Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10321",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Precision Medicine Oncology",title:"Advances in Precision Medicine Oncology",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Recent advances in precision medicine and immuno-oncology have led to highly specific and efficacious cancer therapies such as monoclonal antibodies and immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). This book provides an up-to-date overview of advances in the field of immuno-oncology. Chapters cover such topics as ICIs and how they mount a robust immune response against cancer cells as well as the response of ICIs to treatment predictive biomarkers and their potential immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Additionally, the book includes a comprehensive review of the powerful FDA-approved therapeutic agent doxorubicin, highlighting the molecular mechanisms behind doxorubicin’s drug resistance and critical side effects.",isbn:"978-1-83968-868-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-867-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-869-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91507",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"advances-in-precision-medicine-oncology",numberOfPages:260,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"043ad1c1a6bbdcd5604917ccbff003d8",bookSignature:"Hilal Arnouk and Bassam Abdul Rasool Hassan",publishedDate:"July 21st 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10321.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4016,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 24th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 21st 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 10th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"76431",title:"Dr.",name:"Hilal",middleName:null,surname:"Arnouk",slug:"hilal-arnouk",fullName:"Hilal Arnouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76431/images/system/76431.jpg",biography:"Hilal Arnouk, MD, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor at the Department of Pathology, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, Illinois. Dr. Arnouk received his education and post-doctorate training at Roswell Park Cancer Institute, the State University of New York at Buffalo, the Medical College of Georgia, and the University of Alabama at Birmingham. He has directed research studies in academia and biotech industry settings. His major areas of expertise include cancer immunotherapy, biomarker discovery, and precision medicine. Additionally, Dr. Arnouk tremendously enjoys being an educator and a mentor for professional students in the medical and biomedical sciences.",institutionString:"Midwestern University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Midwestern University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"155124",title:"Dr.",name:"Bassam",middleName:"Abdul Rasool",surname:"Hassan",slug:"bassam-hassan",fullName:"Bassam Hassan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/155124/images/system/155124.png",biography:"Bassam Abdul Rasool Hassan obtained a Ph.D. in Clinical Pharmacy from the School of Pharmacy, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM). He worked as a senior lecturer at the Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya (UM), in 2014–2017, and at the Department of Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam, Malaysia, in 2017–2019. Dr. Hassan currently works as a senior lecturer at the Department of Pharmacy, Al-Rafidain University College, Baghdad, Iraq.",institutionString:"Al-Rafidain University College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1083",title:"Medical Oncology",slug:"medical-oncology"}],chapters:[{id:"76212",title:"Immune and Cell Cycle Checkpoint Inhibitors for Cancer Immunotherapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96664",slug:"immune-and-cell-cycle-checkpoint-inhibitors-for-cancer-immunotherapy",totalDownloads:287,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The rational design of immunotherapeutic agents has advanced with a fundamental understanding that both innate and adaptive immunity play important roles in cancer surveillance and tumor destruction; given that oncogenesis occurs and cancer progresses through the growth of tumor cells with low immunogenicity in an increasingly immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Checkpoint inhibitors in the form of monoclonal antibodies that block cancer’s ability to deactivate and evade the immune system have been widely indicated for a variety of tumor types. Through targeting the biological mechanisms and pathways that cancer cells use to interact with and suppress the immune system, immunotherapeutic agents have achieved success in inhibiting tumor growth while eliciting lesser toxicities, compared to treatments with standard chemotherapy. Development of “precise” bio-active tumor-targeted gene vectors, biotechnologies, and reagents has also advanced. This chapter presents ongoing clinical research involving immune checkpoint inhibitors, while addressing the clinical potential for tumor-targeted gene blockade in combination with tumor-targeted cytokine delivery, in patients with advanced metastatic disease, providing strategic clinical approaches to precision cancer immunotherapy.",signatures:"Erlinda M. Gordon, Nicole L. Angel, Ted T. Kim, Don A. Brigham, Sant P. Chawla and Frederick L. Hall",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76212",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76212",authors:[{id:"333221",title:"Dr.",name:"Erlinda M.",surname:"Gordon",slug:"erlinda-m.-gordon",fullName:"Erlinda M. Gordon"},{id:"337003",title:"Dr.",name:"Sant",surname:"Chawla",slug:"sant-chawla",fullName:"Sant Chawla"},{id:"337004",title:"Dr.",name:"Frederick",surname:"Hall",slug:"frederick-hall",fullName:"Frederick Hall"},{id:"346195",title:"Ms.",name:"Nicole",surname:"Angel",slug:"nicole-angel",fullName:"Nicole Angel"},{id:"346196",title:"Mr.",name:"Ted",surname:"Kim",slug:"ted-kim",fullName:"Ted Kim"},{id:"346197",title:"Dr.",name:"Don",surname:"Brigham",slug:"don-brigham",fullName:"Don Brigham"}],corrections:null},{id:"75496",title:"Evolving Dynamic Biomarkers for Prediction of Immune Responses to Checkpoint Inhibitors in Cancer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96494",slug:"evolving-dynamic-biomarkers-for-prediction-of-immune-responses-to-checkpoint-inhibitors-in-cancer",totalDownloads:273,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have been approved as first or second line therapy in a large group of cancers. However, the observation of potentially long-lasting responses was restricted to limited subset of patients. Efforts have been made to identify predictive factors of response to ICIs in order to select eligible patients and to avoid exposing non-responding patients to treatment side effects. Although several biomarkers have been identified, their predictive potential remains unsatisfactory. One promising emerging approach is to focus on dynamic biomarkers to directly characterize the response and, more importantly, to identify those patients presenting an immune response failure. Several studies have shown a strong correlation between specific circulating immune cell subsets and tumor immune infiltrates. Moreover, liquid biomarkers including soluble immune checkpoint molecules have potential in predicting the modulation of the immune response under immune checkpoint blockade. In this chapter, we will discuss current advances in the study of circulatory and intra-tumoral dynamic biomarkers as predictors of responses to ICIs therapy in cancer.",signatures:"Afsheen Raza, Maysaloun Merhi, Allan Relecom, Queenie Fernandes, Varghese Inchakalody, Abdul Rahman Zar Gul, Shahab Uddin, Mohammed Ussama Al Homsi and Said Dermime",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75496",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75496",authors:[{id:"336904",title:"Dr.",name:"Said",surname:"Dermime",slug:"said-dermime",fullName:"Said Dermime"},{id:"339275",title:"Dr.",name:"Maysaloun",surname:"Merhi",slug:"maysaloun-merhi",fullName:"Maysaloun Merhi"},{id:"339295",title:"MSc.",name:"Queenie",surname:"Fernandes",slug:"queenie-fernandes",fullName:"Queenie Fernandes"},{id:"339296",title:"Dr.",name:"Afsheen",surname:"Raza",slug:"afsheen-raza",fullName:"Afsheen Raza"},{id:"339297",title:"Dr.",name:"Varghese",surname:"Inchakalody",slug:"varghese-inchakalody",fullName:"Varghese Inchakalody"},{id:"339298",title:"Dr.",name:"Shahab",surname:"Uddin",slug:"shahab-uddin",fullName:"Shahab Uddin"},{id:"344921",title:"Dr.",name:"Allan",surname:"Relecom",slug:"allan-relecom",fullName:"Allan Relecom"},{id:"344923",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul Rahman",surname:"Gul",slug:"abdul-rahman-gul",fullName:"Abdul Rahman Gul"},{id:"344924",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"Al Homsi",slug:"mohammed-al-homsi",fullName:"Mohammed Al Homsi"}],corrections:null},{id:"75485",title:"The Endocrinological Side Effects of Immunotherapies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96491",slug:"the-endocrinological-side-effects-of-immunotherapies",totalDownloads:201,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The use of immunotherapies is gaining importance in the treatment of advanced malignancies. There are many checkpoints in the immune system which prevents T-cells from attacking one’s own body cells. The cancer cells can camouflage from the T-cells and the immune system is unable to mount an effective anti-tumor response. The immunotherapies, mainly monoclonal antibodies anti-cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4), anti-programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1) and anti-PD-1 ligand molecules (PD-L1 and L2) reactivate the immune system to act against cancerous cells but they can also cause T-cells to attack healthy cells causing various autoimmune diseases, which are known as immune related adverse events (irAEs). Current clinical data shows increased incidence of pituitary disorders with CTLA4 inhibitors and thyroid dysfunction in patients with PD-1/PD L-1 1 blockade. There have also been association of type 1 diabetes mellitus and primary adrenal insufficiency in patients with immune check point inhibitors. In this chapter we will discuss the incidence, characteristic findings, diagnosis and management of various endocrinological side effects due to targeted immunotherapies used in various malignancies.",signatures:"Anush Patel, Haisam Abid and Amrat Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75485",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75485",authors:[{id:"58496",title:"Dr.",name:"Anush",surname:"Patel",slug:"anush-patel",fullName:"Anush Patel"},{id:"336269",title:"Dr.",name:"Haisam",surname:"Abid",slug:"haisam-abid",fullName:"Haisam Abid"},{id:"336271",title:"Dr.",name:"Amrat",surname:"Kumar",slug:"amrat-kumar",fullName:"Amrat Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"75020",title:"Immunotherapy in Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95823",slug:"immunotherapy-in-malignant-pleural-mesothelioma",totalDownloads:277,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is an extremely aggressive plural malignancy mainly caused by asbestos exposure. Basic research about the immune suppressive tumor microenvironment in MPM has suggested that MPM might be a good candidate for immune therapy. Immunocheckpoint inhibitors have shown some promising results. A phase Ib trial with pembrolizumab, an antibody specific for the programmed cell death 1 protein (anti-PD-1), showed efficacy in patients with programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1)-positive MPM. Among 25 patients tested, 5 patients (20%) achieved a partial response. A Japanese group evaluated the efficacy and safety of nivolumab, an anti-PD-L1 antibody, for patients with advanced MPM in a phase II study. Ten (29%) patients showed an objective response. Based on those results, nivolumab was approved in Japan for unresectable recurrent MPM. A phase III randomized study was conducted to compare nivolumab plus ipilimumab to platinum doublet chemotherapy as a first-line therapy in unresectable MPM. The primary endpoint, overall survival (OS), was significantly improved in the nivolumab plus ipilimumab group. Cellular therapies and cancer vaccines are limited by many challenges; therefore, improvements to overcome these difficulties are urgently warranted. Further research is needed, including large-scale clinical trials, to clarify the utility and safety of immunotherapy in MPM.",signatures:"Asako Matsuda and Nobukazu Fujimoto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75020",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75020",authors:[{id:"307730",title:"Dr.",name:"Nobukazu",surname:"Fujimoto",slug:"nobukazu-fujimoto",fullName:"Nobukazu Fujimoto"},{id:"337549",title:"Dr.",name:"Asako",surname:"Matsuda",slug:"asako-matsuda",fullName:"Asako Matsuda"}],corrections:null},{id:"75475",title:"Targeted Cancer Therapy Using Nanoparticles and Antibody Fragments",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96550",slug:"targeted-cancer-therapy-using-nanoparticles-and-antibody-fragments",totalDownloads:353,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cancer is caused by an uncontrolled cell division, forming a tumor capable of metastasis. Cancer is the second leading cause of death worldwide. Conventional treatments kill healthy cells, causing side effects. Recently, nanomaterials are explored due to properties such as as- nano-size, high loading, and ligands’ attachment for a selective delivery. Apart from normal body cells, cancer cells express many receptors in excess, which serve as ‘targets’ for attacking the cells. Various ligands like proteins, peptides, polysaccharides can be attached to nanoparticles to allow proper and specific reach to the tumor. Such nanoparticles go to their desired site and stick onto the receptors, taken inside the cells by various methods. Antibodies are natural proteins that bind to foreign substances and remove them. IgG being the most explored antibody, suffers from many disadvantages such as non-specificity for required antigen, limited binding sites, low tumor penetration. Hence many researchers experimented by removing and adjusting the binding sites, using only the binding sites, enhancing the valency of naturally available IgG. It gave many benefits such as enhanced penetration, reduced immunogenicity, better delivery of drugs with fewer side effects. Continuing advancements in the field of protein engineering will help scientists to come up with better solutions. The properties allow easy surface interaction and entry, achieve better biodistribution, and reduce the amount of drug required. Targeting is based on Paul Ehrlich’s ‘magic bullet, ‘where the therapeutic moiety has two parts-one to identify the target and the second to eliminate it. This concept is revised to incorporate a third component, a carrier. Many nanocarriers can be used to target cancer cells containing ligands to identify malignant cells. Approaches to targeting are passive, active and physical targeting. Many such nanoparticles are in clinical trials and can be a better solution to cancer therapy.",signatures:"Sankha Bhattacharya and Kapil Gore",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75475",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75475",authors:[{id:"250076",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankha",surname:"Bhattacharya",slug:"sankha-bhattacharya",fullName:"Sankha Bhattacharya"},{id:"344172",title:"Mr.",name:"Kapil",surname:"Gore",slug:"kapil-gore",fullName:"Kapil Gore"}],corrections:null},{id:"75838",title:"Antibody Therapy Targeting Cancer-Specific Cell Surface Antigen AGR2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96492",slug:"antibody-therapy-targeting-cancer-specific-cell-surface-antigen-agr2",totalDownloads:282,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"For anterior gradient 2 (AGR2), normal cells express the intracellular form iAGR2 localized to the endoplasmic reticulum while cancer cells express the extracellular form eAGR2 localized on the cell surface and secreted. Antibodies targeting eAGR2+ cancer cells for eradication will spare normal cells. Two AGR2 monoclonal antibodies, P1G4 and P3A5, were shown to recognize specifically eAGR2+ pancreatic tumors implanted in mice. In addition, P1G4 showed enhancement in drug inhibition of tumor growth. Human:mouse chimeric antibodies of IgG1, IgG2, IgG4 were generated for both antibodies. These human IgG were shown to lyse eAGR2+ prostate cancer cells in vitro with human serum. AGR2 has an important function in distal spread of cancer cells, and is highly expressed in prostate, pancreatic, bladder metastases. Therefore, immunotherapy based on AGR2 antibody-mediated ADCC and CDC is highly promising. Cancer specificity of eAGR2 predicts possibly minimal collateral damage to healthy tissues and organs. Moreover, AGR2 therapy, once fully developed and approved, can be used to treat other solid tumors since AGR2 is an adenocarcinoma antigen found in many common malignancies.",signatures:"Alvin Y. Liu, Tatjana Crnogorac-Jurcevic, James J. Lai and Hung-Ming Lam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75838",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75838",authors:[{id:"337480",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Alvin Y.",surname:"Liu",slug:"alvin-y.-liu",fullName:"Alvin Y. Liu"},{id:"345022",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",surname:"Crnogorac-Jurcevic",slug:"tatjana-crnogorac-jurcevic",fullName:"Tatjana Crnogorac-Jurcevic"},{id:"345023",title:"Dr.",name:"James J.",surname:"Lai",slug:"james-j.-lai",fullName:"James J. Lai"},{id:"345024",title:"Dr.",name:"Hung-Ming",surname:"Lam",slug:"hung-ming-lam",fullName:"Hung-Ming Lam"}],corrections:null},{id:"74972",title:"Advances in Adoptive Cellular Therapy (ACT)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95854",slug:"advances-in-adoptive-cellular-therapy-act-",totalDownloads:198,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Adoptive T cell therapy (ACT) is getting acknowledged as the Advanced Therapy Medicinal Products (ATMPs) in many countries and it has evolved as one of the newest regimens to treat cancer. Developed gradually by the basic understanding of cells, involved in innate and adaptive immunity, ACT has emerged as one of the successful immunotherapies in recent times. It broadly includes various cell types such as stem cells, T cells, dendritic cells and Natural Killer cells. By the applications of genetic engineering and advanced cell culture techniques, these cells from patients’ blood, can be manipulated to train them for better efficacy against specific tumor cells. However, only some cells’ subsets have shown promising regression for certain cancer cells types. To understand the reason behind this, technical knowledge about the tumor antigens presentation, tumor microenvironment (TME), hosts’ immune responses and possible issues in the manufacturing of adoptive cellular material for infusion in patients are being explored further. This chapter brings together development of immune cells from basic research to clinical use, newer approaches which have been taken to address the resistance of ACT and future promises of this therapy.",signatures:"Rajesh Kumar Yadav, Bandana Kumari, Pritanjali Singh, Asgar Ali, Sadhana Sharma and Krishnan Hajela",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74972",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74972",authors:[{id:"335174",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadhana",surname:"Sharma",slug:"sadhana-sharma",fullName:"Sadhana Sharma"},{id:"335348",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh Kumar",surname:"Yadav",slug:"rajesh-kumar-yadav",fullName:"Rajesh Kumar Yadav"},{id:"344952",title:"Dr.",name:"Bandana",surname:"Kumari",slug:"bandana-kumari",fullName:"Bandana Kumari"},{id:"344953",title:"Dr.",name:"Asgar",surname:"Ali",slug:"asgar-ali",fullName:"Asgar Ali"},{id:"344954",title:"Dr.",name:"Pritanjali",surname:"Singh",slug:"pritanjali-singh",fullName:"Pritanjali Singh"},{id:"420204",title:"Dr.",name:"Krishnan",surname:"Hajela",slug:"krishnan-hajela",fullName:"Krishnan Hajela"}],corrections:null},{id:"76116",title:"Mathematical Modeling and Dynamics of Oncolytic Virotherapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96963",slug:"mathematical-modeling-and-dynamics-of-oncolytic-virotherapy",totalDownloads:197,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Oncolytic virotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses competent replicating viruses to destroy cancer cells. This field progressed from earlier observations of accidental viral infections causing remission in many malignancies to virus drugs targeting and killing cancer cells. In this chapter, we study some basic models of the oncolytic virotherapy and their dynamics. We show how the dynamical system’s theory can capture the behavior of the solutions of those models and provide different approaches to studying the models. We study the thresholds that enable us to classify asymptotic dynamics of the solutions. Fractional-derivative approach tells us about the memory of the derivative and related solutions of the models. We also study the affect of introducing control parameters on the cost of the therapy.",signatures:"Abdullah Abu-Rqayiq",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76116",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76116",authors:[{id:"315106",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",surname:"Abu-Rqayiq",slug:"abdullah-abu-rqayiq",fullName:"Abdullah Abu-Rqayiq"}],corrections:null},{id:"73668",title:"Molecular-Level Understanding of the Anticancer Action Mechanism of Anthracyclines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94180",slug:"molecular-level-understanding-of-the-anticancer-action-mechanism-of-anthracyclines",totalDownloads:525,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Anthracyclines drugs are used as a treatment regime to combat cancer owing to their great chemotherapeutic potential. They are characterized by the presence of a wide range of derivatives, the most famous are doxorubicin and daunorubicin. The proposed action mechanism of anthracyclines and their derivatives to exert cytotoxic effect involves the intercalation of the drug molecule into nucleic acid and inhibition of the activity of topoisomerases. These events consequences in halting DNA replication and transcription mechanisms of the cell. Understanding of the structural and conformational changes associated with nucleic acid after binding with drugs provides significant knowledge for the development of more effective drugs. A comprehensive elucidation of the molecular mechanism(s) of action of anthracyclines drugs plays a significant role in the rational drug designing to obtain an effective, selective, and safe anti-cancer drugs.",signatures:"Manish Shandilya, Shrutika Sharma, Prabhu Prasad Das and Sonika Charak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73668",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73668",authors:[{id:"325803",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonika",surname:"Charak",slug:"sonika-charak",fullName:"Sonika Charak"},{id:"326284",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish",surname:"Shandilya",slug:"manish-shandilya",fullName:"Manish Shandilya"},{id:"326287",title:"Ms.",name:"Shrutika",surname:"Sharma",slug:"shrutika-sharma",fullName:"Shrutika Sharma"},{id:"330638",title:"Dr.",name:"Prabhu Prasad",surname:"Das",slug:"prabhu-prasad-das",fullName:"Prabhu Prasad Das"}],corrections:null},{id:"74276",title:"Overview on the Side Effects of Doxorubicin",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94896",slug:"overview-on-the-side-effects-of-doxorubicin",totalDownloads:499,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Doxorubicin is an anthracycline antibiotic extracted from the bacterium Streptomyces peucetius. Its cytotoxic effect produced by intercalating with DNA causing breakdown of DNA strand which causes cancer cell apoptosis. Despite being an effective anticancer agent it causes several crucial side effects like carditoxicity, neuropathy, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, alopecia, typhlitis, myelosuppression, neutropenia, anaemia, thrombocytopenia, nausea, and diarrhoea were caused mainly due to the inability to distinguish between cancer cells and normal cells. This chapter mainly focuses on doxorubicin’s side effects, current understanding of the molecular mechanisms, and management and preventive strategies of doxorubicin’s cardiotoxicity during the treatment of various type of cancer.",signatures:"Chittipolu Ajaykumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74276",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74276",authors:[{id:"327203",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Chittipolu",surname:"Ajaykumar",slug:"chittipolu-ajaykumar",fullName:"Chittipolu Ajaykumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"74811",title:"Overcoming P-Glycoprotein-Mediated Doxorubicin Resistance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95553",slug:"overcoming-p-glycoprotein-mediated-doxorubicin-resistance",totalDownloads:468,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Intracellular concentration of doxorubicin in target cancer cells is a major determinant of therapeutic success of doxorubicin-based regimens. As known, doxorubicin is a substrate of P-glycoprotein (P-gp), the drug efflux transporter in the ABC superfamily. High expression level of P-gp in cancer cells can prevent intracellular accumulation of doxorubicin up to its effective level, leading to doxorubicin resistance and treatment failure. Moreover, these P-gp-overexpressed cells display multi-drug resistance (MDR) phenotype. Regarding this, application of P-gp modulators (suppressor of P-gp activity and expression) is likely to reverse MDR and restore cell sensitivity to doxorubicin treatment. In searching for potential chemo-sensitizer against resistant cancer, a number of phytochemicals or dietary compounds have been studied extensively for their P-gp modulating effects. Furthermore, combination between doxorubicin and P-gp modulators (e.g., plant-derived compounds, siRNA) given through specific target delivery platforms have been an effective strategic approach for MDR reversal and restore doxorubicin effectiveness for cancer treatment.",signatures:"Suree Jianmongkol",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74811",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74811",authors:[{id:"317928",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Suree",surname:"Jianmongkol",slug:"suree-jianmongkol",fullName:"Suree Jianmongkol"}],corrections:null},{id:"76820",title:"Improving the Antitumor Effect of Doxorubicin in the Treatment of Eyeball and Orbital Tumors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95080",slug:"improving-the-antitumor-effect-of-doxorubicin-in-the-treatment-of-eyeball-and-orbital-tumors",totalDownloads:238,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Malignant tumors of the orbit are the main cause for 41–45.9% of orbital tumor, and they will threaten both the organ of vision and the life of the patient. In our opinion, improving the effectiveness of treatment of malignant tumors can be implemented in the following areas: a) immobilization of doxorubicin in synthetic polymeric materials, which will fill the tissue structures that were resected and reduce the percentage of tumor recurrence. b) the use of nanomaterials for the delivery of doxorubicin to tumor cells. To develop a hydrogel implant and nanoparticles, to study the diffusion kinetics of doxorubicin in a hydrogel implant and the ability of nanoparticles to transport doxorubicin. The developed gels based on acrylic acid (AAc) were obtained by radical polymerization of an aqueous solution of monomers (AAc and N, N-methylenebisacrylamide (MBA)) at a temperature of 70°C. Matrices based on polyvinyl formal (PVF) were obtained by treatment of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) with formaldehyde in the presence of a strong acid. Experimental studies were performed on rabbits of the Chinchilla breed, weighing 2–3 kg, aged 5–6 months, which during the study were in the same conditions. We implanted the hybrid gel in the scleral sac; orbital tissue and in the ear tissue of rabbits: Evaluation of the response of soft tissues and bone structures to implant materials was carried out on the basis of analysis of changes in clinical and pathomorphological parameters was performed after 10, 30 and 60 days. Diffusion of doxorubicin was examined by using UV spectroscopy [spectrophotometer-fluorimeter DS-11 FX + (DeNovix, USA)], analyzing samples at regular intervals during the day at a temperature of 25° C. The concentration of active substances was determined by the normalized peak absorption of doxorubicin at 480 nm. The release kinetics of the antitumor drug doxorubicin were investigated by using a UV spectrometer “Specord M 40” (maximum absorption 480 nm). The developed hydrogel implant has good biocompatibility and germination of surrounding tissues in the structure of the implant, as well as the formation of a massive fibrous capsule around it. An important advantage of the implant is also the lack of its tendency to resorption. Moreover, the results showed that the diffusion kinetics of doxorubicin from a liquid-crosslinked hydrogel reaches a minimum therapeutic level within a few minutes, while in the case of a tightly crosslinked - after a few hours. It was also found that the liquid-crosslinked hydrogel adsorbs twice as much as the cytostatic - doxorubicin. The analysis of the research results approved that the size of the nanoparticles is the main factor for improving drug delevary and penetration. Thus, nanoparticles with a diameter of less than 200 nm can penetrate into cells and are not removed from the circulatory system by macrophages, thereby prolonging their circulation in the body. About 10 nm. The developed hybrid hydrogel compositions have high mechanical strength, porosity, which provides 100% penetration of doxorubicin into experimental animal tissues. It was found that the kinetics of diffusion of drugs from liquid-crosslinked hydrogel reaches a minimum therapeutic level within a few minutes, whereas in the case of densely crosslinked hydrogel diffusion begins with a delay of several hours and the amount of drug released at equilibrium reaches much lower values (20–25%). The obtained preliminary experimental results allow us to conclude that our developed pathways for the delivery of drugs, in particular, doxorubicin to tumor cells will increase the effectiveness of antitumor therapy.",signatures:"Anatoliy Parfentievich Maletskyy, Yuriy Markovich Samchenko and Natalia Mikhailivna Bigun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76820",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76820",authors:[{id:"325981",title:"Prof.",name:"Anatoliy Parfentievich",surname:"Maletskyy",slug:"anatoliy-parfentievich-maletskyy",fullName:"Anatoliy Parfentievich Maletskyy"},{id:"326712",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuriy Markovich",surname:"Samchenko",slug:"yuriy-markovich-samchenko",fullName:"Yuriy Markovich Samchenko"},{id:"333970",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia Mikhailivna",surname:"Bigun",slug:"natalia-mikhailivna-bigun",fullName:"Natalia Mikhailivna Bigun"}],corrections:null},{id:"76515",title:"The Paradigm of Targeting an Oncogenic Tyrosine Kinase: Lesson from BCR-ABL",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97528",slug:"the-paradigm-of-targeting-an-oncogenic-tyrosine-kinase-lesson-from-bcr-abl",totalDownloads:218,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aberrant tyrosine phosphorylation, either due to constitutive tyrosine kinases (TKs) or to inactivation of protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs), is a widespread feature of many cancerous cells. The BCR-ABL fusion protein, which arises from the Philadelphia chromosome, is a molecular distinct and peculiar trait of some kind of leukemia, namely Chronic Myeloid and Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia, and displays constitutive tyrosine kinase activity. In the chapter, we will highlight the milestones that had led to the identification of the BCR-ABL fusion gene and its role as the only molecular pathogenic event sufficient to elicit and sustain chronic myeloid leukemia. We will also discuss the effort made to unveil the molecular mechanisms of action of the chimeric tyrosine kinase that eventually lead to aberrant cell proliferation and impaired cell-death. Furthermore, we will also review the lesson learned from the selective inhibition of BCR-ABL which currently represent a breakthrough in the treatment of several tumors characterized by defective tyrosine kinase activity.",signatures:"Enrico Bracco, M. Shahzad Ali, Stefano Magnati and Giuseppe Saglio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76515",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76515",authors:[{id:"58476",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",surname:"Saglio",slug:"giuseppe-saglio",fullName:"Giuseppe Saglio"},{id:"343243",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Enrico",surname:"Bracco",slug:"enrico-bracco",fullName:"Enrico Bracco"},{id:"352739",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad S.",surname:"Ali",slug:"muhammad-s.-ali",fullName:"Muhammad S. Ali"},{id:"352740",title:"BSc.",name:"Stefano",surname:"Magnati",slug:"stefano-magnati",fullName:"Stefano Magnati"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8025",title:"Cancer Immunotherapy and Biological Cancer Treatments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e9953ff7bc3b22ae75810e286dd86b73",slug:"cancer-immunotherapy-and-biological-cancer-treatments",bookSignature:"Hilal Arnouk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8025.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76431",title:"Dr.",name:"Hilal",surname:"Arnouk",slug:"hilal-arnouk",fullName:"Hilal Arnouk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"946",title:"Advancements in Tumor Immunotherapy and Cancer Vaccines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aa9eb0c98931a6c6e516ecf1962f99a4",slug:"advancements-in-tumor-immunotherapy-and-cancer-vaccines",bookSignature:"Hilal Arnouk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/946.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76431",title:"Dr.",name:"Hilal",surname:"Arnouk",slug:"hilal-arnouk",fullName:"Hilal Arnouk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"374",title:"Current Cancer Treatment",subtitle:"Novel Beyond Conventional Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d752cf5b05d575243ec2c2144073f579",slug:"current-cancer-treatment-novel-beyond-conventional-approaches",bookSignature:"Öner Özdemir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/374.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"52298",title:"Prof.",name:"Oner",surname:"Ozdemir",slug:"oner-ozdemir",fullName:"Oner Ozdemir"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3273",title:"Cancer Treatment",subtitle:"Conventional and Innovative Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cdd9872a05001212b3583bff95bae979",slug:"cancer-treatment-conventional-and-innovative-approaches",bookSignature:"Letícia Rangel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3273.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"60359",title:"Dr.",name:"Letícia",surname:"Rangel",slug:"leticia-rangel",fullName:"Letícia Rangel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1311",title:"Advances in Cancer Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"24db071212f134f4a7dc3dc0cc786fec",slug:"advances-in-cancer-therapy",bookSignature:"Hala Gali-Muhtasib",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1311.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"57145",title:"Prof.",name:"Hala",surname:"Gali-Muhtasib",slug:"hala-gali-muhtasib",fullName:"Hala Gali-Muhtasib"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3002",title:"Oncogenomics and Cancer Proteomics",subtitle:"Novel Approaches in Biomarkers Discovery and Therapeutic Targets in Cancer",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8990331803d9e6084b367163dcf218",slug:"oncogenomics-and-cancer-proteomics-novel-approaches-in-biomarkers-discovery-and-therapeutic-targets-in-cancer",bookSignature:"César López-Camarillo and Elena Aréchaga-Ocampo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3002.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",slug:"cesar-lopez-camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1001",title:"Tumor Microenvironment and Myelomonocytic Cells",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a2392066cd104cd48f3b296bf72b97a6",slug:"tumor-microenvironment-and-myelomonocytic-cells",bookSignature:"Subhra K. 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Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",slug:"nanomaterials-toxicity-human-health-and-environment",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Simona Clichici, Adriana Filip and Gustavo M. do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8137.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64160",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Clichici",slug:"simona-clichici",fullName:"Simona Clichici"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"251730",title:"Dr.",name:"Guilherme",middleName:"Fredeico Bernardo",surname:"Lenz E Silva",fullName:"Guilherme Lenz E Silva",slug:"guilherme-lenz-e-silva",email:"guilhermelenz@usp.br",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286148",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:null,surname:"Viana",fullName:"Camila Viana",slug:"camila-viana",email:"camilaoviana@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286149",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Fernanda Vieira",slug:"fernanda-vieira",email:"fevieira2001@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286151",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Danieli",middleName:"Silva",surname:"Domingues",fullName:"Danieli Domingues",slug:"danieli-domingues",email:"danielisilva@ymail.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"66689",slug:"risk-assessment-and-health-safety-and-environmental-management-of-carbon-nanomaterials",signatures:"Guilherme Lenz e Silva, Camila Viana, Danieli Domingues and Fernanda Vieira",dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"February 26th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 11th 2019",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",book:{id:"8137",title:"Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",fullTitle:"Nanomaterials - 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\r\n\tThe word "crisis" can show up anywhere, anytime - it can be an acute urgency or a long-term response; it can happen at an individual level to a global scale. It is an interdisciplinary word that takes into account geographical, demographical, religious, social, and climate differences, and, by how it is managed, consequently, can have a difference in its results. We have seen how seemingly far-away issues became "my problem" in the past.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe Subprime Mortgage Crisis affected a credit crash in the international financial market. The Fukushima nuclear power plant accident threatened health problems of the Asian countries, while the radioactivity problem remains an international crisis. The Syrian Civil War, from the country's internal economic recession, job disruptions, poor harvests affected by climate change, has raised a large refugee migration crisis. The COVID-19 pandemic has forced our community, from our small family group to a global scale, to adapt to unprecedented events to the continuing instability, anxiety, and uncertainty in our lives. There is a potential crisis with personal information or identity due to the misuse or insecurity of the data management. At the core of all, these seemingly unrelated types of crises are the resultant risk and burden of consequences that can affect all individuals.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tThe purpose of this book is to provide the readers with an understanding of the characteristics of the crisis itself, recognize the wide range and multi-layer of the crisis from a real situation, give ideas on how to minimize the damage, and find ways to increase resilience in the future. To adapt to the rapidly and diversely changing world, the necessary experience and appropriate management for all kinds of crisis issues will be discussed as well. At the same time, it is intended to suggest elements such as verified scientific and empirical knowledge and applicable technologies; more effective risk management operation; modeling of the risks, manuals, management plans, and strategies. \r\n\t
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Yi",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11439.jpg",keywords:"Real-World Applications, Rebuild Strategies, Emergency Management, Risk Management, Advanced Technology, Statistics, Models, System Errors, Empirical Application, Governance, Safety, Risk Reduction, Resilience, Social Vulnerability, Sustainable Well-Being",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 4th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 1st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 31st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 19th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 18th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"An experienced researcher in disaster risk management, formerly affiliated with Tohoku University, awarded her Ph.D. for the University of Tsukuba. In 2015, Dr. Yi’s international forum at the 3rd United Nations World Conference on Disaster Reduction received high appraisals. Dr. Yi is regularly invited to review the academic manuscripts for the International Remote Sensing Journal.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"200332",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Carine",middleName:"J.",surname:"Yi",slug:"carine-yi",fullName:"Carine Yi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/200332/images/system/200332.png",biography:null,institutionString:"R. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Wheat is one of the most important crops in the world. It is cultivated on an area of about 2 million square kilometers. Its ease of adaptation to the soil has spread to several areas of the world. Wheat is the mainstay of nutrition for many countries in the world. Based on the latest report of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), that the global wheat trade in 2017 reached 754.8 million tons; Russia’s exports of wheat amounted to 30 million tons, America 26.5 million tons, Europe 25 million tons, Canada 21 million tons, Australia 20 million tons, while exports of Ukraine 15 million tons, Kazakhstan 8.5 million tons, Argentina 8 million tons, the largest countries exporting wheat worldwide (www.fao.org).
\n
Fortunately, global wheat prices have fallen, driven by an increase in global production, which has been affected by good weather and the availability of water to grow in the EU, India, Pakistan, China, and the United States, which was accompanied by a rise in global exports (www.fao.org).
\n
Forecasts indicate that the use of wheat in 2017–2018 will reach 740 million tons. More than 43% of the production is consumed by only six countries: China, India, Russian Federation, the United States of America, and Pakistan. This is because of the population of these countries of nearly three billion people, or half the world’s population (www.fao.org).
\n
As many countries in the world do not produce sufficient quantities of wheat for their uses and therefore tend to import this strategic commodity. These wheat-importing countries store large quantities of these grains in storage places called silos. Since ancient times, wheat grains have been stored in huge shipments. Earliest discovery of grain stores dates back to the year 9500 BC [1], and these stores in the settlements of the Neolithic period before the pottery “A” were located in the Jordan Valley, where the first stores were located in places among other buildings. But at the beginning of the 8500 BC, they were moved inside the houses, but with the period of 7500 BC, they were stored in rooms dedicated to it [2]. The area of the first wheat stores was 3 × 3 m from the outside, and had suspended layers in order to protect grain from rodents and insects and provide ventilation [3]. These stores are then located in Mahjara, which is placed in the valley of Sindh since 6000 BC. The ancient Egyptians used to store wheat grains in years of prosperity for use in drought ones. Because Egypt’s climate is very drought, Egyptians have been able to store grain in silos without a significant loss of quality. The grain silo, as it is called, is an ideal way to store grains in all lands of the East since time immemorial. In Turkey and Iran, moorings used to buy wheat or barley, which is relatively cheap, and stored it in closed and hidden places in the face of famine. In Malta, relatively large quantities of wheat were stored in hundreds of silos dug into rocks. The silos can store up to 60–80 tons, by taking proper precautions and keeping it in good condition for 4 years or more. By the end of the nineteenth century, stores specifically designed for grain conservation began to spread in Great Britain, but North America was the home for the major stores, called grain levers. There were large-scale climatic obstacles to grain storage in Great Britain on those difficulties significantly. In order to keep the grain in good condition, it should be kept as far away as possible from moisture and heat because new grains tend to release moisture when brought to the store. In this case, microorganisms (mainly fungi) are more active and can heat the grains. If the grain continues to be heated, its quality will be affected. Therefore, effective treatment is to place grains on the ground in the form of non-thick layers, and to keep the place well ventilated. Hence, grain can be configured to store in silos.
\n
In Great Britain, small wheat stores were built on mushroom-shaped logs called stone pillars. It was built on a wooden frame and usually has stone roofs. The large ones resemble the open ceiling from the front, but the upper part is closed. The first floor is usually accessed by a stone staircase on the outer wall. With tremendous advances in engineering technology in the construction of silos, a new generation of forms and possibilities of silos has begun. High-density indoor silos are found in farms, mills, and harbors and can reach a height of 30 m. Largest silos are located in North America at major shipping centers such as Chicago, Kansas city, and Missouri in the United States, and Thunder Bay, Ontario, and Canada. Many cylindrical silos are equipped with a perforated metal floor that allows the air to pass through to keep grain free from moisture. Cylindrical silos are often adjacent, with high mechanical devices nearby.
\n
Generally, there are three types of silos, the first type is made of wood, the second type is made of concrete, and the third type is made of metal (steel and galvanized). Wheat is as barley, oat, rye, and so on, used to store suitably both in concrete and metal silos [3] (Figure 1).
\n
Figure 1.
Internal structure of a steel silo as in [3].
\n
Large silos have many appliances including dryers, detergents, workpieces, cranes, and conveyors. Dryers leave grain free from moisture. The air is heated in the dehydrator and directed over the grains and then used air that has not been heated to cool the grains. The use of detergent ensures grain cleanliness. The absorption of dust, husk, or straw is obtained and screening and vibration leads to the elimination of grains that are not of the appropriate size and density. However, some machines use photovoltaic cells to isolate rotten grains.
\n
Cranes and conveyors are used to transport grains. Vertical grain movement is obtained by cranes. Among the most used cranes is a crane with a large conveyor belt and a bundle of buckets. Wheat grains in the bucket are transported to high altitude and poured into storage baskets. Tankers move the grains horizontally across the silo, called a grain lift. It is a silage storage place as well.
\n
Large quantities of wheat are delivered to the silos. Of course, the huge quantities received by silos are coming directly from farms without any transactions. Wheat is then loaded with all the residues of process of flail, agricultural soil, and contaminants of harvesting tools during the separation of grains from the ears. It is perhaps of standard importance to prepare wheat grains for the flour process to explain how grinding of wheat grains is done by the following procedures. The grain of wheat consists of three main parts: grain coats, embryos, and endosperm. The purpose of the milling process is to separate as much of the endosperm content as possible from the wrappers. The ratio of flour produced to the percentage of grain used in production is known as extraction. The weight of flour produced from 100 g of grain, and depends on this percentage on several factors, the most important; extraction method used, type of mills used, nature, and specific weight of wheat grains. In general, extraction rate is between 70 and 72% in excellent white flour, and this percentage is 90–95% in brown flour. What is left behind from milling, so-called bran, is used to feed animals. Wheat milling is done by the following subsequent serial steps [4]:
\n
\n
1.1. Receiving
\n
Grain coming from fields or silos is received in the mill after sampling and examined to ensure that it meets specifications set by the mill. Grains are received and emptied in conical tanks, each of which can reach 10 tons. Of which is covered with a fixed metal mesh for impurities when unloading grain. The crane and aspirator pull the grain out of the tanks for delivery to the cleaning equipment.
\n
\n
\n
1.2. Cleaning
\n
The cleaning equipment consists of two main units: dry-cleaning unit known as black cleaning unit and the wet-cleaning unit known as the white cleaning unit.
\n
\n
1.2.1. Black cleaning
\n
This unit consists of the following equipment:
Compound separation device: It is composed of three wire screens installed and portable on a metal frame suspended by pulley rods spring to generate vibration movement. Sieves are arranged on top of each other so that they have wide holes at the top followed by center holes and small holes. As a result, impurities can be eliminated according to their size. The device is fitted with a fan mounted at the top of the frame to generate a stream of air that helps to breakdown light impurities.
Separation device according to the specific weight: This device consists of a metal box revolving inside the fan and a strong aspirator and sieve mounted 12% slope from the horizontal level, working on the suction of grain and the deposition of heavy impurities such as stones and pieces of glass.
Magnetic separation device: It is a death pass inside the grain, and is equipped with magnetic plates electric work to attract pieces of iron nails and clumps which are collected in a special drawer.
Vibrating machine for the separation of impurities: It is a composite of a serrated cylinder from the inside to be grooves or round pockets to settle round impurities similar to the diameter of the grain and different in terms of form, where they gather in special ditches.
\n
\n
\n
\n
1.3. White cleaning
\n
This unit consists of a peeler and stalker.
The peeler consists of a cylinder with rough internal surfaces or coated with a precision metal bed that scrapes centrifugal grains. Shells are separated and pulled by an air stream generated by an electric fan installed at the top of the peeler.
The asset consists of a rectangular basin with a nozzle to feed it with grains, as well as an appropriate water source that can be controlled as needed, and ends with a drainage basin topped by an appropriate filter. Inside cylinder with two helical separators working in opposite directions that wash the grains and push them forward and the light impurities on the surface of the water. With the rush of grain forward, it passes over a vibrator strainer that has been removed from the water and then to a rotary roller dryer to complete removing water droplets from the grain. The question now arises: Is the process of drying wheat grains sufficient to remove all moisture from the grain mass? Can wheat grains be washed before entering the silos? What is the cost for this? What are possible risks of increasing humidity and possibility of conditions for infection of fungal spores and conidia?
\n
Perhaps, it is possible in this book to put forward some ideas as follows:
Presence of units within silos for washing and drying of grains by successive processes of passage of warm air currents, and the source of energy units of solar cells installed one way or another on sides of the silo exposed to sunlight.
Putting desiccant materials that absorb air moisture inside silos such as sodium chloride and silica gel.
Exposure of wheat mass to ultraviolet rays for superficial sterilization with constant flipping, taking into account the non-exposure of direct workers to those rays.
Air fumigation of silos with volatile oils that have the potential to sterilize the air.
\n
Despite all precautions taken in modern silos, many studies have shown that fungi are flourishing on wheat grains and in the air of these reservoirs [5]. Several research findings have confirmed the presence of harmful and toxic fungi in many silos, not only on stored grains but also on wheat flour derived from those silos. Wheat grains are harvested in agricultural fields so they are subjected to contamination with soil particles as well as germs adhered on wheat plant itself. For these reasons, the mass of wheat stored in silos contains large quantities of dust packed with fungal spores. It is worth mentioning that any defect in the system of grain conservation inside silos is followed by the growth of fungal spores among wheat grains, and these molds may be not visible to the eye, which ultimately leads to the arrival of consumers.
\n
The problem seems more complicated if wheat is stored in poor conditions, due to the ability of wheat to imbibe the air humidity of the silos. A study conducted in Zimbabwe indicated that the storage of red wheat in many silos led to a decline in the commercial level of this commodity and an increase in the level of fungal toxins [6].
\n
In one of the literatures of the previous research, presence of fungi was tested in 34 samples collected from 3 silos. Results of this experiment proved that presence of fungi produced aflatoxins in majority of tested samples [5]. It is worth mentioning that fungi represent the main factors of starchy grain contamination (mycotoxigenic). Therefore, it has been found logical to review a study conducted by the authors on presence of fungi that have serious precedents as causes of diseases of respiratory system in humans. We will discuss the danger of these fungi to people dealing with wheat grains from the beginning of harvest until the entry into silos.
\n
This part of the book will present results of a study conducted in one of the giant silos in Sakaka city, Al-Jouf region, Saudi Arabia, in the autumn of 2015. Our results will be discussed with results of previous studies in some countries in order to highlight some of the challenges facing safe storage of wheat grains inside silos.
\n
\n
\n
\n
2. Materials and methods a research on the presence of fungi in wheat stored in a silo in Sakaka city, Saudi Arabia
\n
Twenty samples of wheat grains stored in the large silo in Sakaka were tested for the presence of fungi (part of this work has been reported elsewhere [7]). This was done by placing a known quantity of wheat in a bottle of sterile water next to the sampling area, taking care to ensure that one source of fungus (wheat grains) reaches the collection container. When returning to the laboratory, fungi were isolated by placing 5 ml of water mashed with fungal spores, coming from grain surfaces, in a 9-cm Petri dish and then adding 15 ml of rose-Bengal Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium, all in isolation cabinet under aseptic conditions. Dishes were closed and sealed with parafilm to ensure full closure and placed upside down in plastic bags (previously sterilized by radiation) and incubated at 28°C, and then followed up until appearance of fungal colonies. After emergence of fungal colonies, each colony was purified on its own, to obtain pure single fungal isolate. Pure fungal samples were subjected to ophthalmic and microscopic examinations with imaging and arranged of figurative plates [8, 9]. Risk of isolated fungi has been tested on human health. Hemolytic ability of the isolated fungi to human red blood cells was tested following the method of [10, 11]. Fungal spore suspension (in 0.9% NaCl) was used. Washed (using 0.9% NaCl) 100 μl of blood, plus 900 μl of spore suspension was incubated, sodium chloride solution, which represents a negative control sample, and distilled water (positive control sample), under aseptic conditions, for comparison at 28°C, for 24 h, in the dark. Reaction mixtures were separated with the aid of a centrifuge and absorbance of supernatant was measured using UV-Vis spectrophotometer (spectro uv-2505) at 540 nm to calculate percentage of hemolysis of red blood cells following formula of the equation:
\n
\n\n%\nHemolytic activity\n=\nabsorbance of sample\n–\nabsorbance of saline\n/\nabsorbance of dist\n.\nwater\n×\n100\n.\n\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Results and discussion
\n
Fungi of Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, Circinella umbellata, Gliocladium sp., Penicillium frequentans, P. islandicum, and Ulocladium atrum were isolated from wheat samples. Table 1 shows prevalence of each fungus.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Genera and species
\n
Wheat grains
\n
\n
\n
NCl
\n
OR
\n
TC (%)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Aspergillus
\n
145
\n
20H
\n
38.3
\n
\n
\n
A. flavus
\n
73
\n
20H
\n
19.3
\n
\n
\n
A. niger
\n
72
\n
20H
\n
19.0
\n
\n
\n
Circinella umbellata
\n
28
\n
5 L
\n
7.4
\n
\n
\n
Gliocladium sp.
\n
8
\n
4 L
\n
2.1
\n
\n
\n
Penicillium
\n
138
\n
18H
\n
36.5
\n
\n
\n
P. frequentans
\n
70
\n
18H
\n
18.5
\n
\n
\n
P. islandicum
\n
68
\n
17H
\n
18.0
\n
\n
\n
Ulocladium atrum
\n
59
\n
3 L
\n
15.7
\n
\n
\n
Gross total counts
\n
378
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
No. of genera
\n
5
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
No. of species
\n
7
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Gross counts of fungal genera and species derived from 20 samples of wheat grains collected from the main silo, Sakaka, Al-Jouf, Saudi Arabia by germs came from soaked grains in sterilized H2O, number of cases of isolation (NCl; out of 20 cases), occurrence remarks (OR), percentage of total counts (TC%) on PDA agar at 28°C.
\n
OR = Occurrence remarks; H = 60% -100.0%, M = 33 - 59.0%, L = 20–32%, and R = 7–19%.
\n
\n
\n
4. Fungal identification
\n
It is worth mentioning that all fungi isolated from wheat surfaces stored in the silo, produces huge amounts of spores and conidia. For example, Aspergillus flavus is a fungus of a bad reputation which produces the most dangerous toxin called aflatoxin (AFs). This instinct fungus is famous for corruption and damage of many seeds, grains, and nuts [12]. A. flavus produces large quantities of conidia bearing on biseriate sterigmata. A. niger produces large quantities of conidia that are carried on two-row stregmata; these conidia are black, in long chains. Conidia of A. niger cause respiratory problem in people exposed to inhalation of such germs, such as people working in poultry farms, and so on. Circinella umbellate is a fungus belonging to zygomycotina that has huge amounts of spores in many sporangia (Figures 2–8). Previous studies suggest that this fungus can cause chest allergic diseases and asthma-like symptoms for people with low immunity who are subject to inhaling its spores [13].
\n
Figure 2.
Hyphal growth of Aspergillus flavus on PDA at 28°C. Photos 1–9 were shot using ordinary compound microscope. Non-septate conidiophores and foremost radiate heads with mono- and biseriate sterigmata carried on conical-shaped vesicles. Bar 10 μm in the photo 1 is the same for rest of the photos.
\n
Figure 3.
Hyphal growth of Aspergillus niger PDA at 28°C. Photos 1–6 taken by ordinary compound microscope. Non-septate conidiophores and radiate heads with biseriate sterigmata. Bar 10 μm in the photo (1) is the same for photos 2–4, and in photo 5 is the same as photo 6.
\n
Figure 4.
Hyphal growth of Circinella umbellate on PDA at 28°C. Photos 1–10 are taken by ordinary compound microscope. 1–7 branched conidiophores with curved side branches cut off by sporangia. 8–10 gatherings tent form sporangiophores. Bar 10 μm in Photo 1 is the same for rest of the photos.
\n
Figure 5.
Hyphal growth of Gliocladium sp. on PDA at 28°C. Photos 1–8 shot by ordinary compound microscope. 1–7 gelatinous grouping of conidia. 8 A conidiophore loads a distinguishing sterigmata peculiar of this fungus. Bar 10 μm in Photo 1 is the same for the rest of the photos.
\n
Figure 6.
Hyphal growth of Penicillium frequentans on PDA at 28°C. Photos 1–9 shot by ordinary compound microscope. 1–9 septate conidiophores carried monoseriate sterigmata. Bar 10 μm in Photo 1 is the same for the rest of the photos.
\n
Figure 7.
Hyphal growth of Penicillium islandicum on PDA at 28°C. Photos 1–9 shot by ordinary compound microscope. 1–9 septate conidiophores carried biseriate sterigmata and symmetrical. Bar 10 μm in the Photo 1 is the same for of the rest of the photos.
\n
Figure 8.
Hyphal growth of Ulocladium atrum on PDA at 28°C. Photos 1–7 shot by ordinary compound microscope. 1–7 septate conidiophores carried singularly broad conidia with rough wall has transverse septa (1–3 septa) and longitudinal septum (one or more), comparatively strict at the base and wide at the top. Bar 10 μm in Photo 1 is the same for rest of the photos.
\n
A previous study has shown that Penicillium frequentans and P. islandicum produced a type of fungal toxin called aflatoxin (AFs) [14]. They further caused pulmonary disease, hypersensitivity, allergy (alveoli), a kind of emphysema [15]. As the two fungi produces chains of conidia, which are easy to spread through dusted air with the mass of wheat stored in the silos, therefore, these toxins can cause risk of spread of diseases for dealers within the silos.
\n
While literature treated Gliocladium as a class of “useful fungi,” modern research raveled the contribution of it in the production of a toxin named Gliotoxin [16].
\n
Ulocladium atrum is not far from the problems caused by the fungi mentioned above. It was mentioned in some previous studies for its ability to cause allergy in chest and respiratory system in humans [17].
\n
By reviewing the previous narration (above), we can say that the isolated fungi of this study are present in the form of conidia and spores, lying on the surface of wheat grains and between folds of its coats.
\n
There are two types of risks because of the existence of conidia and spores on wheat surfaces. The first risk is the exposure of dealers with large quantities of conidia and spores inside the silos. The second danger is the possibility of growth of these conidia and spores, with the availability of moisture, to be innate growths producing very dangerous toxins to humans. In order to prove the first risk in a measurable experimental way, an experiment was conducted to determine the damage that could occur as a result of invasion of conidia and spores of the isolated organisms into human lungs and then into the blood via alveoli in one way or another.
\n
\n
\n
5. An experiment showing the effect of inhaling spores and conidia of the isolated fungi on public health of exposed individuals
\n
Biological effect of spores and conidia of Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, Circinella umbellate, Gliocladium sp., Penicillium frequentans, P. islandicum, and Ulocladium atrum on the decomposition of red blood cells in humans.
\n
Results of the study showed the ability of each of the tested fungi to analyze the red blood cells in a human blood sample. There was a disparity in the effect of that on the severity of decomposition (hemolytic activity). P. frequentans performed highest response to disruption of the human red blood cells (63%), followed by Gliocladium sp. (51%), and A. niger (50%), respectively. Conidia and spore suspension of each of Ulocladium atrum, Circinella umbellata, Aspergillus flavus, and Penicillium islandicum donated sponses of 23, 22, 20, and 19%, respectively (Figures 9 and 10).
\n
Figure 9.
Influence of conidia and spore suspension of Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, Circinella umbellate, Gliocladium sp., Penicillium frequentans, P. islandicum, and Ulocladium atrum on breakdown of the human red blood cells. Bars above columns symbolize standard error of average data from three replicates and reveal differences between averages of samples related to control. Significant values against control represent: ** = highly significant at p ˂ 0.01, *** = very significant at p ˂ 0.001.
\n
Figure 10.
Influence of conidial and fungal spores suspension of Circinella umbellata (sample No. 2), Gliocladium sp. (sample No. 3), Penicillium frequentans (sample No. 4), Ulocladium atrum (sample No. 5), Penicillium islandicum (sample No. 6), Aspergillus flavus (sample No. 7), and Aspergillus niger (sample No. 8) on hydrolysis of human red blood cells. Sample 1, is negative control sample [human blood + saline solution (0.9% NaCl)], and Sample 9, is the positive control sample [human blood + distilled water].
\n
Despite all evidences from previous studies that confirm the seriousness of isolated fungi on the health of dealers and exposers, we have tested the ability of these fungi on hemolysis of human red blood cells. From our results, Penicillium frequentans, Gliocladium sp., and Aspergillus niger caused significant damage and decomposition of red blood cells at high rates compared to other fungi, while rest of tested fungi also caused damage, but less than the above which highlights the risk of exposure to conidia and spores of those fungi. Our findings here correlate with previous studies on how bad these fungi are, although no data are available on the effect of conidia and spores of some fungi on the decomposition of human red blood cells. All this confirms without any doubt the seriousness of the intense exposure to conidia and spores of fungi and that the huge quantities of wheat stored in silos is dangerous sources for dealers and exposers. We recommend using nasal and oral masks for people working in silos and exposed to dust carrying fungal conidia and spores generated by the movement of wheat grains.
\n
From another dimension, these conidia and spores of fungi are sources of severe contamination to wheat stored in silos. In the case of moisture, wheat becomes an ideal environment for growth, reproduction, and growth of fungi, which may grow inside the wheat mass, producing dangerous fungi that produce toxins.
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusion
\n
With the steady increase in human numbers and high living and nutrition requirements, it is imperative to increase the production of important cereal crops for large segments of the population. Wheat is a very important component of human needs throughout the world. Therefore, since ancient times people have been interested in working on storing this important and vital commodity to get it in time of need. Granaries and silos were established and they continued to develop until they reached the current structural and architectural design. Nowadays, nearly every country in the world has several silos spread throughout its land to cover the continuing needs of cereals. It should be noted that many countries in the world have a much higher request for wheat than their production. This leads to the import of this important commodity from places of production surplus from the need of producers. Since its harvest, wheat has been subjected to successive steps of transport and conservation, which makes it vulnerable to pollution and damage. As wheat crop is subjected to the sifting process, which removes grain from the harvest residues and soil granules, this factor will be ignored.
\n
Large quantities of wheat during shipping process through giant vessels are exposed to many risks. High humidity of transport containers overseas increases chances of wetting wheat grains and thus chances of increasing the contamination and growth of fungi in wheat. Sometimes conidia and spores of fungi germinate within the mass of wheat grains and producing innate fungi which may not be seen by the naked eye and generating very dangerous toxins. Often, when shipments of wheat arrive via transport to silos, they are loaded with many elements of danger.
\n
In one of the studies conducted by the authors on the presence of harmful fungi in the mass of wheat inside a silo, Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, Circinella umbellata, Gliocladium sp., Penicillium frequentans, P. islandicum, and Ulocladium atrum were isolated. Since these fungi have precedents to cause some diseases, an experiment has been conducted to prove this. The test of the ability of the isolated fungi to analyze human red blood cells has been shown to have a high coefficient of effect.
\n
In theory, based on the scientific data and results of the previous studies, we proposed to provide a healthy environment within the silos, which is summarized as follows:
Washing wheat grain at the before entering for storage in the silos and then drying with constant exposure and flipping to warm air currents from the sources of solar energy.
Exposing air silos to ultra violet light during periods of non-working workers.
Use of aerosols and volatile oils to help sterilize air silos.
Put moisture absorbent materials such as calcium chloride and silica gel, to ensure dry storage environment.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"fungi, humidity, silos, storage, wheat",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/60300.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/60300.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60300",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60300",totalDownloads:1107,totalViews:206,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:3,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:8,impactScoreQuartile:1,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"December 2nd 2017",dateReviewed:"February 17th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 16th 2018",dateFinished:"March 28th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"There are enormous challenges facing wheat storage, which is the most important crop in existence. Wheat is one of the most famous and important plants in human history. There is no country in the world that does not give up wheat yields. Countries of the world vary and differ in their production and consumption of that important plant. Since ancient times, humans have stored wheat grain in special places. Storage areas were developed until the current silos were reached. With large quantities of wheat stored in silos, there are many challenges to the healthy environment of storage. One of the most important challenges facing quality of wheat stored in silos is the spread of conidia and spores of many dangerous fungi on wheat grains. One of studies conducted by the authors proved presence of some of notorious fungi on and inside wheat mass stored in the silo under study. Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, Circinella umbellata, Gliocladium sp., Penicillium frequentans, P. islandicum, and Ulocladium atrum were isolated from wheat samples. All seven isolated fungi demonstrated their ability to analyze human red blood cells with different strengths. These results are consistent with previous studies that confirm the seriousness of presence of these fungi on the health of dealers and exposers especially with bad storage and humidity.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/60300",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/60300",book:{id:"6776",slug:"global-wheat-production"},signatures:"Shaima Mohamed Nabil Moustafa, Haifa Abdulaziz S. Alhaithloul\nand Hani Mohamed Awad Abdelzaher",authors:[{id:"238130",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaima",middleName:"Mohamed Nabil",surname:"Moustafa",fullName:"Shaima Moustafa",slug:"shaima-moustafa",email:"shymaa.nabil@ju.edu.sa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Al Jouf University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"245646",title:"Dr.",name:"Haifa",middleName:null,surname:"Alhaithloul",fullName:"Haifa Alhaithloul",slug:"haifa-alhaithloul",email:"haifasakit@ju.edu.sa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"245647",title:"Prof.",name:"Hani",middleName:null,surname:"Abdelzaher",fullName:"Hani Abdelzaher",slug:"hani-abdelzaher",email:"hmdaher@ju.edu.sa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Receiving",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Cleaning",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"1.2.1. Black cleaning",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"1.3. White cleaning",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"2. Materials and methods a research on the presence of fungi in wheat stored in a silo in Sakaka city, Saudi Arabia",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Fungal identification",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. An experiment showing the effect of inhaling spores and conidia of the isolated fungi on public health of exposed individuals",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Kuijt I, Finlayson B. In: Bar-Yosef O, editor. Evidence for food storage and predomestication granaries 11,000 years ago in the Jordan Valley. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University; 2008. Approved May 15, 2009; Received for Review December 16\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Kuijt I. Demography and storage systems during the Southern Levantine Neolithic demographic transition. In: Bocquet-Appel JP, Bar-Yosef O, editors. The Neolithic Demographic Transition and Its Consequences. New York: Springer; 2008. pp. 287-313\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Pekmez H. Cereal storage techniques: A review. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology B. 2016;6:67-71\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Mousaily HA. Food Grains (Production–Storage–Manufacturing of Their Products). Dar Alaa Eldeen; 2006. ISBN: 13978-9933-18-193-2\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Joshaghani H, Namjoo M, Rostami M, Kohsar F, Niknejad F. Mycoflora of fungal contamination in wheat storage (silos) in Golestan Province, North of Iran. Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology. 2013;6(4):e6334\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Mhiko TA. Determination of the causes and the effects of storage conditions on the quality of silo stored wheat (Triticum aestivum) in Zimbabwe. Natural Products and Bioprospecting. 2012;2:21-28\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Moustafa SMN, Abdelzaher HMA. Occurrence of hemolytic fungi mounted on wheat grains in the main silo of Sakaka, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology. 2016;10(3):1817-1824\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Leslie J, Summerll BA. Fusarium Laboratory Manual. Blackwell Publishing; 2006\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Domsch KH, Gams W, Anderson TH. Compendium of Soil Fungi. London/New York: Academic Press; 2007\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Tasca T, Adecarrli G. Hemolytic activity of fresh isolates and clones of Trichomonas gallinae. Parasitol. Día. Santiago. 1999;23:3-4\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Mukherjee A, Rajasekaran C. In-vitro hemolytic activity of Allium stracheyi Baker. Journal of Pharmacy Research. 2010;3(5):1160-1162\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Nawar LS. Prevention and control of fungi contaminated stored Pistachio nuts imported to Saudi Arabia. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences. 2008;15(1):105-112\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Joseph F. Dail and Hammar\'s Pulmonary Pathology (Volume I, Nonneoplastic Lung Disease). 3rd ed. Springer Science+Business Media, LLC; 2008. ISBN: 978-0-387-72139-2\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Caloni F, Cortinovis C. Toxicological effects of aflatoxins in horses. Veterinary Journal. 2011;188:270-273. DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.06.002\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Pitt JI, Basílico JC, Abarca ML, López C. Mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi. Medical Mycology. 2000;38(Suppl. 1):41-46\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Puri A, Ahmad A, Panda BP. Development of an HPTLC-based diagnostic method for invasive aspergillosis. Biomedical Chromatography. 2010;24:887-892. DOI: 10.1002/bmc.1382\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Sharpe RA, Cocq KL, Nikolaou V, Osborne NJ, Thornton CR. Identifying risk factors for exposure to culturable allergenic moulds in energy efficient homes by using highly specific monoclonal antibodies. Environmental Research. 2016;144(Pt. A):32-42\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Shaima Mohamed Nabil Moustafa",address:"shymaa.nabil@ju.edu.sa",affiliation:'
Department of Biology, College of Science, Jouf University, Saudi Arabia
Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Minia University, Egypt
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Haifa Abdulaziz S. Alhaithloul",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Biology, College of Science, Jouf University, Saudi Arabia
Department of Biology, College of Science, Jouf University, Saudi Arabia
Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Minia University, Egypt
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6776",type:"book",title:"Global Wheat Production",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Global Wheat Production",slug:"global-wheat-production",publishedDate:"August 16th 2018",bookSignature:"Shah Fahad, Abdul Basir and Muhammad Adnan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6776.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78923-337-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-336-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-703-9",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:30,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"194771",title:"Dr.",name:"Shah",middleName:null,surname:"Fahad",slug:"shah-fahad",fullName:"Shah Fahad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"215017",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Basir",slug:"abdul-basir",fullName:"Abdul Basir"},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"29"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"60127",type:"chapter",title:"Effect of Phosphorus on Root Signaling of Wheat under Different Water Regimes",slug:"effect-of-phosphorus-on-root-signaling-of-wheat-under-different-water-regimes",totalDownloads:1127,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Mukhtar Ahmed, Sehrish Khan, Muhammad Irfan, Muhammad\nAqeel Aslam, Ghulam Shabbir and Shakeel Ahmad",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"167796",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukhtar",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",fullName:"Mukhtar Ahmed",slug:"mukhtar-ahmed"},{id:"246114",title:"Ms.",name:"Sehrish",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Sehrish Khan",slug:"sehrish-khan"},{id:"246116",title:"Prof.",name:"Shakeel",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",fullName:"Shakeel Ahmad",slug:"shakeel-ahmad"},{id:"246119",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Irfan",fullName:"Muhammad Irfan",slug:"muhammad-irfan"},{id:"246123",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam",middleName:null,surname:"Shabir",fullName:"Ghulam Shabir",slug:"ghulam-shabir"},{id:"246125",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Aslam",fullName:"Muhammad Aslam",slug:"muhammad-aslam"}]},{id:"60836",type:"chapter",title:"Wheat Sensitivity to Nitrogen Supply under Different Climatic Conditions",slug:"wheat-sensitivity-to-nitrogen-supply-under-different-climatic-conditions",totalDownloads:999,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Veres Szilvia, Ondrasek Gabrijel and Zsombik László",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"46939",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabrijel",middleName:null,surname:"Ondrasek",fullName:"Gabrijel Ondrasek",slug:"gabrijel-ondrasek"},{id:"108026",title:"Dr.",name:"Szilvia",middleName:null,surname:"Veres",fullName:"Szilvia Veres",slug:"szilvia-veres"},{id:"239567",title:"Dr.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Zsombik",fullName:"László Zsombik",slug:"laszlo-zsombik"}]},{id:"60512",type:"chapter",title:"Role of Osmolytes and Antioxidant Enzymes for Drought Tolerance in Wheat",slug:"role-of-osmolytes-and-antioxidant-enzymes-for-drought-tolerance-in-wheat",totalDownloads:1581,totalCrossrefCites:7,signatures:"Muhammad Javid Iqbal",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"238554",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Javid",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",fullName:"Muhammad Javid Iqbal",slug:"muhammad-javid-iqbal"}]},{id:"60547",type:"chapter",title:"Wheat Straw Open Burning: Emissions and Impact on Climate Change",slug:"wheat-straw-open-burning-emissions-and-impact-on-climate-change",totalDownloads:1081,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Gisela Montero, Marcos A. 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1. Introduction
1.1 Graphene overview
The term graphene is a combination of two words—graphite and alkene. Graphene denotes a two-dimensional (2-D) sheet of graphite of atomic-scale thickness resulting due to intercalation of graphite compounds [1, 2]. Graphene can be divided into three different classifications based on the extent of its layer structure, which are monolayer, bilayer, and multilayer graphene, with the latter designating graphene structures consisting of three or more layers [3].
Graphite, another well-known compound of carbon, basically consists of stacked sheets of graphene held in place by van der Waals forces. A third relatively recently discovered carbon compound that has likewise been envisioned as a catalyst essentially comprises rolled-up sheets of graphene commonly known as carbon nanotubes. As thus comprising the basic building block of these key carbon materials of varying dimensionalities, graphene has come to be considered the “mother” of graphitic compounds [4].
Chemically speaking, graphene comprises a two-dimensional hexagonal benzene ring-like structure consisting of sp2-bonded carbon, packed into honeycomb lattice as shown in Figure 1, where the C▬C bond length is 0.142 nm. It is one of the first 2-D materials known to be stable at room temperature, and in ambient conditions is crystalline and chemically inert. Although stronger than diamond, graphene yet remains as flexible as rubber [6].
Figure 1.
(a) Graphene geometry; (b) bonding diagram; and (c) associated band diagram [5].
From an electrical standpoint, the valence and conduction bands in the band structure of graphene meet at the corners of the Brillouin zone or Dirac points. The consequence of this is that apart from the influence of thermal excitations, the intrinsic charge carrier concentration is zero, and graphene is consequently characterized as a zero-bandgap semiconductor. Notwithstanding the theoretical implications of this, practical and functioning graphene-based devices still require the existence of charge carriers, as well as control over the quantification of the concentrations and types of charge carriers (i.e., for n- or p-doping) [7, 8].
Intensive research performed over multiple decades into graphene material has further uncovered the remarkable chemical and material properties of this unique and somewhat extraordinary form of carbon. Perhaps most notably are the extremely high charge carrier mobilities in the range of 2000–5000 cm2/V s, making graphene a choice material for implementation in high-speed electronics, such as flexible ultrafast microelectronics. Graphene is likewise one of the most highly conductive materials known with thermal conductivities reaching 5000 W/m K, facilitating its use for applications such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
Furthermore, having Young’s modulus reportedly as high as 1 TPa has led to the use of graphene for strength reinforcement in various aerospace and structural/concrete material applications. In offering one of the largest specific surface areas (2630 m2/g) combined with nearly full optical transparency of 97.7%, graphene has likewise been employed for the advancement of numerous optical and optoelectronic applications [9, 10]. The combined benefits of its high mechanical strength, optical transparency, and mobility of charge carriers have made graphene a choice material for a diverse array of electrical and/or optical applications.
During past decades, starting with the disclosure of the Hummers method in the 1950s followed by the chemical reduction of graphene oxides in 1962, there have been numerous research and studies on graphite oxide synthesis [8]. However, it took the work of A. Geim and K. Novoselov to fully isolate and subsequently characterize pristine graphene by a process of mechanical exfoliation that came to be known as the “Scotch tape” method for the properties of graphene to be more adequately understood, upon which it soon became a primary material of interest for many diverse ongoing research efforts. Later in 2010 Geim and Novoselov were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this research encompassing graphene as a 2-D atomic structure [9].
After the initial success of isolating this graphitic material, many in the scientific community commenced to explore different processes and techniques for the large-scale synthesis and fabrication of graphene. As reported contemporarily in literature, the more common graphene synthesis processes included the oxidation-reduction growth process, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), liquid phase stripping, and epitaxial growth on silicon carbide (SiC) [10]. Among these various methods, the CVD process soon became the most established technique for producing graphene films with the highest quality crystalline and structural integrity, primarily on Cu substrates [11].
However, Cu and other metal substrates are not practical for most applications, as many optoelectronic-, sensor-, and microelectronics-based applications require the placement of graphene films directly on metal oxide or semiconductors. There, therefore, has been and remains a need for more optimized increasingly effective processes through which graphene films can be directly and effectively transferred onto any desired substrate of choice, while also avoiding cracks, wrinkles, and forms of contamination [12].
1.2 Graphene-based technological device development
Infrared detector and focal plane array (FPA) technologies are at the heart of many space-based instruments for NASA and defense missions that provide remote sensing and long-range imaging capabilities [13]. While often considered exotic in comparison to more established detector materials such as HgCdTe, on account of its gapless band structure, strong light-matter interaction, and the relative ease by which heterostructures may be fabricated, graphene can provide numerous capabilities from diverse means for effective broad spectra photodetection.
Graphene detector implementation can likewise further facilitate reduced size, weight, power, and cost (SWaP-C) mid-wave infrared (MWIR) sensors on smaller platforms, a high priority for providing improved measurement and mission capabilities in space. Use of process techniques such as post-growth thermal cycle annealing (TCA) has additionally been reported to enable up to an order of magnitude reduction in the dislocation density down to the saturation limit (~106 cm−2) for improved high-temperature operability of HgCdTe-on-Si-based MWIR detectors and FPAs [13].
The overall functionality and applicability of a detector device or system are governed primarily by its wavelength range, that is, band, of operation. Of the different infrared (IR) bands spanning the short-wave infrared (SWIR) to very long-wave infrared (VLWIR), the MWIR region is considered of the highest beneficial for long-range imaging and early threat detection [14]. Specifically, the 2–5 μm MWIR spectral band is crucial for NASA Earth Science applications, especially in satellite-based LIDAR systems that require measuring a wide variety of natural features, including cloud aerosol properties, sea surface temperatures, and natural phenomena such as volcano and forest fires.
Though prior scientific reporting of associated experimental results has served to illuminate the key 2-D nanomaterial properties of graphene for enhancement of sensing performance particularly for IR band detection, certain challenges still must be addressed, which are as follows:
The existence of a process and technique for doping bilayer graphene with holes and electrons having sufficient charge carrier concentration. The main emphasis here is that the process of doping the graphene should not affect the crystalline structure and that the doped graphene film remains defect-free. This process should moreover be cost-effective and scalable for doping large-area graphene films.
The development of a method and process for transferring CVD-grown graphene to the desired substrate that ensures a uniform, clean, and intact transfer required for successful realization in an array of prospective applications.
Attainment of graphene-enhanced high mobilities and corresponding high level of photodetection performance in graphene-HgCdTe-based IR, and specificity 2–5 μm MWIR, photodetectors, and optical imaging arrays.
2. Graphene-enhanced MWIR photodetectors
2.1 Motives and objectives of device concept
HgCdTe, or MCT, the most widely used infrared (IR) detector material in military applications, is a direct energy bandgap semiconductor having a bandgap that is tunable from near-infrared (NIR) and SWIR to VLWIR bands through varying the Cd composition [15]. Typically, 0.3:0.7 Cd:Hg ratio results in a detectivity window over the SWIR to MWIR wavelength range.
Additionally, HgCdTe layer growth is highly controllable with certain deposition techniques. Notably among these is molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE), which yields high precision in the deposition of detector material structures leading to excellent control over optical excitation evidenced by the high quantum efficiencies (QE) demonstrated by HgCdTe-based detectors and sensors over the IR.
While adding considerable cost and bulk, cryogenic cooling is commonly utilized for IR detection to minimize thermally generated dark current. Since dark current increases with cutoff wavelength longevity, this requirement becomes even more important for MWIR and long-wave infrared (LWIR) sensors. IR band detector technologies that can operate at or near room temperature and substantially avoid costly and bulky cooling requirements, therefore, offer great practical benefits for many types of applications.
The incorporation of a high mobility graphene channel in HgCdTe-based detectors is a newly discovered means to offer further performance improvements and operational capabilities for MWIR detection. The intrinsic interfacial barrier between the HgCdTe-based absorber and the graphene layers thereby may be designed to effectively reduce the recombination of photogenerated carriers in the detector. The graphene thus functions as a high mobility channel that whisks away carriers before they can recombine, further contributing to the MWIR detection performance compared to in photodetectors only utilizing HgCdTe absorption layers [16].
2.2 Physical graphene-enhanced detector structure
The graphene-enhanced HgCdTe MWIR detector structure fabricated on a silicon substrate comprises three principal layers. First, a layer of CdTe is grown to act as a buffer layer functioning as the gate terminal (1). This layer provides an electrical field in the “vertical” direction into the detector heterostructure that aids in carrier transport in that direction. Figure 2 shows a schematic of this detector structure as shown in a study by Srivastava et al. [12].
Figure 2.
Heterostructure layer structure of HgCdTe-graphene-based IR photodetector [12].
The HgCdTe absorber layer (2) is grown above the silicon substrate and the CdTe buffer layer acts as the active optical layer where photogeneration of carriers takes place. The HgCdTe absorber material and its physical properties, such as bandgap, determine the sensitivity of the absorber layer to the detection wavelength window. In addition, the absorber material governs the photogeneration rate, quantum efficiency, and carrier lifetime, which collectively contribute to overall detection performance.
Finally, the graphene layer (3) incorporates the role of high mobility, low noise channel that quickly whisks away the photogenerated carriers in the absorber into the contacts, and subsequently into the readout integrated circuit (ROIC) for electrical readout. This layer, therefore, is directly contacted to the ROIC.
2.3 Graphene-HgCdTe detector operating principle
The general operating principle of the graphene-HgCdTe MWIR photodetector may be described in terms of the life cycle of the photogenerated carriers [17]. Incident IR photons transmitted through the Si substrate and CdTe layers into the HgCdTe region are absorbed and produce electron-hole pairs, or excitons (Figure 3(a)). The vertical electric field in the absorber applied through modulation of the gate voltage effectively separates the electron-hole pairs due to the consequent opposing forces on electrons and holes. This separation of the carriers physically isolates the two photogenerated carrier species and suppresses the Auger recombination within the absorber, minimizing the loss of photogenerated carriers and is thus critical to the ultimate performance of the detector.
Figure 3.
(a) Generation of excitons from incident photons separation of electrons and holes due to applied gate electric field. (b) Photogenerated carrier transport and injection into graphene. (c) Horizontal transport of the photogenerated carriers in the graphene.
After separation, the carriers are transported through the absorber film toward the graphene interface and then injected into it (Figure 3(b)). Modulation of the gate voltage bias to preferentially inject only one of the photogenerated species into the graphene in a rectifier-like action enables dynamic control of the interface properties. As this process involves the injection of both species, it further prevents any Auger recombinations from taking place in the graphene.
The carriers injected from the absorber into the graphene are transported laterally to the ROIC terminal and subsequently collected into it (Figure 3(c)). The establishment of a separate high mobility channel enabled by the graphene allows faster modulation frequencies with reduced 1/f noise and consequently higher performance metrics. Dynamic gating is additionally provided through the electrical control of carriers injected into the graphene.
3. Graphene-HgCdTe detector modeling effort
3.1 Modeling approach
The modeling effort was individually built upon various elements that combine to form a comprehensive model for this detector material technology. The overall goal of this modeling approach was to determine through simulations an accurate determination of electrical detector device behavior, including I-V characteristics, noise, responsivity, and other performance metrics. In addition, the directivity D* and noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD) may be derived from basic material parameters and device design and operating specifications to allow and guide further design optimizations.
The modeling effort, depicted schematically in Figure 4, entailed modular construction of the complete detector simulation platform from the individual models as data were made available from experiments and device characterizations. These have involved specific material modeling of the HgCdTe, graphene, and HgCdTe-graphene interface.
Figure 4.
Flowchart diagram illustrating the modeling approach and relationship between the different models utilized.
3.2 Modeled performance parameters in HgCdTe
This graphene-HgCdTe MWIR detector fundamentally functions as a photo-controlled current source rather than a light/heat-dependent resistance, characteristic of the typical operating mode for bolometers. Figure 5 compares the theoretical dark current and photocurrent, film resistance, and detectivity (D*) performance parameters in the HgCdTe for a conventional photoconductive detector (Figure 5(a)) with that for this type of HgCdTe-based MWIR detector (Figure 5(b)). It is here noted that D* does not change appreciably because ultimately the material properties are the same; altering the area of the current collection does not significantly change this fundamental property. The current and resistance, however, are each significantly lower for this latter detector design in view (Figure 5(b)). The incorporation of high mobility graphene in this detector can further enable higher responsivity and greater D*.
Figure 5.
Modeled dark current and photocurrent, film resistance, and detectivity (D*) (from top to bottom) in HgCdTe for (a) conventional photoconductive detector design, and (b) design of this HgCdTe MWIR photoconductive detector.
3.3 Graphene-HgCdTe interface band structure models
Figure 6 shows the E-k dispersion relation and density of states (DOS) determined for the HgCdTe/graphene interface. The contribution of individual atoms to the DOS is likewise computed. The carbon contributes maximally to the conduction band, while HgCdTe species contribute to the valence band.
Figure 6.
E-k dispersion relation and density of states for HgCdTe/graphene interface.
Bandgap engineering of the HgCdTe detector material is additionally possible through adaptive control of the epitaxial growth process parameters. This provides the capability to optimize the performance to achieve desired spectral range and operating temperature specifications for the development of graphene-enhanced MWIR detectors and FPAs.
The work function of Hg0.73Cd0.27Te, ΦMCT, is determined (5.52 eV) based on the following relation:
ΦMCT=xΦCdTe+1−xΦHgTeE1
where x is the CdTe concentration in Hg1−xCdxTe, and ΦCdTe and ΦHgTe, the work functions of CdTe and HgTe, are 4.5 eV and 5.9 eV, respectively. As shown in Figure 7, Hg0.7Cd0.3Te produces a built-in Vbi potential with p-doped graphene of ~0.6 eV. (With n-doped graphene having a work function 4.25, Vbi becomes as high as 1.27 eV.) Given its intermediate work function between that of HgCdTe (5.5 eV) and n-doped Si (4.1 eV), the use of the CdTe buffer layer facilitates band matching of the HgCdTe/CdTe/Si layers.
Figure 7.
Band diagram for graphene/HgCdTe/Si detector heterostructure.
4. Doping of graphene bilayers
4.1 Historical development of graphene doping techniques
Recently a significant amount of research has been dedicated toward the manipulation of the physicochemical and electrical properties of graphene to specifically tailor it for various applications. One means to achieve this is through chemically functionalizing the graphene, involving modification of its carbon sp2 honeycomb structure [18]. This chemical functionalization in turn necessitates chemically doping the atomic lattice of graphene with atoms from other compatible elements of the periodic table, essentially modifying graphene lattice originally undoped into a heteroatomically doped one.
The technique of doping through inducing charge carriers comprising either holes or electrons may be divided into two broad categories, which are as follows:
Electrical doping: In this process, charge carriers are induced by the application of an electric field. This can take place using a graphene-based field-effect transistor (FET), wherein the charge carriers are induced by an electric field produced by the gate structure. For example, with a Si+/SiO2 substrate varying the gate voltage Vg and consequently the concentration of electron/holes charge carriers enables the concentration of the induced carriers to be controlled by way of the applied gate voltage. If Vg is positive excitation of electrons and n-type doping will result, while on the other hand, an applied negative voltage will lead to induction of holes and a p-doped material. The concentration of charge carriers induced by this method can be as high as 1013 cm−2 [19].
Chemical doping: This technique involves the association of other chemical species with graphene and is further subdivided into two additional classifications, which are substitutional doping and surface transfer. Substitutional dopingis a process whereby carbon atoms in the graphene lattice are substituted with other atoms, leading to either p-type or n-type conductivity [20]. Likewise, surface transfer describes a nondestructive technique for inducing charge carriers, in this case within the graphene lattice involving charge transfer between surface adsorbates and the graphene [21].
Doping by surface transfer may occur as the result of two different mechanisms—electronical doping and electrochemical doping [22]. Electronic doping is due to the direct transfer of charge between the graphene and adsorbate. In the presence of a differing electronic chemical potential, the doping type is controlled by the position of the graphene Fermi level relative to the highest occupied (HOMO) and lowest occupied (LUMO) level molecular orbitals of the adsorbate. While graphene is usually n-doped when the adsorbate HOMO lies above graphene Fermi level, p-type doping occurs when the LUMO of the adsorbate is found below the graphene Fermi levels [7]. The representation of molecular orbitals levels to the graphene Fermi levels for (a) p-type and (b) n-type doped graphene is shown in Figure 8. In contrast to electrical doping, electrochemical doping is a time-dependent process influenced by various factors that include the reaction rate and diffusion rate of molecular species [23].
Figure 8.
Relative position of highest occupied (HOMO) and lowest unoccupied (LUMO) molecular orbitals of an adsorbate to the Fermi level of graphene for (a) p-type and (b) n-type dopants [6].
The focus here is on inducing p-type doping in graphene through chemical doping. Chemical heteroatom doping of graphene is generally performed using either a one-step or two-step synthesis method. The one-step method involves employing CVD to introduce both carbon and boron sources into the chamber while heating the copper foil at high temperatures [24].
The alternative two-step synthesis process for boron doping includes thermal annealing [25] and rapid Wurtz-type reactive coupling [26] techniques, among others. Nevertheless, such two-step methods generally involve more complex experimental setups, tend to result in defects present in the doped graphene films, and require the use of toxic chemicals as the source/precursor as well as relatively high temperatures. These factors clearly limit the types of substrates that may be practically used [27].
However, a recently developed technique known as the spin-on dopant (SOD) process has made it possible to avoid these shortcomings in large part [28]. This method, which we have adopted for producing p-type doping in graphene and shall subsequently be described in more comprehensive detail, requires only a relatively basic experimental setup without the need for toxic precursor gases.
4.2 Boron doping of bilayer graphene
Dopants used for chemically doping graphene include, but are not limited to, S, N, B, P, I, Se, O, and I [20, 21]. Among these dopant elements, the two most common and notable are nitrogen (N) and boron (B), for inducing n-type conductivity p+-type conductivity, respectively, in graphene [22].
As the MWIR photodetector device under consideration requires p-doped graphene for optimal performance, the boron doping method is here in view. Boron is one of the most natural choices for doping among the atomic elements, having valence atoms that differ in number by only a single atom compared to the number of its carbon ones [29]. Atoms of boron also have a similar atomic size (0.088 nm atomic radius) to those of carbon (atomic radius of 0.077 nm), a factor that further facilitates p-type conduction in graphene [30].
When a dopant atom such as in this instance boron is bonded within a carbon framework, a defect is introduced into the neighboring site. Since boron only contains three valence electrons compared to four in carbon atoms, this can cause uneven charge distribution resulting in charge transfer between nearby carbon atoms, further expounding their electrochemical behavior [31]. The incorporation of a relatively small number of boron atoms thereby effectively lowers the Fermi level and formation of an acceptor level in the doped graphene. The introduction of boron likewise contributes to improved stabilization of the extremities of the graphene material and similarly aids in mitigating the termination of its layers, thereby promoting layer-by-layer growth of larger portions or sections of graphene [32].
4.3 Graphene spin-on doping process
We have developed and implemented a distinct spin-on dopant (SOD) process to produce highly boron-doped bilayer graphene. The SOD process involves spin-coating a dopant solution onto a source substrate and annealing the latter in conjunction with a target substrate in a tube furnace [31]. The bilayer graphene sheets doped using this process were deposited on SiO2/Si substrates (300 nm SiO2, p-type doped) by CVD acquired from Graphenea, Inc.
In the high-temperature environment and inert gas (e.g., argon) atmosphere, diffusion of the dopant (boron) from the source substrate into the target sample (bilayer graphene) occurs when the B atoms replace the C atoms to form p-doped graphene. The main advantages of this technique are its low cost and simplistic setup, combined with the capability to provide uniform and consistent doping profiles [33]. Figure 9 depicts a schematic representation for substitutional doping of boron in the honeycomb lattice of graphene by the SOD process.
Figure 9.
Schematic of processing steps for the fabrication of boron-doped GFs through a spin-on dopant (SOD) method [32].
For the SOD procedure schematically illustrated in Figure 9, we start with the CVD-deposited graphene on Si/SiO2 substrates. The spin-on diffusant used is Filmtronics B-155 (4% boron conc.). This boron source is spin-coated onto a Si wafer at 2300 rpm for 30 s using a CEE vacuum coater tool [34].
This boron-solution-coated source wafer is then placed in a custom-designed silica boat approximately 10 mm apart from and facing a target graphene sample. These are each inserted into a tube furnace that is pumped down to 10 Torr vacuum pressure and annealed in the presence of flowing Ar gas.
Experimental parameters for the boron doping of graphene are given in Table 1. The goal of this process is to achieve required high doping levels while maintaining graphene surface features and quality for graphene-enhanced HgCdTe MWIR photodetectors.
Parameter
Value
Temperature
500, 600°C
Flow gas
Argon
Flow rate
550 sccm
Ramp rate
15°C/min
Vacuum pressure
10 Torr
Boron source
Filmtronics B155 (4%)
Spin speed
2300 rpm
Spin time
30 s
Table 1.
Annealing and spin coating parameters for the SOD process.
4.4 Graphene boron-doping concentration analysis
To determine the structural properties, chemical bonding states, and doping concentration changes in the doped bilayer graphene, Raman spectroscopy and time-of-flight (ToF) secondary-ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) techniques were performed as along with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).
Doping concentration vs. depth profile results for different boron-doped graphene bilayers using SIMS are presented in Figure 10. This graphene sample on Si/SiO2 was doped with the SOD process using 15 min. Annealing duration. The SIMS analysis indicates boron doping levels of ~1.8 × 1020 cm−3 of boron in the graphene bilayers further confirmed by XPS.
Figure 10.
SIMS atomic dopant concentrations vs. depth profiles for two different p-doped graphene samples on Si/SiO2 substrates.
5. Substrate transfer of doped bilayer graphene
5.1 Evolution of substrate transfer techniques
Considerable research has been undertaken to synthesize graphene on metal substrates using the CVD process to produce high-quality large-area graphene films. Sufficiently high quality of graphene films is demonstrated by a single-crystalline structure free of wrinkles, contamination, and cracks [35]. However, various and often critical applications can require that the CVD-grown graphene films be transferred onto other more suitable substrates.
The earliest form of transfer for graphene can be traced back to the synthesis of graphene by “Scotch tape method,” whereby graphene flakes were exfoliated and isolated from the graphite substrate onto another target substrate [34]. The development of an efficient process for transfer of graphene from its native substrate onto another foreign nevertheless has since proved relatively challenging, especially for large-area and intact graphene films [36].
While CVD-grown graphene on metal substrates is typically of high quality and purity, the deposited graphene when transferred off onto other types of substrates can easily degrade and suffer from contamination and structural damage [37]. Common sources of contamination during the process of graphene transfer include residues from the source substrate, etchant solutions used to dissolve the source substrates, and unwanted organic contamination due to the adherence of polymer compounds to the graphene following completion of the transfer [38]. These factors can lead to the formation of more charge carrier scattering centers that affect the electrical properties and mechanical stability of that graphene films, generally resulting in undesired doping of the graphene [39].
Additionally, the extreme thinness of graphene (single-layer atomic thickness for monolayer graphene) makes it inherently more vulnerable to altercation and impairment [40]. During cleaning and repeated transfer, mechanical strains can arise in the graphene that potentially can cause irreversible damage [41]. Hence, the need to maintain structural integrity and uniformity of the graphene for various applications can be very essential, for instance for optoelectronic devices or sensors requiring charge injection between the active functional layer and highly pure and conductive graphene [42].
Furthermore, implementation of an optimized transfer process is critical to boost yield and reproducibility for low cost and scalable production of large-area graphene films [43]. Consequently, significant research is being undertaken to further optimize the process of transferring graphene to attain intact and dislocation- and defect-free graphene films.
The procedure required for preparing graphene for transfer may be characterized by the more relevant process steps involved, which typically include—(a) graphene layer removal from substrate utilizing liquid etchant, bubble transfer, or thermal peel off; (b) use of supportive layers (e.g., polymers such as PMMA and camphor) to prevent cracks, creases, and other structural damage; and (c) cleaning and removal/transfer of the grown layer from the substrate and protective layers [35].
The major graphene transfer methods reported in the literature are as follows:
Bubble-mediated transfer: In this process, H2 and O2 bubbles are produced due to electrochemical reactions, that is, by the graphene when CVD-grown on a metal substrate such as Cu/Ni acting as an electrode (either anode or cathode). These bubbles when generated apply a pealing-inducing force on the substrate surface, eventually leading to delamination of the graphene from the growth substrate.
Although this method is challenging in certain respects and more limited in that conductive substrates are necessary for the actualization of the electrode-initiated electrochemical reactions [30], considerable improvements have been discovered and incorporated over time. Goa et al. developed a nondestructive bubble-mediated transfer process that enabled repeated use of the growth (Pt) substrate, whereby the transferred graphene was found to have high carrier mobility along with minimal wrinkles [42]. Another study examined the use of PMMA/graphene/Cu acting as both an anode and cathode to remove a graphene sheet by bubble delamination, resulting in the reportedly high-quality transfer of the graphene films [40].
Wet transfer: This transfer method involves the use of ionic etchants to dissolve the growth substrate, after which the graphene is washed with a liquid cleaning agent and transferred to desired target substrate without drying [43]. The commonly used liquid etchant consists of ammonium persulfate aqueous solution and ferric chloride solution for dissolving Cu/Ni foil [44].
Dry transfer: While techniques for transferring graphene have traditionally relied on liquid etchants and cleaning solutions, this renders the growth substrates unusable consequently making these processes less economically viable. To circumvent in part these limitations, the dry transfer method was developed involving the incorporation of an inorganic metal oxide lifting layer (e.g., of MoO3), which due to its low binding energy with the graphene films may be subsequently washed away completely. This process leads to high-quality graphene films without further contamination [45].
Through this experimentation toward the achievement of clean, smooth, and reduced-residue transfer, a PMMA-based resist-assisted transfer process was identified and established. In contrast to more conventional PMMA transfer processed known to leave residues during the graphene transfer, the method we have adapted and further developed features a more straightforward process that uses different polymeric supportive layers for residue-free and clean transfer of graphene to avoid cleaning and support removal steps. This new method for transferring graphene from Si/SiO2 to HgCdTe substrates combines both wet transfer and nonelectrochemical reaction-based transfer methods.
5.2 Experimental bilayer graphene transfer
Boron p+ doping of bilayer graphene on Si/SiO2 substrates has been accomplished to provide required electrical performance characteristics for a high mobility graphene channel in MWIR HgCdTe photodetector devices. The final step as discussed in this process involves transferring the sheets of highly p-doped bilayer graphene from the original Si/SiO2 onto HgCdTe substrates for incorporation in the MWIR photodetector and FPA devices. This subsequently p-doped bilayer graphene on Si/SiO2 is transferred using a PMMA-assisted wet transfer process [44]. Figure 11 shows schematically this experimental procedure for transferring the graphene onto HgCdTe [18].
Figure 11.
Schematic outline of the experimental process enabling the removable transfer of bilayer graphene from SiO2/Si onto HgCdTe substrates.
Through this relatively straightforward procedure, the successful transfer of doped bilayer graphene sheets deposited on SiO2/Si onto HgCdTe has been demonstrated. The graphene bilayers are preserved, and no morphological changes were observed, following the transfer process with their relocation where the spatial configurations of the bilayers were maintained across macroscopic regions.
5.3 Characterization of graphene transferred onto HgCdTe
Following the transfer of the p-doped graphene onto HgCdTe substrates, the doped bilayer graphene on HgCdTe was measured using optical microscopy and Raman spectroscopy to determine if any significant changes had occurred in its properties through the process. Figure 12 presents optical microscopy images of the transferred graphene onto HgCdTe. The darker areas represent the part of the HgCdTe covered with graphene (having relatively marginal but practically observable differences in optical absorption), while the lighter areas indicate uncovered portions of the bare HgCdTe substrate.
Figure 12.
Optical microscopy image of graphene deposited on HgCdTe, where darker areas represent graphene on HgCdTe and lighter area portions the bare HgCdTe substrate.
Figure 13 shows Raman spectra of the transferred doped graphene on HgCdTe, in comparison to the as-received graphene on Si/SiO2; the graphene following the boron doping; and a bare HgCdTe substrate.
Figure 13.
Raman spectroscopy analysis of boron-doped graphene transferred onto HgCdTe substrate, compared to spectra of bare HgCdTe substrate, that of the pristine bilayer graphene on Si/SiO2, and the graphene on Si/SiO2 following the boron doping but before transfer.
The Raman spectroscopy analysis shows the G-band peak resulting from in-plane vibrations of sp2-bonded carbon atoms, and the D-band peak due to out-of-plane vibrations attributed to the presence of structural defects. The associated D/G ratio relates to the sp3/sp2 carbon ratio. The 2D-band, the second order of the D-band, is the result of a two-phonon lattice vibrational process.
The ratio of 2D/G intensities provides insight into the properties of the graphene layers. For example, a 2D/G band ratio in this case found in the range of 1–2 indicates a bilayer graphene structure. In addition, the same D-band and 2G-band graphene peaks present in the bilayer graphene prior to doping as well as in graphene samples doped on Si/SiO2 have likewise observed in graphene transferred onto the HgCdTe substrate, thus demonstrating preservation of the structural integrity in the transferred bilayers of doped graphene.
6. Conclusions
The material and electrical properties of high-performance graphene-HgCdTe detector technology, where the graphene layer functions as a high mobility channel, developed for MWIR sensing and imaging for NASA Earth Science applications have been assessed. Comprehensive modeling of HgCdTe, graphene, and the HgCdTe-graphene interface has aided in the design and development of this MWIR detector technology.
By using a SOD process, we have achieved boron doping of the bilayer graphene. SIMS, XPS, and Raman spectroscopy-based characterization of the doping levels and properties have confirmed higher boron doping concentrations >1020 cm−3 in the graphene layers. The p-doped graphene bilayers originally on Si/SiO2 substrates have been furthermore transferred onto HgCdTe substrates, and the structural integrity of the transferred doped layers confirmed through various methods of characterization for implementation as high mobility channels in uncooled MWIR graphene-enhanced HgCdTe detection devices.
Successful integration of enhanced graphene into HgCdTe photodetectors can thereby provide higher MWIR detector performance as compared to HgCdTe detectors alone. Combined with the room temperature operational capability of the graphene-HgCdTe detectors and arrays, the fulfillment of the objective of attaining new earth observation measurement capabilities is a step closer to benefit and advancing critical NASA Earth Science applications.
Acknowledgments
This research is and has been funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Contract No. 80NSSC18C0024. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing the official policies, either express or implied, of NASA or the U.S. Government.
\n',keywords:"graphene, HgCdTe, photodetectors, MWIR, mobility, doping, transfer",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80095.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80095.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80095",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80095",totalDownloads:100,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 16th 2021",dateReviewed:"December 1st 2021",datePrePublished:"January 20th 2022",datePublished:"April 20th 2022",dateFinished:"January 18th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"High-performance graphene-HgCdTe detector technology has been developed combining the best properties of both materials for mid-wave infrared (MWIR) detection and imaging. The graphene functions as a high mobility channel that whisks away carriers before they can recombine, further contributing to detection performance. Comprehensive modeling on the HgCdTe, graphene, and the HgCdTe-graphene interface has aided the design and development of this MWIR detector technology. Chemical doping of the bilayer graphene lattice has enabled p-type doping levels in graphene for high mobility implementation in high-performance MWIR HgCdTe detectors. Characterization techniques, including SIMS and XPS, confirm high boron doping concentrations. A spin-on doping (SOD) procedure is outlined that has provided a means of doping layers of graphene on native substrates, while subsequently allowing integration of the doped graphene layers with HgCdTe for final implementation in the MWIR photodetection devices. Successful integration of graphene into HgCdTe photodetectors can thus provide higher MWIR detector efficiency and performance compared to HgCdTe-only detectors. New earth observation measurement capabilities are further enabled by the room temperature operational capability of the graphene-enhanced HgCdTe detectors and arrays to benefit and advance space and terrestrial applications.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80095",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80095",signatures:"Ashok K. Sood, John W. Zeller, Parminder Ghuman, Sachidananda Babu, Nibir K. Dhar, Randy N. Jacobs, Latika S. Chaudhary, Harry Efstathiadis, Samiran Ganguly, Avik W. 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DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2017.08.048'},{id:"B12",body:'Srivastava S, Jain SK, Gupta G, Senguttuvan TD, Gupta BK. Boron-doped few-layer graphene nanosheet gas sensor for enhanced ammonia sensing at room temperature. RSC Advances. 2020;10:1007-1014. DOI: 10.1039/C9RA08707A'},{id:"B13",body:'Sood AK, Zeller JW, Ghuman P, Babu S, Dhar NK, Jacobs R, et al. Development of high-performance graphene-HgCdTe detector technology for mid-wave infrared applications. In: Proceedings of SPIE. Vol. 11831. Bellingham: SPIE; 2021. p. 1183103'},{id:"B14",body:'Jacobs RN, Benson JD, Stoltz AJ, Almeida LA, Farrell S, Brill G, et al. Analysis of thermal cycle-induced dislocation reduction in HgCdTe/CdTe/Si(211) by scanning transmission electron microscopy. Journal of Crystal Growth. 2013;366:88-94. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2012.12.007'},{id:"B15",body:'Sood AK, Zeller JW, Pethuraja GG, Welser RE, Dhar NK, Wijewarnasuriya PS. Nanostructure technology for EO/IR detector applications. 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Applied Surface Science. 2019;489:552-559. DOI: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.06.015'},{id:"B24",body:'Tennyson WD, Tian M, Papandrew AB, Rouleau CM, Puretzky AA, Sneed BT, et al. Bottom up synthesis of boron-doped graphene for stable intermediate temperature fuel cell electrodes. Carbon. 2017;123:605-615. DOI: 10.1016/j.carbon.2017.08.002'},{id:"B25",body:'Panchakarla LS, Subrahmanyam KS, Saha SK, Govindaraj A, Krishnamurthy HR, Waghmare UV, et al. Synthesis, structure, and properties of boron-and nitrogen-doped graphene. Advanced Materials. 2009;21:4726-4730. DOI: 10.1002/adma.200901285'},{id:"B26",body:'Fujisawa K, Hayashi T, Endo M, Terrones M, Kim JH, Kim YA. Effect of boron doping on the electrical conductivity of metallicity-separated single-walled carbon nanotubes. Nanoscale. 2018;10:12723-12733. DOI: 10.1039/C8NR02323A'},{id:"B27",body:'Feng L, Qin Z, Huang Y, Peng K, Wang F, Yan Y, et al. Boron-, sulfur-, and phosphorus-doped graphene for environmental applications. Science of the Total Environment. 2020;698:134239. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134239'},{id:"B28",body:'Santhosh R, Raman SS, Krishna SM, Sai Ravuri S, Sandhya V, Ghosh S, et al. Heteroatom doped graphene based hybrid electrode materials for supercapacitor applications. Electrochimica Acta. 2018;276:284-292. DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2018.04.142'},{id:"B29",body:'Usachov DY, Fedorov AV, Vilkov OY, Petukhov AE, Rybkin AG, Ernst A, et al. Large-scale sublattice asymmetry in pure and boron-doped graphene. Nano Letters. 2016;16:4535-4543. DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b0179'},{id:"B30",body:'Sin DY, Park IK, Ahn HJ. Enhanced electrochemical performance of phosphorus incorporated carbon nanofibers by the spin-on dopant method. RSC Advances. 2016;6:58823-58830. DOI: 10.1039/C6RA06782D'},{id:"B31",body:'Wu Y, Han Z, Younas W, Zhu Y, Ma X, Cao C. P-Type boron-doped monolayer graphene with tunable bandgap for enhanced photocatalytic H2 evolution under visible-light irradiation. ChemCatChem. 2019;11:5145-5153. DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201901258'},{id:"B32",body:'Sahoo M, Sreena KP, Vinayan BP, Ramaprabhu S. Green synthesis of boron doped graphene and its application as high performance anode material in Li ion battery. Materials Research Bulletin. 2015;61:383-930. DOI: 10.1016/j.materresbull.2014.10.049'},{id:"B33",body:'Ren S, Rong P, Yu Q. Preparations, properties and applications of graphene in functional devices: A concise review. Ceramics International. 2018;44:11940-11955. DOI: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.04.089'},{id:"B34",body:'Jang AR, Lee YW, Lee SS, Hong J, Beak SH, Pak S, et al. Electrochemical and electrocatalytic reaction characteristics of boron-incorporated graphene via a simple spin-on dopant process. Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 2018;6:7351-7356. DOI: 10.1039/C7TA09517A'},{id:"B35",body:'Zagozdzon-Wosik W, Grabiec PB, Lux G. Silicon doping from phosphorus spin-on dopant sources in proximity rapid thermal diffusion. Journal of Applied Physics. 1994;75:337-344. DOI: 10.1063/1.355855'},{id:"B36",body:'Lee HC, Liu WW, Chai SP, Mohamed AR, Aziz A, Khe CS, et al. Review of the synthesis, transfer, characterization and growth mechanisms of single and multilayer graphene. RSC Advances. 2017;7:15644-15693. DOI: 10.1039/C7RA00392G'},{id:"B37",body:'Chen Y, Gong XL, Gai JG. Progress and challenges in transfer of large-area graphene films. Advanced Science. 2016;3:1500343. DOI: 10.1002/advs.201500343'},{id:"B38",body:'Kang S, Yoon T, Kim S, Kim TS. Role of crack deflection on rate dependent mechanical transfer of multilayer graphene and its application to transparent electrodes. ACS Applied Nano Materials. 2019;2:1980-1985. DOI: 10.1021/acsanm.9b00014'},{id:"B39",body:'Ullah S, Yang X, Ta HQ, Hasan M, Bachmatiuk A, Tokarska K, et al. Graphene transfer methods: A review. Nano Research. 2021;5:1-7. DOI: 10.1007/s12274-021-3345-8'},{id:"B40",body:'Ma LP, Ren W, Cheng HM. 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\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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