, and tables and define if the model generated acceptable results. Finally, on Step 7, the results are validated, and the model is ready to be implemented and deployed in production; thus, it is applied to prediction tasks, having real data as input. The architecture used to implement the model is very important, that is, it is necessary to understand what will be used for the client application since if the client needs a real-time response, the structure will be very different than a nonreal-time scenario.
\nData science is not exclusively employed in business scenarios, and it can be generalized to a plethora of applications, such as in Obama’s campaign for US presidential elections in 2012. In the context of this election, technology was applied to identify who were the voters that should receive more attention and marketing influence. Some analysts highlighted the use of data science as fundamental to Obama’s victory. However, data science is not limited to the analysis of scenarios, such as in the above example. Many other challenges can benefit from solutions based on data science methodologies. For instance, some problem classes in data science are pattern detection, anomaly detection, cleaning, alignment, classification, regression, knowledge base construction, and density estimation [7]. These classes of problems are explored next.
\nThe patterns existing in a dataset are not always easily identifiable due to the organization of the data. It is the method employed to discover information standards in the dataset. Figuring patterns hidden into data is a relevant task in several scenarios, for example, to join the clients with similar characteristics, such as those with the same taste or opinion.
\nThe distribution of a dataset regards the positions of data points among each other in the dataset. Usually, the representation of this distribution employs a Cartesian plane, in which each point is an instance of the dataset. Within this representation, regions with a defined concentration of data points become clusters. Therefore, outliers are the data points that are too far from these clusters. Anomaly detection aims to classify each data into a dataset as an outlier or not. For example, the banks employ this approach in the scenario of fraud detection. In this scenario, transactions of a client become clusters, and a new transaction is considered as unclassified data.
\nDataset contents can present a broad variety of formats, for example, dates, numeric values, and text data. In many cases, values may also be differently formatted across dataset entries, even for the same field, due to human error or lack of standardization. This situation incurs in errors in the dataset, resulting in possible information loss when processing it. The best solution to this problem is to employ methods that manage the dataset contents and standardize the data. For example, in a dataset containing clients birthdays, it is possible that a user fills the information with an invalid date. This case results in information loss because the analysis cannot extract useful information related to the user’s birthday.
\nAn organized and standardized dataset is fundamental for the generation of trustworthy outputs from data science processes. The process of data alignment is an essential step in dataset standardization. It involves updating the dataset to avoid the use of multiple values to represent the same information. For example, in a dataset containing a gender field, users may use both “M” and “Male” values to represent the same gender. In this context, it is fundamental to unify both entries in one because the information in both is the same.
\nClassification regards assigning specific labels to entries in a dataset. A label is any information that presents a limited scope of possibilities, for example, a dozen options present in a specific dataset field. Examples of labels include sentiments, states, and the scale of integer numbers. This dataset field can then be used to group multiple dataset entries according to the unique values that the label may take. For example, in a dataset about client’s purchases, each product may be associated with a set of keywords. These keywords can then be used to classify the types of purchases a particular client makes, enabling targeted recommendations for other products.
\nDatasets do not always contain fields with labels that enable the classification of data. Nevertheless, in some problems, it is necessary to label values without a restricted group of options, for example, using a field that contains real numbers. This scenario requires a regression approach to estimate which classes an entry should receive, without considering the limited options available in labels. For example, in a dataset with prices and sizes of houses in New York, it is possible to use regression to estimate the price of a new house according to its size. Although the regression problem has an output similar to classification, its output does not have a limited set of values, as occurs in labeling.
\nDatasets are essential for data science, and the problem of knowledge base construction refers to the process of compiling information to create them. Frequently, this process requires the use of cleaning and alignment methods to standardize data. There are a broad group of knowledge bases on the Internet, for example, Kaggle,5 UCI Repository,6 Quandl,7 and MSCOCO.8\n
\nDensity estimation focuses on identifying the clusters that group sets of data points that represent the entries in a dataset. This process is a fundamental step to generate the clusters required by anomaly detection methodologies, as described above. Clustering is another suitable technique to identify groups of entries that may contain related knowledge within a dataset.
\nIt is difficult to find a tool that fits all data science processes because, as previously mentioned, there are multiple steps with a variety of methods available for use. Hence, there are specific tools for each step, which will provide the most appropriate result. Table 1 summarizes the most commonly cited tools for each one of the data science workflow steps. The table has a row that is not considered a step of the process, but it is fundamental to results that are Storage Data, which refer to all technologies used for persisting the data in an environment. In the section of data model, some programming languages are cited, but it is hard for a data scientist to employ a language without libraries. For example, using Python is very usual to use libraries such as pandas, sci-kit learn, numpy, and ggplot.
\nStage | \nTools | \n
---|---|
Store data | \nMySql, Mongo DB, Cassandra, PLSql, Redis, HBase | \n
Data preparation | \nApache Hive | \n
Data exploring | \nKnime, Elasticsearch | \n
Data model | \nPython, R, Julia, Clojure, SPSS, SAS, Apache Manhout | \n
Results evaluation | \nTableau, Cognos, ggplot, QlikView, Power BI | \n
Development | \nApache Hadoop, Java, Scala, C, Apache Spark, Haskell | \n
Tools used per step of data science.
The scheduling problem, in a general view, comprises both a set of resources and a set of consumers [8]. Its focus is to find an appropriate policy to manage the use of resources by several consumers in order to optimize a particular performance metric chosen as a parameter. The evaluation of a scheduling proposal commonly considers two features: (1) performance and (2) efficiency [9]. More specifically, the evaluation comprises the obtained scheduling as well as the time spent to execute the scheduler policies. For example, if the parameter to analyze the achieved scheduling is the application execution time, the lower this value, the better the scheduler performance. In turn, efficiency refers to the policies adopted by the scheduler and can be evaluated using computational complexity functions [10].
\nThe general scheduling problem is the unification of two terms in everyday use in the literature. There is often an implicit distinction between the terms scheduling and allocation. Nevertheless, it can be argued that these are merely alternative formulations of the same problem, with allocation posed in terms of resource allocation (from the resources point of view), and scheduling viewed from the consumers’ point of view. In this sense, allocation and scheduling are merely two terms describing the same general mechanism but described from different viewpoints. One important issue when treating scheduling is the grain of the consumers [11]. For example, we can have a graph of tasks, a set of processes, and jobs that need resources to execute. In this context, scheduling schemes for multiprogrammed parallel systems can be viewed in two levels. In the first level, processors are allocated to a specific job. In the second level, processes from a job are scheduled using this pool of processors.
\nWe define static scheduling considering the scheduling grain as a task [8]. If data such as information about the processors, the execution time of the tasks, the size of the data, the communication pattern, and the dependency relation among the tasks are known in advance, we can affirm that we have a static or deterministic scheduling model. In this approach, each executable image in the system has a static assignment to a particular set of processors. Scheduling decisions are made deterministically or probabilistically at compile time and remain constant during runtime. The static approach is simple to be implemented. However, it is pointed out that it has two significant disadvantages [11]. First, the workload distribution and the behavior of many applications cannot be predicted before program execution. Second, static scheduling assumes that the characteristics of the computing resources and communication network are known in advance and remain constant. Such an assumption may not be applied to grid environments, for instance.
\nIn the general form of a static task scheduling problem, an application is represented by a directed acyclic graph (DAG) in which nodes represent application tasks, and edges represent intertask data dependencies [12].
\nEach node label shows computation cost (expected computation time) of the task, and each edge label shows intertask communication cost (expected communication time) between tasks. The objective function of this problem is to map tasks onto processors and order their executions, so that task-precedence requirements are satisfied, and the minimum overall completion time is obtained.
\nIn the case that all information regarding the state of the system as well as the resource needs of a process is known, an optimal assignment can be proposed [11]. Even with all information required for the scheduling, the static method is often computationally expensive getting to the point of being infeasible. Thus, this fact results in suboptimal solutions. We have two general categories within the realm of suboptimal solutions for the scheduling problem: (1) approximate and (2) heuristic. Approximate scheduling uses the same methods used in the optimal one, but instead exploring all possible ideal solutions, it stops when a good one is achieved. Heuristic scheduling uses standard parameters and ideas that affect the behavior of the parallel system. For example, we can group processes with higher communication rate to the same local network or sort works and processors in lists following some predefined criteria in order to perform an efficient mapping among them (list scheduling).
\nDynamic scheduling works with the idea that a little (or none) a priori knowledge about the needs and the behavior of the application is available [9]. It is also unknown in what environment the process will execute during its lifetime. The arrival of new tasks, the relation among them, and data about the target architecture are unpredictable, and the runtime environment takes the decision of the consumer-resource mapping. The responsibility of global scheduling can be assigned either to a single processor (physically nondistributed) or practiced by a set of processors (physically distributed). Within the realm of this last classification, the taxonomy may also distinguish between those mechanisms that involve cooperation between the distributed components (cooperative) and those in which the individual processors make decisions independent of the actions of the other processors (noncooperative). In the cooperative case, each processor has the responsibility to carry out its portion of the scheduling, but all processors are working toward a common system-wide goal.
\nData science comprises the manipulation of a large set of data to extract knowledge [13, 14]. To accomplish this, we have input that is passed through processing engines to generate valuable outputs. In particular, this second step is usually processed as sequential programs that implement both artificial intelligence and statistical-based computational methods. We can take profit from the several processing cores that exist in today’s processors to map this sequential demand to be executed in a multithreading program. To accomplish this, Pthreads library and OpenMP are the most common approaches to write multithread parallel programs, where each thread can be mapped to a different core, so exploiting the full power of a multiprocessor HPC architecture.
\nIn addition to multiprocessor architectures, it is possible to transform a sequential code in message passing interface (MPI)-based parallel one, so targeting distributed architectures such as clusters and grids [15]. In this way, contrary to the prior alternative that encompasses the use of standard multiprocessor systems, the efficient use of MPI needs a parallel machine that generally has higher financial costs. Also, a distributed program is more error prone, since problems in the nodes or the network can put all application down. Repairing these future problems sometimes is not trivial, requiring graphical tools to observe processes’ interactions. Finally, in addition to multicore and multicomputer architectures, we also have the use of GPU, where graphic cards present a set of nongeneral purpose processors to execute vector calculus much faster than the conventional general-purpose processors [14]. The challenge consists in transforming a sequential code in a parallel one in a transparent way at the user viewpoint, in such a way the data science demand can run faster in parallel deployments. Moreover, the combination of these three aforesaid parallel techniques is also a challenge since optimizations commonly vary from one application to another.
\nCloud computing environments today also represent a viable solution to run data science demands [16]. Providers such as Amazon EC2, Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud have HPC-driven architectures to exploit multiprocessor, multicomputer, and GPU parallelism. In particular, different from standard distributed systems, cloud computing presents the resource elasticity feature where an initial deployment can be on-the-fly changed following the input demand. Thus, it is possible to scale resources in or out (through the addition or removal of containers/virtual machines) or to scale down or up (by performing resource resizing in virtual units) in a transparent way to the user. Logically, the own data science application must be written in such a way to take profit of newly available resources as the current set of working resources.
\nThe CPU load is the most common metric to drive resource elasticity data science demands since most of them execute CPU-bound artificial intelligence-based algorithms. Any network data manipulation through the TCP protocol uses CPU cycles since this is a software protocol executed in the kernel of the operating system and executes software routines to provide data transfer reliability.
\nLoad balancing and resource scheduling are sometimes seen as having the same functionality. However, there is a slight difference: one of the members of resource scheduling is the scheduling, and this policy can employ or not load balancing algorithms [14]. The basic idea of load balancing is to attempt to balance the load on all processors in such a way to allow all processes on all nodes to proceed at approximately with the same rate. The most significant reason to launch the load balancing is the fact that exists an amount of processing power that is not used efficiently, mainly in dynamic and heterogeneous environments, including grids. In this context, schedulers’ policies can use load balancing mechanisms for several purposes, such as: (1) to choose the amount of work to be sent to a process; (2) to move work from an overloaded processor to another that presents a light load; (3) to choose a place (node) to launch a new process from a parallel application; and (4) to decide about process migration. Load balancing is especially essential for some parallel applications that present synchronization points, in which the processes must execute together with the next step.
\nThe most fundamental topic in load balancing consists of determining the measure of the load [13, 15]. There are many different possible measures of load including: (1) number of tasks in a queue; (2) CPU load average; (3) CPU utilization at specific moment; (4) I/O utilization; (5) amount of free CPU; (6) amount of free memory; (7) amount of communication among the processes; and so on. Besides this, we can have any combinations of the above indicators. Considering the scope of processes from the operating system, such measures will influence in deciding about when to trigger the load balancing, which processes will be involved, and where are the destination places in which these processes will execute. Especially on the last topic, other factors to consider when selecting where to put a process include the nearness to resources, some processor and operating system capabilities, and specialized hardware/software features. We must first determine when to balance the load to turn the mechanism useful. Doing so is composed of two phases: (1) detecting that a load unbalancing exists and (2) determining if the cost of load balancing exceeds its possible benefits.
\nThe use of load balancing in data science demands can vary depending on the structure of the parallel applications: Master-Slave, Bag of Tasks, Divide-and-Conquer, Pipeline, or Bulk-Synchronous Parallel [15, 16]. In the first two, we usually have a centralized environment where it is easy to know data about the whole set of resources, to dispatching tasks to them following their load and theoretical capacity. A traditional example of a combination of these parallel applications is the MapReduce framework. In the divide-and-conquer applications, we have a recursive nature to execute the parallel application where new levels of child nodes are created with the upper one cannot execute the tasks in an acceptable time interval. The challenge consists of dividing the tasks rightly following the capacity of the resources. Pipeline-based applications, in their turn, have a set of stages where each incoming task must cross. In order to maintain the cadence between the stages, they must execute in the same time interval, so an outcoming task from the stage
This section aims at compiling the previous two sections, so detailing open opportunities and trends when joining resource scheduling and load balancing and the area of data science. In this way, we compile these aspects as follows:
Automatic transformation of a sequential data science demand to a parallel one—today data science executes locally to query databases and to build knowledge graphs. Sometimes these tasks are time consuming, then it is pertinent to transform a sequential demand in a parallel one to execute faster on multicore, multinode, and GPU architectures.
Use of GPU cards as an accelerator for data science algorithms—write of data science demands that combine R and Python together with OpenCL or CUDA programming languages, so combining CPU and GPU codes with running fast and in parallel to address a particular data science demand.
Combination of multimetric load balancing engine to handle data science efficiently—data science typically encompasses excellent access to IO (including main memory and hard disk) and a high volume of CPU cycles to process CPU-bound algorithms. In this way, the idea is to execute data science demands and learn their behavior, so proposing an adaptable load balancing metrics that take into account different parameters as input.
Task migration heuristics—when developing long-running data science parallel codes, it is essential to develop task migration alternatives to reschedule demands from one resource to another. This is particularly pertinent on dynamic environments, either at the application or infrastructure level.
Cloud elasticity to address data science demand—cloud elasticity comes to adapt the number of the resource following the current demand. Thus, we propose a combination of vertical and horizontal elasticity, together with reactive and proactive approaches to detect abnormal situations. We can use both consolidation and inclusion of resources, aiming to always accommodate the most appropriate number of resources for a particular and momentaneous data science demand.
Definition of a standard API to deal with data science—frequently enterprises present several departments, each one with its data science demands. In this way, we envisage an opportunity on developing a standard framework (with a standard API too) to support the data science demands of the whole enterprise. The idea is to provide a dashboard with a collection of data science functions, also expressing the expected input and the output for each one.
Smart correlation of events—enterprises regularly have timed data in several databases. We present an opportunity, at each time a problem is found, to take this particular timestamp and compare in the data sources looking for eventual data correlations. Thus, we can perceive relations such as: (1) if this happens, these other things will also happen and (2) this event happened because a set of prior events happened beforehand.
Benchmark to evaluate a mapping of data science tasks to HPC resources—how we know if particular scheduling outperforms another one for executing a particular data science demand? We see as an opportunity for the exploration of benchmarks to evaluate scheduling and load balancing techniques that manipulate data science tasks. Thus, such benchmarks must define what they expect as input and provide a set of metrics as output. Yet, the output can be a single value, a collection of values (as a data vector), or a collection of elements of a data structure (e.g., timestamp and data are useful to develop user profiles and tracking of assets).
Simulation environment to execute data science demands on distributed resources, but doing all of this a local program—simulation environments, like Simgrid or GridSim, are useful to use a sequential program to test and simulate complex parallel demands on a set of virtual resources. Thus, we can save time on testing different parameters and algorithms when developing scheduling and load balancing algorithms for data science.
Definition of metrics to evaluate the scheduling and/or load balancing of data science tasks—CPU load, memory footprint, disk space, network throughput, and cache hit rate are examples of metrics that are commonly employed on distributed systems. Data science is a new area of knowledge, where we encourage the definition of new metrics to compare the execution of data science demands.
The continuous generation of data by different industry segments presents a valuable opportunity for analysis and knowledge extraction through data science methods. There is a high interest in studies that explore the application of data science to a variety of scenarios, each one with distinct characteristics that reflect on the composition of available datasets. Furthermore, there is not a single data science methodology that is applied to all possible data science problems. Consequently, the most common approach to data science problems is to define a sequence of methods that depend on the characteristics of the dataset and the intended results.
\nThe constant growth in dataset sizes and the complexity of specific data science methods also impose a considerable challenge to provide the computational power required to process data and extract meaningful knowledge. In this context, cloud, fog, and grid computing architectures present themselves as ideal solutions to apply data science processes to massively sized datasets.
\nThe distributed nature of such environments raises a series of new challenges, some of which widely studied in the literature. Nevertheless, the unique characteristics of data science workloads bring new aspects to these challenges, which require renewed attention from the scientific community.
\nThis chapter focused on the specific challenge of scheduling and load balancing in the context of computational environments applied to data science. We presented an overview of data science processes, in addition to how scheduling and load balancing methodologies impact these processes and what aspects to consider when using distributed environments applied to data science. In particular, the challenge of enabling the automatic transformation of sequential data science demands into parallel ones is of particular interest because it abstracts part of the complexity involved in parallelizing data science tasks. As a result, such an automatic transformation promotes wider adoption of distributed environments as standard tools for large-scale data science processes.
\nAnother notable challenge is to develop cloud elasticity techniques tailored to data science tasks. Such techniques must consider the specific requirements of data science processes to guarantee the proper reservation of resources and migration of tasks in order to guarantee a high throughput for such scenarios. These and the other investigated challenges represent prime research opportunities to increase the performance of data science processes.
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\\n\\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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Jamet"},{id:"163462",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent",middleName:null,surname:"Vantrepotte",slug:"vincent-vantrepotte",fullName:"Vincent Vantrepotte"},{id:"167707",title:"MSc.",name:"Dat",middleName:null,surname:"Dinh Ngoc",slug:"dat-dinh-ngoc",fullName:"Dat Dinh Ngoc"}]},{id:"20922",doi:"10.5772/21416",title:"Sediment Transport and River Channel Dynamics in Romania – Variability and Control Factors",slug:"sediment-transport-and-river-channel-dynamics-in-romania-variability-and-control-factors",totalDownloads:3051,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"304",slug:"sediment-transport-in-aquatic-environments",title:"Sediment Transport in Aquatic Environments",fullTitle:"Sediment Transport in Aquatic Environments"},signatures:"Liliana Zaharia, Florina Grecu, Gabriela Ioana-Toroimac and Gianina Neculau",authors:[{id:"43010",title:"Prof.",name:"Liliana",middleName:null,surname:"Zaharia",slug:"liliana-zaharia",fullName:"Liliana Zaharia"},{id:"55977",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Ioana-Toroimac",slug:"gabriela-ioana-toroimac",fullName:"Gabriela Ioana-Toroimac"},{id:"91185",title:"Prof.",name:"Grecu",middleName:null,surname:"Florina",slug:"grecu-florina",fullName:"Grecu Florina"},{id:"91186",title:"Dr.",name:"Gianina",middleName:null,surname:"Neculau",slug:"gianina-neculau",fullName:"Gianina Neculau"}]},{id:"66461",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85139",title:"Fish Sperm Physiology: Structure, Factors Regulating Motility, and Motility Evaluation",slug:"fish-sperm-physiology-structure-factors-regulating-motility-and-motility-evaluation",totalDownloads:1840,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"For reproduction, most fish species adopt external fertilization: their spermatozoa are delivered in the external milieu (marine- or freshwater) that represents both a drastic environment and a source of signals that control the motility function. This chapter is an updated overview of the signaling pathways going from external signals such as osmolarity and ionic concentration and their membrane reception to their transduction through the membrane and their final reception at the flagellar axoneme level. Additional factors such as energy management will be addressed as they constitute a limiting factor of the motility period of fish spermatozoa. Modern technologies used nowadays for quantitative description of fish sperm flagella in movement will be briefly described as they are more and more needed for prediction of the quality of sperm used for artificial propagation of many fish species used in aquaculture. The chapter will present some applications of these technologies and the information to which they allow access in some aquaculture species.",book:{id:"7912",slug:"biological-research-in-aquatic-science",title:"Biological Research in Aquatic Science",fullTitle:"Biological Research in Aquatic Science"},signatures:"Jacky Cosson",authors:[{id:"188281",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacky",middleName:null,surname:"Cosson",slug:"jacky-cosson",fullName:"Jacky Cosson"}]},{id:"20911",doi:"10.5772/19948",title:"The Significance of Suspended Sediment Transport Determination on the Amazonian Hydrological Scenario",slug:"the-significance-of-suspended-sediment-transport-determination-on-the-amazonian-hydrological-scenari",totalDownloads:4130,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:null,book:{id:"304",slug:"sediment-transport-in-aquatic-environments",title:"Sediment Transport in Aquatic Environments",fullTitle:"Sediment Transport in Aquatic Environments"},signatures:"Naziano Filizola, Jean-Loup Guyot, Hella Wittmann, Jean-Michel Martinez and Eurides de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"36890",title:"Dr.",name:"Naziano",middleName:null,surname:"Filizola",slug:"naziano-filizola",fullName:"Naziano Filizola"},{id:"60004",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez",slug:"jean-michel-martinez",fullName:"Jean-Michel Martinez"},{id:"60005",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Loup",middleName:null,surname:"Guyot",slug:"jean-loup-guyot",fullName:"Jean-Loup Guyot"},{id:"102592",title:"Dr.",name:"Hella",middleName:null,surname:"Wittmann",slug:"hella-wittmann",fullName:"Hella Wittmann"},{id:"102593",title:"Mr.",name:"Eurides",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"eurides-de-oliveira",fullName:"Eurides De Oliveira"}]},{id:"45198",doi:"10.5772/56105",title:"Stable Isotope Methods for the Study of the Nitrogen Cycle",slug:"stable-isotope-methods-for-the-study-of-the-nitrogen-cycle",totalDownloads:4680,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:null,book:{id:"3517",slug:"topics-in-oceanography",title:"Topics in Oceanography",fullTitle:"Topics in Oceanography"},signatures:"Evgenia Ryabenko",authors:[{id:"163463",title:"Dr.",name:"Evgenia",middleName:null,surname:"Ryabenko",slug:"evgenia-ryabenko",fullName:"Evgenia Ryabenko"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60368",title:"Biological and Medicinal Importance of Sponge",slug:"biological-and-medicinal-importance-of-sponge",totalDownloads:2505,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Sponges are multicellular, heterotrophic parazoan organisms, characterized by the possession of unique feeding system among the animals. They are the most primitive types of animals in existence, featuring a cell-based organization where different cells have different tasks, but do not form tissues. Sponges (Porifera) are a predominantly marine phylum living from the intertidal to the abyssal (deepest ocean) zone. There are approximately 8500 described species of sponges worldwide with a prominent role in many reef coral communities. Several ecological studies reported have shown that secondary metabolites isolated from sponges often serve defensive purposes to protect them from threats such as predator attacks, biofouling, microbial infections, and overgrowth by other sessile organisms. In the recent years, interest in marine sponges has risen considerably due to presence of high number of interesting biologically active natural products. More than 5300 different natural products are known from sponges and their associated microorganisms, and every year hundreds of new substances are discovered. In addition to the unusual nucleosides, other classes of substances such as bioactive terpenes, sterols, fatty acids, alkaloids, cyclic peptides, peroxides, and amino acid derivatives (which are frequently halogenated) have been described from sponges or from their associated microorganisms. Many of these natural products from sponges have shown a wide range of pharmacological activities such as anticancer, antifungal, antiviral, anthelmintic, antiprotozoal, anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive, neurosuppressive, and antifouling activities. This chapter covers extensive work published regarding new compounds isolated from marine sponges and biological activities associated with them.",book:{id:"6344",slug:"biological-resources-of-water",title:"Biological Resources of Water",fullTitle:"Biological Resources of Water"},signatures:"Musarat Amina and Nawal M. Al Musayeib",authors:[{id:"213049",title:"Dr.",name:"Musarat",middleName:null,surname:"Amina",slug:"musarat-amina",fullName:"Musarat Amina"},{id:"213050",title:"Dr.",name:"Nawal",middleName:null,surname:"M. Al Musayeib",slug:"nawal-m.-al-musayeib",fullName:"Nawal M. Al Musayeib"}]},{id:"59865",title:"Marine Fisheries in Nigeria: A Review",slug:"marine-fisheries-in-nigeria-a-review",totalDownloads:3853,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Fisheries production especially from marine is important for the socio-economic development of Nigerians and its contribution to the nation’s economic growth through the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Nigeria is blessed with enough marine fisheries resources that could enhance increased fish production. Yet, fish supply from domestic production is far below the fish demand of her citizens. This chapter is therefore focused on marine fisheries in Nigeria. We adopted a desk review approach. This chapter is divided into different sections such as the Nigerian fisheries sector, marine fisheries resources in Nigeria, status of marine fisheries production in Nigeria, marine fisheries regulations, and constraints to optimal marine fisheries production in Nigeria. We concluded that the contribution of aquaculture to marine fisheries production has been low, compared to the marine capture fisheries production. Also, we noted that despite the availability of regulations, noncompliance by fisher folks has not helped to optimize marine fisheries production. We therefore recommended that the culture of marine fishes should be intensified. Marine waters should also be protected against destruction and pollution as a result of human activities. Available marine fisheries regulations should be enforced and violators of the regulations should be punished as stipulated in the regulations.",book:{id:"6266",slug:"marine-ecology-biotic-and-abiotic-interactions",title:"Marine Ecology",fullTitle:"Marine Ecology - Biotic and Abiotic Interactions"},signatures:"Olalekan Jacob Olaoye and Wahab Gbenga Ojebiyi",authors:null},{id:"57327",title:"Closed Aquaculture System: Zero Water Discharge for Shrimp and Prawn Farming in Indonesia",slug:"closed-aquaculture-system-zero-water-discharge-for-shrimp-and-prawn-farming-in-indonesia",totalDownloads:2465,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the development and application of zero water discharge (ZWD) system, which has become an alternative solution to conventional methods of aquaculture production. With this system, it is expected to answer many issues in aquaculture cultivation, such as environmental damage, disease outbreak, and land-use change, and to create a sustainable aquaculture cultivation system. ZWD system is an improved batch system with an emphasis on microbial manipulation in rearing tank. The principle of microbial selection is based on the role of each microbial component in nutrient cycle in the rearing tank. This chapter contains in detail how methods and stages are performed in order to conduct this system, including design of construction system, cultivation of microbial components, initial conditioning of this system, and microbial manipulation. The performance of the system was tested in crustacean culture such as white shrimp and giant freshwater prawns, and it showed that the system can increase the average survival rate of 10–20%. In addition, the technical and economic feasibility of this system was evaluated to illustrate the production efficiency upon the application of this system in the industry.",book:{id:"6344",slug:"biological-resources-of-water",title:"Biological Resources of Water",fullTitle:"Biological Resources of Water"},signatures:"Gede Suantika, Magdalena Lenny Situmorang, Pingkan Aditiawati,\nDea Indriani Astuti, Fahma Fiqhiyyah Nur Azizah and Harish\nMuhammad",authors:[{id:"216920",title:"Dr.",name:"Gede",middleName:null,surname:"Suantika",slug:"gede-suantika",fullName:"Gede Suantika"},{id:"220079",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena Lenny",middleName:null,surname:"Situmorang",slug:"magdalena-lenny-situmorang",fullName:"Magdalena Lenny Situmorang"},{id:"220081",title:"Dr.",name:"Pingkan",middleName:null,surname:"Aditiawati",slug:"pingkan-aditiawati",fullName:"Pingkan Aditiawati"},{id:"220082",title:"Dr.",name:"Dea Indriani",middleName:null,surname:"Astuti",slug:"dea-indriani-astuti",fullName:"Dea Indriani Astuti"},{id:"220083",title:"MSc.",name:"Fahma Fiqhiyyah Nur",middleName:null,surname:"Azizah",slug:"fahma-fiqhiyyah-nur-azizah",fullName:"Fahma Fiqhiyyah Nur Azizah"}]},{id:"59973",title:"Genetic Applications in the Conservation of Neotropical Freshwater Fish",slug:"genetic-applications-in-the-conservation-of-neotropical-freshwater-fish",totalDownloads:1627,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Neotropical fish correspond to approximately 30% of all fish species worldwide. The diversity of fish species found in Neotropical basins reflects variations in life-history strategies and exhibition of particular morphological, physiological and ecological attributes. These attributes are mainly related to different forms of feeding, life maintenance and reproduction. Today, fish populations are being threatened by anthropogenic actions that are having a visible impact on the natural state of continental aquatic ecosystems. The main causes are overfishing, non-native species introduction, reservoir-dam systems, mining, pollution and deforestation. The biology and population dynamics of the species are still unclear due to lack of research. Genetic tools can be useful resources for the conservation of Neotropical fish species in several ways. Molecular genetic markers are considered powerful tools to identify cryptic and hybrid fish and also allow the evaluation of the genetic variability and structure of populations of Neotropical ichthyofauna. Several analyses of molecular markers have been performed on Neotropical fish, including allozyme analysis, restriction fragment length polymorphisms in regions of DNA (RFLP), randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (AFLP), randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), microsatellites, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) markers. In order to analyse a high number of markers, next generation sequencing has allowed researchers to generate a large amount of genomic information that can be applied to the conservation of Neotropical fish.",book:{id:"6344",slug:"biological-resources-of-water",title:"Biological Resources of Water",fullTitle:"Biological Resources of Water"},signatures:"Vito Antonio Mastrochirico Filho, Milena V. Freitas, Raquel B.\nAriede, Lieschen V.G. Lira, Natália J. Mendes and Diogo T.\nHashimoto",authors:[{id:"215385",title:"Dr.",name:"Diogo",middleName:null,surname:"Hashimoto",slug:"diogo-hashimoto",fullName:"Diogo Hashimoto"},{id:"226741",title:"MSc.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Matrochirico-Filho",slug:"vito-matrochirico-filho",fullName:"Vito Matrochirico-Filho"},{id:"226743",title:"MSc.",name:"Milena",middleName:null,surname:"Freitas",slug:"milena-freitas",fullName:"Milena Freitas"},{id:"226744",title:"MSc.",name:"Raquel",middleName:null,surname:"Ariede",slug:"raquel-ariede",fullName:"Raquel Ariede"},{id:"226745",title:"MSc.",name:"Natália",middleName:null,surname:"Mendes",slug:"natalia-mendes",fullName:"Natália Mendes"},{id:"226746",title:"MSc.",name:"Lieschen",middleName:null,surname:"Lira",slug:"lieschen-lira",fullName:"Lieschen Lira"}]},{id:"62582",title:"Mangrove Species Distribution and Composition, Adaptive Strategies and Ecosystem Services in the Niger River Delta, Nigeria",slug:"mangrove-species-distribution-and-composition-adaptive-strategies-and-ecosystem-services-in-the-nige",totalDownloads:2139,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Mangroves of the Niger River Delta grade into several plant communities from land to sea. This mangrove is a biodiversity hot spot, and one of the richest in ecosystem services in the world, but due to lack of data it is often not mentioned in many global mangrove studies. Inland areas are sandy and mostly inhabited by button wood mangroves (Conocarpus erectus) and grass species while seaward areas are mostly inhabited by red (Rhizophora racemosa), black (Laguncularia racemosa) and white (Avicennia germinans) mangroves species. Anthropogenic activities such as oil and gas exploration, deforestation, dredging, urbanization and invasive nypa palms had changed the soil type from swampy to sandy mud soil. Muddy soil supports nypa palms while sandy soil supports different grass species, core mangrove soil supports red mangroves (R. racemosa), which are the most dominant of all species, with importance value (Iv) of 52.02. The red mangroves are adapted to the swampy soils. They possess long root system (i.e. 10 m) that originates from the tree stem to the ground, to provide extra support. The red mangrove trees are economically most viable as the main source of fire wood for cooking, medicinal herbs and dyes for clothes.",book:{id:"6411",slug:"mangrove-ecosystem-ecology-and-function",title:"Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function",fullTitle:"Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function"},signatures:"Aroloye O. Numbere",authors:[{id:"215285",title:"Dr.",name:"Aroloye O.",middleName:null,surname:"Numbere",slug:"aroloye-o.-numbere",fullName:"Aroloye O. 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