Presentation of articles: “Meniere\'s disease” and “caffeine”.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4575",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Scene Reconstruction Pose Estimation and Tracking",title:"Scene Reconstruction Pose Estimation and Tracking",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book reports recent advances in the use of pattern recognition techniques for computer and robot vision. 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It is found in a variety of products such as coffee, tea, chocolate, soft drinks, mate, guarana powder, slimming drugs, diuretics, stimulants, painkillers, and anti‐allergics [1, 2].
The effects of caffeine have been investigated for a long time; however, there is still no consensus on the effect of this substance in the body [1]. Its action and its effect on the body are still controversial in the scientific literature. They are described as benefits the improvement of cognitive and psychomotor performance, alertness, attention span, attention, and memory; enhances visual and auditory vigilance; and decreases sleepiness and fatigue [3]. It also describes that it may cause tachycardia, increased gastric secretion, diuresis, increased levels of fatty acids in the plasma, cerebral vascular constriction, and dilation system of the other vessels of the body when in high doses [1].
Meniere’s disease is a clinical syndrome that affects the inner ear, and it is characterized by episodes of spontaneous vertigo, usually associated with unilateral fluctuating sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL), tinnitus, and aural fullness [4]. It is believed that there is an association between the use or caffeine abstention with complaints of vertigo and tinnitus. However, the evidence supporting this claim is conflicting and sparse [5, 6].
Caffeine is the most consumed psychoactive substance in the world and is found in many different products such as coffee, tea, chocolate, soft drinks, mate, guarana powder, diuretics, stimulants, analgesics, and anti‐allergic [1].
Caffeine (1, 3, 7‐trimethylxanthine) is a stimulant of the central nervous system belonging to the group of methylxanthines [2, 7, 8]. The interaction of caffeine with the organism is difficult to research because factors such as age, presence of chronic diseases, gender, and intake of other substances such as tobacco interfere with this interaction [8].
It is believed that, with regard to pharmacokinetics, caffeine has rapid absorption, 99% absorbed within 45 minutes after its ingestion [9, 10]. It is fat‐soluble, being able to overcome all biological barriers [1, 10]. The plasma concentration in humans is achieved between15 and 120 minutes after intake [11]. In humans, doses below 10 mg/kg have half‐life by 2.5–4.5 hours and was not related difference in young and elderly subjects [1, 10].
Caffeine improves cognitive and psychomotor performance, alertness, ability to concentrate, attention, and memory; improves auditory and visual vigilance; and reduces sleepiness and fatigue [3]. Caffeine in high doses can cause tachycardia, increased gastric secretion, diuresis, increased levels of fatty acids in plasma, constriction in the cerebral vascular system, and expansion of other vessels of the body [1].
In otorhinolaryngology (ENT)/audiology, it has been linked to several symptoms and diseases, such as tinnitus, hydrops, dizziness, laryngopharynx acid reflux disease (LPRD), and as a risk factor for head and neck cancer [5, 6].
Caffeine mechanism of action for the production of these effects has not been fully elucidated. However, it is known that the caffeine molecule is chemically similar to other metabolically important compounds such as purines (adenine, guanine), adenosine, xanthine, and uric acid. Due to the structural similarity of caffeine molecule with adenosine, caffeine connects itself to adenosine A1 and A2A receptors, blocking them. Thus, adenosine cannot perform their inhibitory effect, which occurs through the release of several neurotransmitters, such as glutamate, acetylcholine, monoamines, and gamma‐aminobutyric acid [8, 12].
Other effects such as the inhibition of phosphodiesterase (cAMP enzyme inactivating) and release of intracellular calcium are also described, however, occur only at high doses of caffeine, which cannot be achieved only with the coffee intake [8, 10]. It is suggested that the mechanisms are unrelated to the central effects of caffeine [13].
Studies suggest that caffeine also has a vasoconstrictor effect, especially when binds to A2 receptors. Functional magnetic resonance demonstrated a reduction in cerebral perfusion after caffeine intake. Nonetheless, this is the predominant effect at high doses [13].
There are over a hundred years had been reported that the abrupt discontinuation of the act of drinking coffee can cause severe headaches [12, 14]. The most common symptoms of the withdrawal of caffeine are headache, fatigue, lethargy, flu‐like symptoms, and mood disorders [15]. These effects appear 12–14 hours after discontinuation of caffeine consumption and dissipate between 4 and 7 days after their occurrence [16]. The intensity of the symptoms seems to depend on the dose of caffeine that the individual usually ingest [17], although it has been reported in sporadic consumers [18]. The authors add that, despite a dose‐dependent, caffeine is not effective to alleviate the symptoms caused by one’s abstinence.
Meniere’s disease is characterized by recurrent vertigo, fluctuating hearing loss, and persistent tinnitus [19]. The traditional treatment for Meniere’s disease involves, in addition to medication and surgical procedures when indicated, a diet that restricts sodium, caffeine, and alcohol [20].
Some authors argue that the treatment of Meniere’s disease is empirical and propose food restriction as an initial treatment step, not justifying the need to abstain from caffeine [21]. The recommendation of a diet free of caffeine for Meniere’s disease is based on the professional’s experience, without scientific evidence [22].
It was believed that sodium restriction followed the same idea of the use of diuretics, or reduced fluid retention in the inner ear. However, it was proved that the critical feature is the sodium level constant [20].
The justification for the recommendation given to Meniere’s disease patients to avoid salt is the same to avoid caffeine. It is based on the theory that considers Hydrops as a cause, not symptoms of the disease. They believed that this substance causes large fluid shifts through physiologic compartments and hence result in inner ear instability [6]. Nonetheless, a cross‐over study did not find significant effect of caffeine on hydratation status when body weight and urinary output were measured [23].
Using the keywords “Meniere’s disease” and “caffeine,” in PubMed, only one clinical study was found seeking to investigate this relationship (see Table 1).
Author, origin, and year of publication | Study design | Sample size | Conclusion |
---|---|---|---|
Luxford et al., USA, 2013 [22] | Mailed patient retrospective questionnaire and chart review | 136 | No statistical significance was found when analyzed only limit caffeine consumption in relation to the numbers of crisis and the severity of symptoms |
Presentation of articles: “Meniere\'s disease” and “caffeine”.
Seeking to verify adherence to a diet consisting of control the sodium and caffeine, in patients with Meniere’s disease, a retrospective study was conducted. The numbers of crises and the severity of symptoms decrease, as reported by the participants; however, no statistical significance was found when we analyzed only limited caffeine consumption. Fewer participants were able to restrict caffeine intake compared to reducing sodium intake. The authors suggest the need for prospective controlled studies to reduce the variables found, adding up to more conclusive results [22].
Another study aiming to characterize the patients with Meniere’s disease found that 30.1% use decaffeinated coffee, higher percentage than the 19% who make use of this type of coffee in the control group. The authors complete that this restriction is based on limited evidence but are extremely well publicized in the media [24].
Caffeine consumption and interruption has been related to the trigger dizziness, tinnitus, and migraine. In clinical practice, discontinuation of caffeine intake is a common recommendation for patients with these symptoms. However, some professionals report that despite well meaning this is a painful recommendation and may aggravate the discomfort reported by the patient as it can add the effects of caffeine withdrawal syndrome [5, 25].
Three systems (vestibular, visual, and proprioceptive) interact with each other to ensure the body balance. The vestibular system has three functions: to provide information about body position, correct body movements that deviate from its center of mass, and control eye movement to keep the visual motor while the individual or the environment is in motion [26, 27].
The posterior labyrinth is a highly sensitive organ to changes in other organs and systems, and many of these changes manifest themselves primarily with vestibular symptoms. It is related to cervical problems, cardiovascular problems, migraine, metabolic and/or hormonal changes, psychiatric disorders, neurological diseases, and the use of medications such as antibiotics, anti‐inflammatories, diuretics, and psychotropic substances with labyrinthine disorders [28–31].
Investigating the vestibulocochlear findings in patients with Type 1 diabetes mellitus was found large percentage of vestibular disorders in these patients (60%). Regarding the complaints and harmful eating habits, caffeine abuse was the most prevalent of them, reported by 20% of patients [32].
The effectiveness of cessation of caffeine consumption in remission of dizziness was investigated previously. For this purpose, patients received this orientation, only being used drug treatment if symptoms persist 4 weeks after the initiation of restriction. Only 14% of participants reported some improvement in symptoms in the period in which it was only oriented diet. The authors add that patients reported improvement in general had lower consumption of caffeine in the usual diet than those who maintained their complaint after the restriction [25].
In patients with complaints of dizziness is always recommended an evaluation of the vestibular system [33]. To perform these tests, most services suspended the intake of foods high in caffeine, nonessential drugs, tobacco, and alcohol. As for the number of hours of restrictive diet, some authors suggest 72 hours suspension before the exam [27, 34, 35], some 48 hours before [36], and some even 24 hours before the test [28, 37].
Regarding the use of caffeine restriction to conduct vestibular tests, they were found only four studies in the literature. All they found weak relationship between caffeine consumption and changes in the tests, as shown the next.
In 2005, a comparative study was conducted, in which the study group and the control group were formed by the same patients in normal habits and caffeine restriction. Patients received as instruction for the first vestibular test (vectoelectronystagmography): fast 3 hours before the test, suspension of nonessential drugs and alcohol (72 hours before the test), and cigarette and products containing caffeine (24 hours before). The second test had the same guidelines except the restriction of the use of products containing caffeine. Most participants (68.4%) chose to undergo the examination with the habitual intake of caffeine. The most frequent complaints during the examination caffeine abstention were anxiety (92.3%), headache (69.3%), nausea and/or vomiting (38.5%), and more intense vertigo during the test (38.5%). As the result of the examination, no abnormality was found in the oculomotor tests and there was no statistically significant change between the responses found in the caloric test [38].
A study performed with 30 healthy young individuals aimed to investigate the influence of caffeine on vectoelectronystagmography and VEMP. For this, they performed the tests twice, once with 24‐hour restriction of the use of caffeine and other after drinking a cup of coffee. The results showed that moderate caffeine consumption did not influence the test results [17].
A prospective experimental study investigated the influence of caffeine on VEMP. It was recommended, to 25 healthy young, caffeine abstinence for at least 24 hours. They were submitted to the first examination, after given caffeine capsules (420 mg) and performed the second test. There was no caffeine influence on test results [39].
A study aimed to investigate the effect of caffeine on dynamic posturography examination investigating the vestibular‐spinal reflex. We investigated 30 healthy young subjects, being conducted a session where they were instructed to abstain from caffeine intake for 24 hours and another where it was offered coffee before the exam. The authors concluded that caffeine did not affect the clinical interpretation of the test in this population [40].
Table 2 summarizes the findings of clinical studies that linked caffeine and the vestibular system.
Author, origin, and year of publication | Study design | Sample size | Conclusion |
---|---|---|---|
Felipe et al., Brazil, 2005 [38] | Clinical with transversal cohort | 19 | The moderate ingestion of coffee was not shown to interfere in the results of the vestibular test |
Klagenberg et al., Brazil, 2007 [32] | Cross‐sectional study of a contemporary group | 30 | Significant vestibular system changes were found |
Mikulec et al., USA, 2012 [25] | Retrospective chart review | 44 | Only 14% of participants reported some improvement in symptoms in the period in which it was only oriented diet |
McNerney et al., USA, 2014 [17] | Prospective, placebo controlled study | 30 | Moderate amount of caffeine does not have a clinically significant effect on the results from caloric and cVEMP tests in young healthy adults |
McNerney et al., USA, 2014 [40] | Prospective, placebo controlled study | 30 | The ingestion of caffeine did not produce a clinically significant effect in healthy young control participants |
Sousa and Suzuki, Brazil, 2014 [39] | Prospective experimental study | 25 | The vestibulocollic reflex is not altered by caffeine intake |
Presentation of articles: “vestibular system” and “caffeine”.
Tinnitus is a sound that is perceived in the absence of an external acoustic stimulus. The pathophysiology of this symptom has not been fully elucidated, in part related to the subjective nature of this condition, associated with emotional and psychological factors accompanying its occurrence [41, 42].
A retrospective study was conducted aiming to investigate the correlation of the presence of habits and symptoms with the annoyance of tinnitus. Dizziness, neck pain, headache, and caffeine abuse are prevalent complaints in patients with tinnitus. However, there was no correlation among the degree of annoyance of tinnitus with hearing loss, age, gender, presence of dizziness, neck pain, headache, changes of the temporomandibular joint, and the use of caffeine or excessive intake of carbohydrates [43].
It is observed in clinical practice, including being reported in the literature, the recommendation of discontinuation of caffeine as additional treatment for tinnitus. This recommendation is based on the theoretical deduction that if caffeine has stimulating action on the central nervous system, it can play a role in the excitability of the auditory pathways and, therefore, can modify some clinical aspects of tinnitus [13].
There was not, however, scientific evidence for this recommendation. Recently, the search for scientific evidence of this recommendation was prospectively investigated in three studies presented in Table 3. In none of them significant improvement in annoyance was observed due to tinnitus only with the reduction of caffeine consumption.
Author, origin and year of publication | Study design | Sample size | Conclusion |
---|---|---|---|
Claire et al., UK, 2010 [5] | A phase 2, pseudo‐randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled cross‐over trial | 66 | Caffeine content had no effect on tinnitus severity and increase headaches and nausea |
Glicksman et al., USA, 2014 [44] | Longitudinal and prospective study | 5289 | Higher caffeine intake was associated with a lower risk of incident tinnitus in women |
Figueiredo et al., Brazil, 2014 [13] | Contemporary longitudinal cohort study | 26 | There is no justification for the universal restriction of caffeine intake as a treatment for all patients with tinnitus |
Presentation of articles: “tinnitus” and “caffeine”.
A phase 2, pseudo‐randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled cross‐over trial was conducted to test the causal relationship between caffeine consumption and tinnitus severity. Specific questionnaires were applied to investigate the annoyance due to tinnitus and visual analogue scale at base line and on days 1, 15, and 30. The groups, study, and placebo were matched. Authors concluded that caffeine content had no effect on tinnitus severity and increase headaches and nausea [5].
Using the answers from the Nurses’ Health Study II, a series of questionnaires applied in women aged 25–42 years, the authors sought to examine the association between caffeine intake and the risk of incident tinnitus. After analyzing the data, the study concluded that after adjusting age and potential confounders there was a significant inverse association between caffeine intake and the incidence of tinnitus [44].
Seeking to assess whether tinnitus patients can obtain some benefit from the reduction of caffeine intake, 26 patients with tinnitus were advised to reduce caffeine consumption by 50% of regular consumption. Audiometry being carried out and applied the tinnitus handicap inventory (THI) and visual analogic scale (VAS) before and after reduction consumption. The authors argue that despite the statistical significance of data found, clinical improvement was small. Adds that the greater the amount of caffeine consumed, the greater the impact caused by the reduction of intake, which could be responsible for a possible worsening of tinnitus, related to caffeine withdrawal. The fact indicates that there is no justification for the universal restriction of caffeine intake as a treatment for all patients with tinnitus; however, some groups are more likely to improve [13].
A larger number of studies have been found attempting to investigate the effects of caffeine in the auditory system. It is believed that caffeine affected the peripheral and central auditory pathways [45]. As the inner ear is the site of lesion for this clinical syndrome, we direct our efforts in presenting the effects of caffeine on the peripheral auditory system [46].
Regard to the effects of caffeine on the peripheral auditory system, it was demonstrated that caffeine induced shortening of outer hair cells, increasing the excitability of the peripheral auditory pathways [47]. The mechanism of action that provides this shortening has not been fully elucidated [13]. It was suggested that caffeine induced contraction by activating the ryanodine receptor, by potassium channel blockage or by creating osmotic imbalance across the cell membrane [47–49].
No clinical studies in humans to investigate the relationship of caffeine to the peripheral auditory system were found.
Caffeine despite being widely consumed has no mechanism of action fully elucidated. The vestibular and auditory systems may be influenced by substances that alter the homeostasis of the organism. Thus, while the interaction of caffeine with cochlea and the posterior labyrinth is not better elucidated, the diet recommendations for evaluation and therapy of patients with vertigo and tinnitus remain based on clinical experience. It will be finally necessary more studies to elucidate these questions aiding in driving the most effective treatment for the patient with Meniere’s disease.
Berries with a high antioxidant activity have drawn the attention of scientists due to their potential antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective-related effects, identified in in vivo studies [1]. It is well established that many species of berries, for example, strawberries (
Food is considered as a functional food if, in addition to its basic nutritional, it generates a beneficial effect in the physiological processes in the organism [6]. In the same way, a nutraceutical is a food or part of a food that produces health benefits besides its nutritional content [7, 8]. In the present chapter, we discuss the potential beneficial effects of berries and their derivatives on some central nervous system diseases.
\nEnhanced consumption of fruits and vegetables is highly recommended in dietary guidelines. Specially, the consumption of berries is recommended due to their antioxidant properties [1]. Berries, in botanical terms, are defined as fleshy fruits that emerge from the plant ovary that encloses the seeds; due to this, berries include grapes, blueberries, black currants, and coffee beans [9].
\nIn this chapter we will focus on strawberries, blueberries, raspberries, chokeberries, black currants, and blackberries, among other endemic fruits. We selected these fruits because, in addition to being rich in polyphenols and anthocyanins, they are the most consumed in human diet; therefore, more studies related to their supplementation and chemical composition have been published.
\nBerries (i.e., blackberry, black raspberry, blueberry, cranberry, red raspberry, and strawberry) are popularly consumed either fresh, frozen, or processed as yogurts, beverages, jam and jellies, as well as dried or canned. Furthermore, berry extracts have been used as a functional food or dietary supplement [1].
\nBerries (blueberry, strawberry, blackberry, and Brazilian berries {
Berry | \nEffect | \nMetabolite involved | \nRef | \n
---|---|---|---|
Blueberry | \nAntioxidant | \nAnthocyanins (1202 mg) | \n[9] | \n
Strawberry | \nAntioxidant | \nPolyphenols (13550 mg) | \n[9] | \n
Blackberry | \nAntioxidant | \nAnthocyanins (870 mg) | \n[9] | \n
Blueberry | \nModulate neuroinflammation | \nFlavonoids: various concentrations of blueberry (50-500 μg) | \n[10] | \n
Blueberry Highbush | \nGlucoregulation | \nAnthocyanins-flavonols (220 mg) | \n[11] | \n
Blueberry | \nSynaptic plasticity | \nAnthocyanins (10.2 mg)/ Total phenolics (33 mg) | \n[12] | \n
Blueberry | \nHippocampal neurogenesis | \nBlueberry extract diet (20 g) (*NS anthocyanins or polyphenols) | \n[5] | \n
Rasperry | \nAnti-cancer | \nAnthocyanins (314 mg) | \n[14] | \n
Strawberry Beverage | \nAnti-inflamatory/ hypoglycemic | \nTotal phenols (94.7 mg)/ Anthocyanins (39 mg) | \n[15] | \n
Grape ( | \nGenoprotective | \nAnthocyanins (1576.5 mg)/ Total phenolics (2750.4 mg) | \n[16] | \n
Blueberry Highbush | \nNeuroprotection/Proneurogenesis | \nAnthocyanins (4968·3 ng) | \n[17] | \n
Cranberry | \nVascular | \nPolyphenols (835 mg)/ Anthocyanins (94 mg) | \n[18] | \n
Rabbiteye Blueberry | \nMotor and cognitive function Anxiolytic Genoprotective | \nAnthocyanins (2.6-3.2 mg) | \n[19] | \n
Berries: effects and metabolites involved.
NS: not specified; Ref: reference
Even though the composition and the content of these compounds are dependent on the plant species, production status, agricultural processing, and storage, berries are an excellent source of polyphenols, flavonoids, and anthocyanins [20, 21], which have been related to their potential beneficial effects on health.
\nBerries are rich in phytochemicals such as minerals, vitamins, fatty acids, and dietary fibers and specifically contain provitamin A, minerals, vitamin C, and B complex vitamins. Additionally, fruits contain soluble solids, fructose, and chemopreventive agents as A, C, and E vitamins, folic acid, calcium, and selenium. Carotene and lutein are present in berries as well as phytosterols such as sitosterol and stigmasterol and also contain triterpene esters, and there is an excellent source of phenolic molecules such as flavonols, flavanols, proanthocyanidins, ellagitannins, phenolic acids, and anthocyanins specially cyanidin-3-glucoside, gallic acid, pelargonidin, delphinidin, peonidin, and malvidin, among others [22].
\nThe metabolism, bioavailability, and biological effects attributed to berries depend specifically on the type of chemical structure contained in its phenolic compounds that individually or synergistically exert protection against several health disorders [23]. Table 2 shows the main phytochemical compounds present in berries and their representative chemical structures.
\nTotal polyphenols, anthocyanins and characteristic structure content of berries.
Chemical structure was determined according to berry bioactive compound. TP: total polyphenols; TF: total flavonoids; TA: total anthocyanins; FW: fresh weight; DW: dry weight.
Polyphenols or phenolic compounds are phytochemicals that result from the secondary metabolism of plants coming from the metabolic pathway of shikimic acid and acetate-malonate. They are composed of various chemical structures characterized by an aromatic nucleus of benzene substituted by a hydroxyl group called phenol [21]. Differences between subclasses are given by the number of phenolic rings and the elements attached to them, thus creating several families of compounds, such as flavonoids, anthocyanins, flavones, tannins, and coumarins, among others [21, 27, 28, 29].
\nPolyphenols are present in fruits, vegetables, leaves, nuts, seeds, flowers, and barks [30] and act as inhibitors or activators for a wide variety of mammalian enzyme systems and as metal chelators and oxygen free radical scavengers [31, 32]. Moreover, it has been reported that some flavonoids rise ion chlorine flow at the GABAA receptor in male rats [33, 34]. They can act as positive or negative modulators by direct actions on the effect of GABA [35, 36]. Considerable scientific evidence has shown that flavonoids are able to cross into the brain and influence brain function [37, 38]. They have a variety of effects like relief of anxiety, antidepressant actions, and neuroprotective [29] and sedative actions [39].
\nThe ability of polyphenols to modulate the activity of different enzymes and consequently interfere in signaling mechanisms and different cellular processes may be due, in part, to the physicochemical characteristics of these compounds, which allow them to participate in different oxide-reduction cellular metabolic reactions [40].
\nA diet rich in polyphenols has been shown to augment health [41]. It is best known for its biological effects in humans as anti-inflammatory [42] and anticarcinogenic [43]; in vitro as antiviral [44]; and in animals as gastroprotector [45] and antibacterial [46]; among others. More than 8000 phenolic compounds are known in nature [47], which according to their chemical composition are divided into 2 groups: phenolic acids (benzoic and cinnamic) and flavonoids (flavonoids, anthocyanins, and tannins) [48]. For the purposes of this chapter, we will focus on describing flavonoids in a general sense and anthocyanins in a particular manner.
\nTheir name derives from the Latin
The main subgroups of flavonoid include flavonols, flavones, flavanones (dihydroflavones), isoflavones, and anthocyanins [50]. The flavonoid quercetin (4 mg/day) produces antineoplastic effects [51] and cholesterol-lowering effects in Japanese women aged 29–79 years old (9.3 ± 7.4 mg/day) [52], and at preclinical research in rats, quercetin (25 and 50 mg/kg) produces antithrombotic effects [53], while a hepatic regenerative effect was detected with supplementations of silymarin (100 mg/kg/day) [54].
\nAmong the most reported effects of flavonoids on the central nervous system are their participation in learning and memory mechanisms in Sprague Dawley rats supplemented with nobiletin (725 mg; extracted from
Anthocyanins are an important group of water-soluble flavonoid compounds responsible for the red, purple, and blue colors in flowers, fruits, and other parts of plants that are not toxic for human consumption [48]. Their name derives from the Greek
They are polyhydroxy- or polymethoxy-glycosides derived from the basic structure, 2-phenyl benzopyryllium [61]. They consist of structures known as anthocyanidins or aglycones, which consist of an aromatic ring attached to a heterocyclic ring containing oxygen which, in turn, is linked to a third aromatic ring. When anthocyanidins are found in glucosylated form, they are then known as anthocyanins and are mainly accompanied by glucose, rhamnose, galactose, arabinose, xylose, and other disaccharides and trisaccharides [62]. These carbohydrates are always bound to anthocyanidin position 3, and glucose is often found additionally in position 5 and, less commonly, in positions 7, 3′, and 4′ [63].
\nAnthocyanins are less water-soluble than when they are found in glucosinolates and rarely exist in free form in food. Today, about 19 natural anthocyanidins are known, although the most commonly found in foods are six: pelargonidin, delphinidin, cyanidin, petunidin, peonidin, and malvidin [64], names derived from the plant source from which they were first isolated. In the same sense, a measure of the antioxidant capacity of anthocyanin pigments revealed that cyanidin-3-glucoside and delphinidin-3-glucoside have the highest antioxidant activity [65] and have been identified in fruits coming from the berry family [66], specifically in blackberries [67, 68].
\nIt is important to mention that anthocyanins resist passage through the digestive tract of mammals and are absorbed in the stomach and in the middle portion of the small intestine, reaching the bloodstream almost intact [69]; they reach organs such as the liver, eyes, and brain, thus accumulating in them [14, 70].
\nThe biological functions of anthocyanins can be classified into two types: those related to their antioxidant capacity and those involved in the modulation of cell signaling pathways [71]. In general, they are attributed with effects such as the prevention and/or reduction of atherosclerosis [72]; reduction in the incidence of cardiovascular disease [73]; anticancer [74] and anti-inflammatory activity [75]; hypoglycemic effects [76]; and augmented visual acuity [77] and cognition [78].
\nSpecifically, anthocyanins cross the blood-brain barrier and accumulate in brain regions related to learning and memory, such as the hippocampus and cerebral cortex, modifying behavior [2]. It has been observed in in vitro studies that consumption of these compounds inhibits the enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO), in which increased activity is related to AD and other neurological disorders [79]. In addition, they display antioxidant capabilities, such as decreasing free radicals and stress signals controlling calcium homeostasis in the brain [80, 81], as well as the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and radicals peroxide (ROO) and superoxide (O2) [82, 83]. They also exert protective effects against oxidative stress in cellular models of PD [84] and promote optimal neurotransmission, primarily in advanced age [21].
\nIt has also been observed that anthocyanins ameliorate anti-ocular-inflammatory in male Lewis rats supplemented with crude aronia extract (
The recent increase in life expectancy worldwide has augmented the incidence of age-related diseases, particularly neurodegenerative diseases and psychiatric disorders.
\nBelow, we will describe the effects of berry consumption and the relationship between diseases such as anxiety, depression, Alzheimer’s and Pasrkinson’s diseases, as well as human cognition, because those are the most common mental illness and neurodegenerative diseases [5].
\nIn addition, you will find in Table 3 the most recent research carried out related with supplementation in humans and in animal models and, additionally, study design and summarized findings.
\nTopic | \nAuthor/location | \nStudy design | \nIntervention | \nSummarized findings | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Anxiety | \nFernández-Demeneghi | \nn=45, 21 days treatment, Wistar male rats (200- 250 g) | \nFive groups were used: Veh (control group administered with 8.7 ml/kg), BL (low dose group of blackberry juice, 2.6 mg/kg of anthocyanins, 14.57 mg/kg of polyphenols) BM (medium dose group of blackberry juice, 5.83 mg/kg anthocyanins, 27.10 mg/kg polyphenols) BH (high-dose blackberry juice group 10.57 mg/kg anthocyanins, 38.4 mg/kg polyphenols) DZP (diazepam group administered 2 mg/kg). | \nThe intermediate dose of blackberry juice (5.83 mg/kg of anthocyanins, 27.10 mg / kg of polyphenols) had an anxiolytic effect similar to DZP, improving coping strategies at the behavioral level. These results were supplemented by the forced swim test, where medium and high doses improved the response to acute stress. | \n
Depression | \nChang | \nn=82643 women. Prospectively, the study examined the associations between the estimated usual intake of flavonoids in the diet and the risk of depression. Semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire was applied (FFQ). | \nTwo samples were used: Nurses\' Health Study (NHSI) (from 1976 nurses aged 30-55) and NHSII (from 1989 nurses aged 25-42). | \nHigher flavonoid intakes may be associated with lower depression risk, particularly among older women. | \n
Khalid | \nn=21 university students (18-21 years)/The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-NOW (PANAS-NOW) was used to assess current mood. | \nTwo groups were used: The flavonoid-rich wild blueberry (WBB), which administered 253 mg of anthocyanins, a combination of 30 g of lyophilized WBB, 30 ml of Rocks Orange Squash and 220 ml of water), placebo (4 mg of WBB, 30 ml of Rocks Orange Squash and 220 ml of water were combined). | \nIn both studies, an increase in positive affection was observed after 2 hours of consumption of the WBB drink. Flavonoid supplementation can play a key role in promoting positive mood and are a possible way to prevent dysphoria and depression. | \n|
n=50 children (7-10)/child version of the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS-C). | \nTwo groups were used: The flavonoid-rich wild blueberry (WBB) 253 mg anthocyanins, combination of 30 g lyophilized WBB, 30 ml Rocks Orange Squash and 170 ml water); placebo (4 mg WBB, 30 ml Rocks Orange Squash and 170 ml water were combined). | \n|||
Nabavi | \nn=40, 7 days treatment, balb/c strain mice (5 weeks old, 20-25 g). | \nFour groups were used: control (healthy group), BCCAO (group with bilateral occlusion of the common carotid artery) 10 mg/kg (group with lesion + 10 mg/kg of aqueous extract of red berries of | \nThe protective effects of WE in post-stroke depression in a mouse model were demonstrated | \n|
Di Lorenzo | \nn=50, 7 days treatment i.p., balb/c strain mice (2 weeks old, 20-25 g). | \nFive groups were used: 1) control: healthy group, 2) BCCAO (group with stroke common carotid artery bilateral occlusion), 3) 25 mg/kg (lesion + 25 mg/kg Maqui berry extract (MBE)), 4) 50 mg/kg (lesion + 50 mg/kg MBE), 5) 100 mg/kg (lesion + 100 mg/kg MBE). | \nThe results showed that the antidepressant-like activity provided by the extract, which was found to restore normal mouse behavior in both despair swimming and tail suspension tests, could be linked to its antioxidant activity, leading to the conclusion that maqui berries might be useful for supporting pharmacological therapy of Post-stroke depression by modulating oxidative stress. | \n|
Alzheimer’s disease | \nGutierres | \nMale Wistar rats (3-months-1-year-old, 350-400g), 7 days of treatment with 200 mg/kg anthocyanin (ANT) the rats were injected with intracerebroventricular streptozotocin (3 mg/kg) (STZ), and four days later the behavior parameters were performed. | \nFour different groups: control (CTRL), anthocyanin (ANT), streptozotocin (STZ) and streptozotocin + anthocyanin (STZ + ANT). | \nA memory deficit was found in the STZ group, but ANT treatment showed that it prevents this impairment of memory. This work demonstrated that anthocyanin is able to regulate ion pump activity and cholinergic neurotransmission, as well as being able to enhance memory and act as an anxiolytic compound in animals with sporadic dementia of Alzheimer\'s type. | \n
McNamara | \nn=76, 24 weeks treatment, study conducted in men and women aged 62-80 with cognitive impairment. They used the Dysexecutive Questionnaire. | \nFour groups were used: FO (fish oil + placebo powder), BB (blueberry [ | \nIt was demonstrated that supplementation with FO and BB showed a reduction of self-reported inefficiencies in daily operation, by the BB group showed less interference in memory. | \n|
Parkinson’s Disease | \nFan | \nn= 11 male patients with Parkinson’s disease and older than 40 years old. 2 sessions where samples of plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were taken (in both sessions a 12-hour low anthocyanin diet was requested before taking the samples). | \nStudy of pre and post treatment samples, where patients were supplemented with 300 mg blackcurrant capsules (35% anthocyanins, Super Currantex® 20) twice daily for four weeks. | \nThe neuropeptide cyclic glycine protein (cGP), a natural BCA nutrient, was shown to be effectively absorbed in the brain after supplementation. The increase of cyclic glycine proline (cGP) in plasma and cephalorachidian fluid in Parkison patients is mainly due to central uptake of the neuropeptide in plasma. Thus, the role of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) improves in patients with Parkinson’s disease. | \n
Qian | \nn=45, 3 weeks treatment, 6-week old male C57BL/6 mice (18-22 g). This study was designed to investigate the effects of the ANC rich blueberry extracts (BBE) on behavior and oxidative stress in the mouse model of PD induced by 1- methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6- tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). | \nFive groups were used: 1) control (received i.p. saline), 2) MPTP (received i.p. MPTP 30 mg/kg for 5 days and saline, 3)BBE 50 mg/kg (received i.p. MPTP 30 mg/kg for 5 days and 50 mg/kg blueberry extract (BBE), 4) BBE 100 mg/kg (received i.p. MPTP 30 mg/kg for 5 days and 100 mg/kg of BBE) and 5) i.p MPTP and fed daily with levodopa and benserazide (10 mg/kg/day). | \nBBE improved motor function in MPTP- induced Parkinson\'s mice through a possible mechanism of their antioxidant capacity to eliminate free radicals and reduce oxidative damage to neurons. | \n|
Other effects | \nDevore | \nn=16,010 women, aged ≥70; follow-up assessments were conducted twice, at two-year intervals. | \nFollow-up questionnaire on eating habits (2-year period) and assessment of congenital impairment. Six cognitive tests were administered: Telephone Interview of Cognitive Status, a telephone adaptation of the Mini-Mental State Examination; East Boston Memory Test – immediate and delayed recalls; category fluency; delayed recall of the Telephone Interview of Cognitive Status 10- word list; and backwards digit span. | \nIncreased consumption of berries and anthocyanidins, as well as total flavonoids, was shown to be associated with slower progression of cognitive impairment in older women. | \n
Watson | \nn=36 healthy, young participants (18-35 years). The battery used was formed: digit vigilance, stroop, rapid visual information processing (RVIP) and logical reasoning. | \nThree intervention drinks were used: 1. control (containing 0 mg polyphenols), 2. Blackadder (7.78 mg/kg anthocyanins from an extract of Ribes nigrum). 3. DelCyan (trademark) (8.05 mg/kg anthocyanins from a blackcurrant extract). | \nIt was demonstrated that the consumption of drinks supplemented with blackcurrants produce a cognitive benefit in healthy young people, evidenced by greater accuracy in the RIVP test; likewise, Blackadder improved reaction times in the task of monitoring digits. Clinically significant inhibition of monoamine oxidase-B and monoamine oxidase-A was identified using a commonly consumed fruit. | \n|
Whyte & Williams (2015) [95]/United Kingdom | \nn=16 children (8-10 years), 7 days of treatment. Two hours after consumption, the children completed a battery of five cognitive tests comprising the Go-NoGo, Stroop, Rey’s Auditory Verbal Learning Task, Object Location Task, and a Visual N-back. | \nTwo intervention drinks were used: 1. blueberry (prepared by mixing 200 g of Star variety blueberries with 100 ml, which contained 143 mg of anthocyanins). Control (combined with blueberry drink for sugars and vitamin C by adding 0.02 g of vitamin C powder, 8.22 g of sucrose, 9.76 g of glucose and 9.94 g of fructose to 100 ml of semi-skimmed milk). | \nIt was identified that anthocyanins (143 mg) present in blueberry juice have memory benefits in children aged 8 to 10 years, however, little evidence in attention, visuospatial, working memory were observed. | \n
Recent research in humans and animal models related to supplementation with berries.
Anxiety is a common and chronic psychiatric disorder that is a source of suffering and impairment [96]. In 2017, the World Health Organization reported that more than 260 million people suffer from an anxiety disorder [97]. Its pharmacological treatment is based on the use of benzodiazepine drugs, as well as some antidepressants with anxiolytic activity [98]. Unfortunately, these drugs are accompanied by severe side effects such as sedation, pharmacological tolerance, and drug dependence [99, 100]; in this sense, some patients complement their therapies with natural compounds coming from plants.
\nThe study of the potential effect of berries on anxiety, due to their high content of polyphenols and anthocyanins associated with anxiolytic activity at the preclinical level, has attracted important interest [101, 102]. It has been observed that these compounds, present in blueberries, have shown anxiolytic effects in animal models and their possible mechanisms of action are related to the antioxidant properties of anthocyanins [103] which inhibit the enzyme monoamine oxidases (MAOs), decreasing its activity and providing neuroprotection [77, 104].
\nSupplementation with blueberries in mice for 30 days has shown to increase the time spent in the open arms (anxiolytic effect) in the elevated plus maze test (EPM); in addition, it is shown to reduce oxidative damage to neural DNA, and this antioxidant neural protection has been proposed as a mechanism for the anxiolytic property of berries [19].
\nOne of the most studied berries for anxiety at the preclinical level is the black chokeberry (
On the other hand, this berry fruit has been evaluated in different concentrations and behavioral tests such as the EPM and the social interaction test [102]. Likewise, a methanolic extract of blackberry (
Our working group [4] recently reported the anxiolytic effect from blackberry juice (doses intermediate: 5.83 mg/kg anthocyanins, 27.10 mg/kg polyphenols) on EPM in male Wistar rats, and the design was accompanied by the forced swim test (6 min). A decrease in the anxiety index was observed, without alterations in locomotor activity. This was similar to the group administered with the anxiolytic drug diazepam. Results revealed a better response to behavioral stress in the rats treated with blackberry juice, reinforcing the effects previously reported in EPM (Table 3).
\nThe anxiolytic effect of some flavonoids and anthocyanins has been identified by affinity to GABAA receptors [89, 110]. However, its antioxidant capacity is still considered the main mechanism of action [106], since oxidative stress has been proposed as an important contributor to anxiety generation [79].
\nDepression is the most prevalent psychiatric disorder; according to the World Health Organization, it affects 300 million people worldwide [97]. Depressive disorders are characterized by the presence of a sad and irritable mood accompanied by somatic and cognitive changes that negatively impact everyday life function [97] and result in high financial costs [111]. A great variety of drugs exist for its treatment [112], in which therapeutic effects are driven by actions on diverse neurotransmission systems (serotonergic, dopaminergic, and noradrenergic), exerting long-term changes which can restore neuronal function, for example, restoration of basal levels of neurotransmitters mainly serotonin, increase in neurotrophic factors (brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor) that can indirectly modify neuronal microarchitecture, reduction of oxidative stress, as well as neuroinflammation processes in structures related to the pathophysiology of depression which can impact at the affective level exerting favorable effects on the quality of life of the subjects. These drugs include tricyclic antidepressants (i.e., imipramine), selective serotonin recapture inhibitors (i.e., fluoxetine), monoamine oxidase inhibitors (phenelzine), and dual antidrepressant drugs (venlafaxine), among others [113]. Most of these drugs have a late onset and are often accompanied by side effects when taken for prolonged periods. This has encouraged a search for new substances with potential antidepressant effects and, most importantly, the use of possible natural alternatives.
\nAn association between the role the hippocampus and the etiology of depression has been suggested, given that a reduction in hippocampal neurogenesis has been observed in depressed patients with respect to the non-depressed control group, which is accompanied by a decrease in the hippocampal volume [114]. In this sense, antidepressants such as fluoxetine have been shown to ameliorate neurogenesis in the hippocampus [115].
\nAt the preclinical level, the administration of
In addition, human studies related to blueberry and red berry supplementation have shown that a higher intake of these foods is associated with a lower risk of depression [85, 86]. Similarly, studies in mice have shown similar effects with the consumption of red berries, observing a reduction in depressive-like behaviors [87, 88] (Table 3).
\nAlzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive memory loss, as well as cognitive decline [117] in which prevalence augments with age [118]. The neuropathologic changes underlying AD include senile plaques formed by the peptide β-amyloid and neurofibrillary tangles composed of hyperphosphorylated Tau protein that promotes synaptic dysfunction and neuronal death early and consistently [119].
\nOxidative stress has been associated with the onset and progression of AD [120]. This is supported by the high vulnerability of neurons to reactive oxygen species (ROS) [121]. Oxidative stress can induce damage to membrane lipids, changes in glial and neuronal function, structural damage to DNA, synaptic dysfunction, and apoptosis [122].
\nSeveral studies have demonstrated the potential protective effect of blackberry fruits (
Extracts of black currant have been shown to inhibit the formation and spread of β-amyloid [124] and ROS fibrils. Supplementation of blackberry in in vitro studies has been reported to exhibit potent anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative properties [125, 126]; also, the consumption of blueberries is related to neuronal augment in the hippocampus [5].
\nRecently a neuroprotective effect of anthocyanins has been observed in a model of AD induced by streptozotocin that resulted in a cognitive deficit (in short-term memory and spatial memory), as well as dysfunction in the activity of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, while inducing lipid peroxidation and a decrease in antioxidant enzymes in the cerebral cortex [127]. These alterations were attenuated in the group administered with anthocyanins. Similarly, it has been observed that blueberry powder (
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is characterized by tremors, stiffness, and akinesia. It is caused by the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and the presence of Lewy bodies. Many Parkinson’s risks and preventive factors have been investigated. The onset of this disorder has been associated with exposure to certain pesticides and heavy metals [128], tobacco consumption [129], and coffee consumption [130], among other environmental factors. While current treatments have shown effectiveness in early management of the motor symptoms of the disease [131] and both surgery and deep brain stimulation are useful, PD is currently not yet curable [132]. A diet enriched in phenolic compounds has been shown to have some efficacy in relieving Parkinson’s symptoms [133]. Most of the studies related to fruit consumption and disease focus on supplementation with blueberries, strawberries, black currant, and grapes, due to their powerful antioxidant effects related to their high content of polyphenols and anthocyanins [134].
\nCell models have reinforced studies of neurodegenerative disorders, recently demonstrating that anthocyanins from grape seed, blueberry, and mulberry enhance mitochondrial function [135] and suppressed dopaminergic cell death caused by rotenone (insecticide and pesticide) in mitochondrial respiration. This has suggested that anthocyanins may alleviate neurodegeneration in PD by improving mitochondrial function. In addition, polyphenols are able to ameliorate inflammatory responses associated with glial activation [136]. Phenolic compounds are known for their ability to eliminate reactive oxygen species (ROS) due to their antioxidant action; however, since their concentrations in the brain are lower than those of endogenous antioxidants, it has begun to be seen that they also exert their neuroprotective effects through additional mechanisms [137, 138], highlighting the inhibition of MAO, in its two forms, A and B [77, 104]. At the preclinical level, one of the most widely used models in PD research is the administration of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), a neurotoxin that causes a severe Parkinson’s-like syndrome in humans, monkeys, and mice [139, 140, 141, 142]. It has been observed that daily administration of resveratrol (red wine polyphenol) in male mice C57BL/6 prevented a decrease in striatal dopamine and maintained striatal tyrosine hydroxylase levels. In addition, mice that received resveratrol as pretreatment showed a greater number of immunopositive tyrosine hydroxylase neurons, indicating the protective role of resveratrol over nigral neurons [143]. In the same disease model, it was observed that blueberry extract attenuated behavioral impairment (motor coordination) as well as decreased levels of malondialdehyde in the brains of mice [92]. These data reveal the ability of resveratrol and polyphenols present in blueberry extract to counteract the toxic effects of MPTP administration and in the near future may be used as a complementary neuroprotective therapy (Table 3). Current PD therapies act by controlling the disease’s symptoms, but do not slow the underlying neurodegeneration in the brains of PD in patients [135]; this is an opportunity to use functional foods as adjuvant therapy in the presence of disease.
\nPolyphenols present in berries have also been associated with cognitive amelioration and neuronal function, as is the case with grape juice, which in both young [144] and older adults [145] ameliorate neurocognitive functions of memory, attention, and calmness, compared to the placebo group. In this same regard, in mothers (40–50 years) of preadolescent children, an association of grape juice consumption has been observed (≥30 h/week 355 ml, during 12 weeks) with subtle augment in immediate spatial memory and safer driving behavior in a virtual simulator [146]. At the same time, it was found that, in a double-blind crossover design of children (7 and 10 years old), supplementation of 15 or 30 g freeze-dried wild blueberry powder significantly ameliorates word acquisition and recognition, as well as the ability to overcome the effects of response interference [147].
\nIn a pilot study in healthy young adults in both genders (18–35 years old), it has been observed that the acute administration of black currant juice (500 mg/day of polyphenols, supplemented only 1 day per week, during 31 days) exerts an anxiolytic-like effect, as well as ameliorates alertness, less fatigue, and reaction speed [94].
\nIn a randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled trial, dietary blueberry of 24 g/day for 3 months raised the cognition in tests of executive function in adults between 60 and 75 years old of both sexes by increasing accuracy during task switching and reduced repetition errors during word-list recall [148]. The positive effects on cognition have been related to activation of the prefrontal cortex using functional magnetic resonance imaging [149]; therefore, the administration of blueberry to have the same effects on these tasks could be exercising greater activation of this structure to raise cognition. Another study found that daily consumption of 6 and 9 ml/kg for 12 weeks of blueberry (
Furthermore, a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study showed that the daily administration of two capsules (10o mg) of a purified extract of blueberry (wild blueberry extract) for 3 months raised episodic and working memory in older adults of both sexes [151]. Additionally, a randomized, single-blind, parallel group design showed that the acute consumption of 200 ml of wild blueberry drink (253 mg anthocyanins) in healthy children aged 7–10 years significantly enhanced the memory and attentional aspects of executive function with respect to the placebo group 2 h after consumption; therefore, the consumption of the wild blueberry drink during the critical period of development (as is the case of childhood) could provide acute cognitive benefits [152]. Therefore, a double-blind, counterbalanced, crossover intervention study showed that acute supplementation with haskap berry extract “
These findings support that the consumption of berries produces beneficial effects on cognition in humans, which are probably related to the effects of the berries on the nervous system. For example, blueberry diets are associated with enhanced working memory which is accompanied by an increase in the neurogenesis of the hippocampus [17]. A randomized, controlled, double-blind, crossover studio showed that the administration of 766 mg total blueberry polyphenols in healthy young men reduced neutrophil NADPH oxidase activity at 1, 2, 4, and 6 h after consumption [154]. In this sense, NADPH oxidase has been shown to play an important role in oxidative stress induction in the brain [155], because it uses oxygen and NADPH to generate superoxide [156]. Therefore, the administration of blueberry could be generating a reduction of superoxide and indirectly preventing oxidative stress events a long term. The mechanisms by which flavonoids and polyphenols exert these actions on cognitive performance are still being studied, including evidence suggesting that they can increase brain blood flow, as well as modulate the activation state of neuronal receptors, signaling proteins, and gene expression [157].
\nAccording to our knowledge, there are some reports relating berry consumption in humans with side effects or toxicity. Data of toxicity in vivo was reported in 1997, in a study of the relation between flavonoid intake and subsequent cancer risk in 9959 Finnish men and women, aged 15–99 years and who are initially cancer free. Food consumption and dietary history method calculated the consumption of lingonberries, blueberries, black currants, raspberries, and gooseberries. People with higher consumption of berries were found to have a high risk of lung cancer. Apparently, the phenolic compounds produce toxicity proliferating cancer cells, but are not toxic in healthy cells [49].
\nAnother study of 5-weeks-old Swiss Webster male mice, supplemented with lyophilized nightshade berries (
Another report was in 2009, when dozens of dead cedar waxwings in Thomas County, Georgia, USA, were found. In this case report, after evaluating five birds, the investigation group observed pulmonary, mediastinal, and tracheal hemorrhages and also found berries (
Regarding berries supplementation and synergy, it is recently reported that gallic acid, quercetin, ellagic acid, and cyanidin have a market antioxidant activity [161, 162], due to the synergistic effects between the numbers of aromatic ring mixtures. In addition, polyphenols present in berries can interact between them, improve their antioxidant properties, and, therefore, increase human’s health benefits [162]. According to our knowledge, no studies were found related with pharmacological interactions and berry supplementation. It is necessary to carry out studies involving pharmacological molecules, berries’ activities, and their phenolic compounds in order to generate new therapies and identify the existence of side or toxic effects.
\nAccording to the research reported in this chapter, the supplementation of berries and their bioactive compounds as flavonoids, polyphenols, and anthocyanin suggests a potential health benefit for human nutrition.
\nThe objective of this research is to contribute with knowledge to the development of new strategies for the treatment of diseases such as anxiety, depression, AD, and PD, which includes natural products, particularly berry fruits that work as preventive or coadjuvant therapy in the treatment of these diseases.
\nA further evaluation of fruits berry supplementation in neural processes is required, as well as the identification of the effect of each particular bioactive compound on psychiatric and neurological disorders. More studies will be necessary to identify the mechanisms of action of this substance. It is also important to understand the scope in other neural processes and their application, effectiveness, synergy, pharmacological interaction, and side or toxic effects at clinical and preclinical levels of studies.
\nThe present chapter evidenced a number of investigations in vivo related with the use of different berry fruit supplement doses, not only in humans but also in animal models. These results suggest the potential health effect of berries due to bioactive compounds mainly flavonoids, polyphenols, and anthocyanins, used commonly for its antioxidant capacity. According to our knowledge, the cases reported in the literature by animal toxicity are related with the consumption of wild berries. In humans the relationship between phenol compound consumption and lung cancer has been reported; however, there is no evidence of side or toxic effects related with berry supplementation or their bioactive compounds, and pharmacological interaction related to their consumption due to no dietary intervention studies has been reported.
\nIn addition, berry consumption has shown to be effective in a number of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, and also recent investigations are proposed for the management of berry fruit supplementation as neuroprotector and the reduction of symptoms in diseases such as anxiety, depression, AD, and PD, among others. The use of this biological berry compounds might promote an alternative for prevention and give excellent opportunities for human nutrition as a functional food and nutraceutical. Future research in this field is necessary, in order to clarify and support the evidence of the effects of flavonoids, polyphenols, and anthocyanins at the brain level, as well as their potential direct and indirect mechanisms of action.
\nThe authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from CONACyT (Scholarship no. 592714, 628503, 297410, 713495).
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. 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The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"109268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ataby",slug:"ali-al-ataby",fullName:"Ali Al-Ataby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109268/images/7410_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Liverpool",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"3807",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:"Jose Albanez",surname:"Bastos-Filho",slug:"carmelo-bastos-filho",fullName:"Carmelo Bastos-Filho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3807/images/624_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38850/images/system/38850.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"239041",title:"Dr.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",slug:"yang-yi",fullName:"Yang Yi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/239041/images/system/239041.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Virginia Tech",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82800",title:"Repurposing Drugs as Potential Therapeutics for the SARS-Cov-2 Viral Infection: Automatizing a Blind Molecular Docking High-throughput Pipeline",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105792",signatures:"Aldo Herrera-Rodulfo, Mariana Andrade-Medina and Mauricio Carrillo-Tripp",slug:"repurposing-drugs-as-potential-therapeutics-for-the-sars-cov-2-viral-infection-automatizing-a-blind-",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Molecular Docking - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82582",title:"Protecting Bioelectric Signals from Electromagnetic Interference in a Wireless World",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105951",signatures:"David Marcarian",slug:"protecting-bioelectric-signals-from-electromagnetic-interference-in-a-wireless-world",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82586",title:"Fundamentals of Molecular Docking and Comparative Analysis of Protein–Small-Molecule Docking Approaches",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105815",signatures:"Maden Sefika Feyza, Sezer Selin and Acuner Saliha Ece",slug:"fundamentals-of-molecular-docking-and-comparative-analysis-of-protein-small-molecule-docking-approac",totalDownloads:29,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Molecular Docking - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82184",title:"Biological Sensing Using Infrared SPR Devices Based on ZnO",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104562",signatures:"Hiroaki Matsui",slug:"biological-sensing-using-infrared-spr-devices-based-on-zno",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hiroaki",surname:"Matsui"}],book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82122",title:"Recent Advances in Biosensing in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104922",signatures:"Alma T. 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