Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8762",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Melatonin - The Hormone of Darkness and its Therapeutic Potential and Perspectives",title:"Melatonin",subtitle:"The Hormone of Darkness and its Therapeutic Potential and Perspectives",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book, on the pineal hormone melatonin, is addressed to a wide non-cognizant and cognizant readership. The hormone appears to be involved in sleep onset and other functions associated with the body’s clock, the suprachiasmic nucleus. It is ubiquitous throughout both the animal and plant kingdoms and has a long evolutionary history as a hormone. Melatonin has a major role in the regulation of circadian rhythms in non-mammalian vertebrates and forms part of their control in mammals. The present text emphasizes the positive role of exogenously administered melatonin, and its synthetic derivatives, on disrupted circadian rhythm-related dysfunctions. This is effected by resetting the clock in jet lag sufferers and those with seasonal affective disorders, insomnia, and various neurological conditions.",isbn:"978-1-83962-909-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-908-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-910-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80180",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"melatonin-the-hormone-of-darkness-and-its-therapeutic-potential-and-perspectives",numberOfPages:156,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"bfbc5538173f11acb0f9549a85b70489",bookSignature:"Marilena Vlachou",publishedDate:"June 24th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8762.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6173,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:16,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 28th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 13th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 13th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 2nd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 31st 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"246279",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Marilena",middleName:null,surname:"Vlachou",slug:"marilena-vlachou",fullName:"Marilena Vlachou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246279/images/system/246279.jpg",biography:"Marilena Vlachou is an Assistant Professor at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (NKUoA), Greece. She obtained her Pharmacy and PhD (Pharmaceutical Technology) degrees from the NKUoA. Just prior to obtaining her PhD she moved to the University of Rhode Island, United States, as a Visiting Research Scientist to conduct state-of-the art research on Pharmaceutical Technology techniques. Her research interests include: the formulation and in vitro release of bioactive substances from topical formulations; the efficacy and safety of formulations in skin disease therapies; the modified release of novel synthetic derivatives, with diverse activity; the investigation of the physicochemical properties of new excipients, including those of marine origin (Ulvans), and nanomaterials, with respect to their interaction with active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs).",institutionString:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"178",title:"Endocrinology",slug:"medicine-endocrinology"}],chapters:[{id:"71292",title:"Synthetic Melatonin Receptor Agonists and Antagonists",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91424",slug:"synthetic-melatonin-receptor-agonists-and-antagonists",totalDownloads:771,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The functions of the pineal hormone melatonin are of intense and continuous interest. Synthetic melatonin receptor analogues, as agonists and antagonists, have been explored, and the molecule can be viewed as consisting of an indole nucleus, acting mainly as a spacer, and the C5-OMe and the C3-ethylamido side chains, acting as pharmacophoric components. The present chapter focuses on the synthetic routes towards these melatonin derivatives, first the aromatic nucleus, then the functionalities that have been introduced to the nucleus, and finally those analogues with restrained conformations and those that are optically active. The importance of the various parameters involved in the agonist and antagonist profile of the compounds is indicated, as is the difference in the action of the chiral melatoninergics.",signatures:"Andrew Tsotinis and Ioannis P. Papanastasiou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71292",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71292",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"72304",title:"Clinical Use of Melatonin in the Treatment of Sleep Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92656",slug:"clinical-use-of-melatonin-in-the-treatment-of-sleep-disorders",totalDownloads:933,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sleep disorders are a group of conditions that affect the circadian rhythm of sleep-wake, leading to social and professional maladaptation. At the moment, there is a wide range of medications aimed at the treatment of sleep disorders, but the results from their use are not always satisfactory. Benzodiazepines, antidepressants, and antihistamines may cause dependence or withdrawal effects. Melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine) is an endogenous hormone produced by the pineal gland that affects intraday, seasonal rhythm, and the sleep-wake cycle. Studies of the effects of melatonin have demonstrated its ability to synchronize circadian rhythms, reduce the latency of slow sleep, increase the duration of sleep, and improve its subjective quality. This review highlights the current therapeutic possibilities of using melatonin in various sleep disorders, taking into account the mechanisms of its action. Also, the prospects of using melatonin due to its chronobiological effect in other sleep disorders, such as parasomnia, sleep-dependent respiratory disorders, and hypersomnia, are emphasized. At the moment, melatonin is one of the methods for correcting intraday rhythms and some types of insomnia.",signatures:"Alexander Zakharov and Elena Khivintseva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72304",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72304",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"71288",title:"Melatonin as a Food Supplement for Sleep Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91410",slug:"melatonin-as-a-food-supplement-for-sleep-disorders",totalDownloads:777,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine commonly known as melatonin is a neurohormone produced in the pineal gland as a response to decrease in ambient light and regulates the sleep-wake cycle. Melatonin is a derivative of the amino acid tryptophan and is produced in humans and other mammals. Melatonin supplements are used to treat insomnia and sleep disorders and to adjust sleep schedules due to jet lag. Synthetic melatonin is available as a food supplement in various dosage forms such as pills, granules for oral solution, orodispersible granules, and syrups in order to address patients’ needs. Melatonin is often combined with water-soluble vitamins such as B complex vitamins and minerals like zinc in order to be more effective.",signatures:"Ioulia K. Tseti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71288",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71288",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"71266",title:"Melatonin for a Healthy Heart Rhythm",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91447",slug:"melatonin-for-a-healthy-heart-rhythm",totalDownloads:963,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Melatonin is a promising cardioprotective agent. Its increase during the night is associated with healthy cardiovascular function. On the other hand, reduced levels of melatonin are related to diseases. Aging and chronodisruptors reduce melatonin levels. Pharmacological supplementation reduces the deleterious effects of cardiovascular risk factors and improves the myocardial response to ischemia/reperfusion injury and other proarrhythmic conditions. The protective mechanisms of melatonin involve its antioxidant properties as well as receptor-mediated actions. Signaling pathways include membrane responses, cytoplasmic modulation of kinases, nuclear receptor interactions, and improvement of mitochondrial functions. This chapter focuses on the electrophysiological and the antiarrhythmic properties of melatonin. The acute and chronic protective mechanisms of melatonin will be analyzed with an emphasis on transmembrane potentials and intercellular communication. An outstanding antifibrillatory effect makes melatonin a novel antiarrhythmic agent worthy of further exploration in the path to clinical applications.",signatures:"Natalia Jorgelina Prado, Margarita Segovia-Roldan, Emiliano Raúl Diez and Esther Pueyo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71266",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71266",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"71070",title:"Per Os Administered Modified-Release Solid Formulations of Melatonin: A Review of the Latest Developments Including the Design of Experiments (DoE) Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91158",slug:"-em-per-os-em-administered-modified-release-solid-formulations-of-melatonin-a-review-of-the-latest-d",totalDownloads:459,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The pineal hormone melatonin (MLT) is a derivative of the amino acid L-tryptophan and controls the circadian diurnal rhythm and the seasonal biorhythm. Exogenous administration is aimed at alleviating sleep-related dysfunctions and jet lag, as it decreases sleep-onset latency, increases total sleep time and improves overall sleep quality. Besides these indications, MLT has been shown to have other actions, such as antioxidant, immune enhancement and anticancer. It has also been shown to be useful against cardiovascular, neurological and psychiatric diseases. In the context of this work, a review of the related literature on the modified release of MLT from its per os administered formulations is presented, including the utilization of the design of experiments (DoE) for the selection of the optimal composition of melatonin formulations. The chapter offers an account of the recent advantages on MLT’s solid dosage forms suitable for treating sleep disorders, referring either to its onset or maintenance.",signatures:"Angeliki Siamidi and Yannis Dotsikas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71070",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71070",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"71009",title:"The Release Kinetics of Melatonin from Innovative Dosage Forms: The Role of the Fractal Geometry of the “Vehicle”",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91155",slug:"the-release-kinetics-of-melatonin-from-innovative-dosage-forms-the-role-of-the-fractal-geometry-of-t",totalDownloads:583,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine) is an antioxidant active pharmaceutical ingredient with numerous applications as medicine and nutraceutical. Melatonin, a hormone synthesized by the pineal gland, has a significant role in the regulation of the circadian biological clock. The aim of this chapter is to present the conventional solid and liquid forms (i.e., tables, capsules, suspensions, etc.) and the nanoformulations (i.e., liposomes, niosomes, polymeric nanoparticles, chitosomes, calcium alginate beads, etc.) of melatonin and to give special attention to its release kinetics from the pharmaceutical vehicle. These systems have been designed and developed as platforms for the delivery and release of melatonin. In all cases, the controlled release of melatonin is the main goal of its loading into drug delivery platforms. Fractal analysis is a mathematical tool to quantify nature and physical systems’ complexity. These systems have been characterized as fractal objects, due to their fractional dimensions. In this chapter, we are probing the interrelationship between the fractal dimension of pharmaceutical vehicle and the release profile of melatonin. Several examples will be given in order to understand in depth the reason of controlled-release profile of melatonin and its added value for the development of a new medicine and/or nutraceutical.",signatures:"Natassa Pippa and Costas Demetzos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71009",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71009",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"71248",title:"Review of Melatonin in Horticultural Crops",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90935",slug:"review-of-melatonin-in-horticultural-crops",totalDownloads:974,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:'Melatonin is an indoleamine, abundant in animals and plants, which has the functions of regulating circadian rhythm, improving immunity and anti-aging in animals, and is a good health care product beneficial to human health. Recent studies have shown that melatonin has physiological functions including regulating plant growth, promoting seed germination, controlling root development and delaying leaf senescence. The antioxidant properties of melatonin give it the ability to strengthen plants’ resistance to stress. The comprehensive researches in recent years, involving five aspects of \\"the biosynthetic pathway of melatonin in plants, the melatonin in horticultural crops and its influencing factors, the roles of melatonin in the growth and development of horticultural crops, in the response to stress of horticultural crops, the signal transduction network of melatonin in regulating plant growth and the development and stress resistance,\\" are reviewed in the present paper. The application of melatonin in horticulture production is also discussed, which can provide a theoretical reference for the application of melatonin in horticultural production.',signatures:"Yanyan Yan, Qinghua Shi and Biao Gong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71248",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71248",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"71664",title:"Studies on Tryptophan Metabolites in Patients of Major Monopolar Depression",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91967",slug:"studies-on-tryptophan-metabolites-in-patients-of-major-monopolar-depression",totalDownloads:713,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites were compared between healthy volunteers and patients of major monopolar depression at various ages and genders. An ultrahigh-speed liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry has been used for analysis. There are significant gender and age differences in TRP metabolites of healthy volunteers. At the upper stream of metabolism, metabolites of young women and old men are higher, but at the lower stream of metabolism, their levels are higher in young men and old women. Such differences disappear in plasma of patients of major monopolar depression except for kynurenine (KYN). Daily variation of blood serotonin (5-HT) levels showed that 5-HT levels were low in the morning and increased toward evening, but blood levels of 5-HT were higher in healthy people than depressive people in the morning and decreased to ward evening. Significant age and gender differences of plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites in healthy volunteers disappear in patients of major monopolar depression. Blood levels of 5-HT were higher in healthy people than depressive patients.",signatures:"Hiroi Tomioka, Junichi Masuda, Akikazu Takada and Akira Iwanami",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71664",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71664",authors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:{id:"11",series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",issn:"2631-8261",editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}}},tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6581",title:"Adipose Tissue",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"85899eab2d8b01653e1297b168c470d7",slug:"adipose-tissue",bookSignature:"Leszek Szablewski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6581.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6246",title:"Salivary Glands",subtitle:"New Approaches in Diagnostics and Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"de375ecbd9ac673d6464107a0c416763",slug:"salivary-glands-new-approaches-in-diagnostics-and-treatment",bookSignature:"Işıl Adadan Güvenç",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6246.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36790",title:"M.D.",name:"Işıl",surname:"Adadan Güvenç",slug:"isil-adadan-guvenc",fullName:"Işıl Adadan Güvenç"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7269",title:"Endocrine Disruptors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"571f5c496c8b0e8db9043204fa58be2a",slug:"endocrine-disruptors",bookSignature:"Ahmed R. 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\r\n\tAnimal models are used to understand physiological, biochemical, and pathological mechanisms of cells, tissues, organs, and systems, to elucidate inter-system relations, to develop new diagnostic methods for diseases or functional disorders, and to develop new strategies for their treatment. When considering the ethical and legal constraints, the need to use animal models maintains its importance from past to present. The success of the research depends on the suitability of the chosen model. For example, while single-celled organisms such as yeast are a convenient model for the study of basic eukaryotic cell functions such as cell cycle regulation, vesicular transport, protein folding, and DNA repair, simple invertebrates such as Caenorhabditis elegans or Drosophila are regarded as good models in studies examining the coordinated functions of genes related to signal transmission or protein-protein interactions. Simple vertebrates (zebrafish, frogs, etc.) or mammals (rat, mouse, rabbit, guinea pig, etc.) are used to establish human disease models or to explain their effects at the organism level. In addition, the use of experimental animals is quite common in experimental medicine research, especially in pharmaceutical developments and molecular pathway studies.
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1. Introduction
Tannin is a term widely used to characterize the second largest class of phenolic compounds, which, like the others, has the primordial and essential function of protecting plant tissues against attack by insects, fungi or bacteria. Tannins have a high molecular weight (500 to 3000 Da), are considered antioxidants and combine with cellulose and pectin, in addition to precipitating alkaloids and proteins [1]. These compounds occur naturally in a wide variety of vegetables, and can be found in the roots, leaves, fruits, seeds and barks. They are considered secondary metabolic products of great economic and ecological interest and have a wide value in the interactions between the plant and its ecosystem. Such compounds are responsible for the astringency of many fruits and vegetable products, due to the precipitation of salivary glycoproteins, which causes the loss of lubricating power [2, 3].
Classically, according to the chemical structure, tannins are classified into two groups: hydrolyzable and condensed. The current and most accepted classification divides the tannins into four groups (Figure 1): gallotannins, ellagitannins, condensed tannins and complex tannins [5]. Gallotannins are the simplest tannins and are formed by units of gallo or di-gallo esterified to a nucleus of glucose or other polyhydroxy alcohol. The molecules are usually composed of a glucose nucleus and 6 to 9 gallo groups. The most common is tannic acid [6]. Ellagitannins are esters of hexahydro-xidifenic acid (HHDP), and during its hydrolysis, the HHDP group dehydrates and spontaneously lactonizes to form ellagic acid. Condensed tannins are oligomeric and polymeric proanthocyanidins containing flavan-3-ol (catechin) or flavan-3,4-diol (leucoanthocyanins). The basic structure of complex tannins, on the other hand, consists of a unit of galotannin or ellagitannin and catechin [7, 8].
Figure 1.
Main chemical structures of the tannins [4].
Hydrolyzable tannins can be easily hydrolyzed, either chemically or enzymatically. Tannin Acyl Hydrolase (TAH), also known as tannase (EC 3.1.1.20), is an enzyme capable of hydrolyzing tannins, leading to the release of glucose and gallic acid or ellagic acid [9]. Some are still able to perform a transesterification reaction for the production of propyl gallate [10].
TAH is a glycoprotein esterase formed predominantly by a gallic acid esterase and a depsidase. Tannase can be separated into two esterases, a specific esterase for aliphatic esters such as methyl gallate, and another depsidase that hydrolyzes depsidic bonds like m-digallic acid as shown [11]. However, the proportion between the two activities can vary according to the cultivation conditions [12]. Tannase is a biocatalyst produced by vegetables, animals, bacteria, filamentous fungi and yeast. Tannins of yeast are effective only in the decomposition of gallotannin, while bacterial and filamentous fungi are efficient in the hydrolysis of gallotannins and ellagitannins [13].
Tannase is versatile since it can be widely used in the food, pharmaceutical and chemical industries, and even in bioremediation [14]. Among the possible applications we can mention: preparation of instant teas [15], additive for animal feed [16, 17], production of gallic and ellagic acid [18, 19], synthesis of esters and effluent treatment [9, 20], beverage manufacturing (juices, beers and wines) [21] and clarification of juices [22, 23].
The application of tannase in juices rich in hydrolyzable tannins is done to decrease the concentration of these in this food matrix, since the high content of this compound is responsible for the appearance of turbidity, bitter taste and astringency, characteristics which are often undesirable. However, the hydrolysis of gallotannins causes nutritional and sensory changes in the juice, since with the release of the gallo group occurs a retarding effect on the oxidation of ascorbic acid, also increasing its antioxidant action [24, 25].
The pitanga (Eugenia uniflora L.), belonging to the Mirtaceae family, is native to Brazil, specifically in the South and Southeast regions, and has adapted favorably to the edaphoclimatic conditions of the Brazilian Northeast, mainly in the State of Pernambuco, with about 300 hectares cultivated [26]. It is widely used by the Brazilian industry for the production of juice, preparation of ice cream, soft drinks, jellies and liquors because it has a high economic potential, attracting the consumer for its high concentration of metabolites such as anthocyanins, flavonols and carotenoids, which make this fruit a promising source antioxidant compounds [26, 27]. The natural antioxidants present in the diet increase the resistance to damage caused by oxidation, thus presenting a significant impact on human health [27].
Based on this information, the tannase obtained from Saccharomyces cerevesiae CCMB 520 was applied in this study with purpose of biotransforming the integral pitanga juice polyphenols and, in this way, modifying their biological activity.
2. Material and methods
2.1 Reagents
Tannic acid, gallic acid, bovine serum albumin and rodhanine were purchased at Sigma Aldrich (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO, USA). All other chemicals used in the experiment were of high-quality analytical grade.
2.2 Microorganism and its maintenance
The yeast species Saccharomyces cerevisiae CCMB 520 was kindly provided by the Culture Microorganisms Collection of Bahia (Coleção de Cultura de Micro-organismos da Bahia - CCMB), of State University of Feira de Santana, Bahia State, Brazil. The sample was kept on plates containing Yeast Malt (YM) and left to rest in YM medium, at pH 6.8, in order to be activated; subsequently, it was incubated in B.O.D at 28 ° C for 48 hours.
2.3 Inoculum preparation
A 48-hours culture grown in YM medium (Merck, Darmstadt, Alemanha) was used to prepare the inoculum at pH 6.8 and 28 °C in B.O.D incubator (Cienlab, Campinas, Brazil). After the 48-hours period, culture fragments were inoculated in 0.85% saline solution to generate a suspension presenting optical density OD600nm: 0.8 at 0.9.
2.4 Enzyme production and extracellular tannase obtainment
Enzyme production was performed in 7.5 L Bioreactor containing 2.5 L of submerged fermentation medium - Czapek-Dox broth (g/L) base: NaNO3 (7.5), KCl (1.25), MgSO4.7H2O (1.25), FeSO4.7H2O (0.025), K2HPO4 3H2O (2.5), yeast extract (25) and tannic acid (150); media were sterilized at 121 °C for 15 minutes. Tannic acid (sterilized through membrane 0.45 μm) and inocolum were added to the fermentation medium after the Bioreactor cooled down to room temperature. The initial pH, fermentation time, rotation and incubation temperature, of the fermentation process, were 7, 24 h, 112 rpm and 27 °C, respectively. The fermentation broth was centrifuged (Thermoelectron, Langenser, Germany) at 1000 rpm for 15 minutes at 4 °C. The supernatant was frozen at −20 °C and used for further tests.
2.5 Enzyme activity and protein content
Tannase activity was estimated by using ethanolic rhodanine and tannic acid as substrate [28]. The reaction medium consisted of 250 μL substrate (0.05%, w/v) in 0.05 mol/L citrate buffer (pH 5.0) and of 250 μL enzyme extract. The substrate and the enzyme extract remained in contact for 5 minutes at 30 °C. Enzyme reaction was stopped through the addition of 300 μL ethanolic rhodanine (0.667%, w/v). After spending 5 minutes at 30 °C, the reaction medium was added with 200 μL of 0.5 mol/L potassium hydroxide in order to form a chromogen violet staining. After five more minutes at 30 °C, the obtained volume of each reaction was diluted in 4 mL of distilled water. The control tubes (enzyme extract addition at the end of the reaction) were simultaneously used. After the samples were subjected to 10 more minutes at 30 °C, the experiment proceeded in spectrophotometer (Novainstruments, Piracicaba, Brazil) at 520 nm and molar extinction coefficient was 648.15 L/mol × cm. Tannase activity (U/mL) was expressed by the amount of enzyme required to produce 1 μmol of gallic acid per minute under assay conditions. Protein content was set according to the Bradford method [29]. Bovine serum albumin was used as standard. All tests were performed in triplicate and the mean values (different from <5%) were calculated.
2.6 Partial purification by different methods
2.6.1 Ammonium sulphate precipitation
The crude enzyme extract was fractioned by ammonium sulphate precipitation at percentage saturation ranged of 0–20, 20–40, 40–60, 60–80% (w/v), respectively [30]. At each saturation, the solution was left to stand for 2 hours. The sample was dialyzed against distilled water for 4 hours at 4 °C and the precipitate was collected by centrifugation (5000 rpm for 20 minutes at 4 °C). The precipitates were solubilized in 0.04 mol L−1 sodium citrate buffer (pH 5) and subjected to analysis of enzyme activity and total protein as previously described.
2.6.2 Ultrafiltration membrane (30 KDa)
The crude culture filtrate (10 mL) was added to the membrane and subsequently centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 60 minutes at 4 °C, and then the retained and permeated material were collected. The volumes obtained were separately reconstituted to the initial volume (10 mL). Soon afterwards, enzyme activity and total protein tests were performed as previously described.
2.6.3 Ethanol precipitation
The fractional precipitation followed the methodology from [31] with modifications. The solvent was cooled to a temperature of 0 °C and then added dropwise to the crude extract until you reach the desired concentrations of the same (50 to 90%, v/v). The mixture remained in contact for 1 hour at a temperature of −18 °C. After this period, the reaction medium was centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 20 minutes at 4 °C. The precipitate was ressuspended in 0.04 M sodium citrate buffer, pH 5.0, in the same volume of crude extract added during the precipitation process. Soon afterwards, enzyme activity and total protein tests were performed as previously described. After partial purification, tannase was used in the bioconversion of integral pitanga juice.
2.7 Preparation of integral pitanga juice
The pitanga fruits (Eugenia uniflora L., 2000 g) were harvested in the orchard that is located near the Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Pernambuco, Campus Barreiros, Brazil. They were collected between March and April, selected and cleaned in chlorinated water at 50 ppm for 15 minutes. Then were carried out, rinsing, pulp removal and crushing in an industrial blender. The integral pitanga juice was sifted and stored under freezing for further studies on the application of the enzyme.
2.8 Enzimatic biotrasformation
The statistical Doehlert [32] using two variables – partially purified tannase concentration (%, v/v) and application time (minutes) - was herein applied to investigate the best condition for antioxidant capacity increase. The enzyme extract concentration was assessed at three levels (4.5, 6.0 and 7.5%), whereas the application time was assessed at five levels (160, 180, 200, 220 and 240 minutes), which are presented in their actual values and codified in Table 1.
Experiment
Partially purified tannase (%, v/v)
Application time (minutes)
1
7.5 (0.866)
180 (−0.5)
2
7.5 (0.866)
220 (0.5)
3
6.0 (0)
160 (−1.0)
4
6.0 (0)
200 (0)
5
6.0 (0)
200 (0)
6
6.0 (0)
200 (0)
7
6.0 (0)
240 (1.0)
8
4.5 (− 0.866)
180 (−0.5)
9
4.5 (− 0.866)
220 (0.5)
Table 1.
Doehlert matrix (real and coded) used to optimize tannase application in the bioconvertion of integral Pitanga juice.
For each percentage of partially purified tannase, a control was performed, exchanging it for distilled water.
System behavior was explained through the following quadratic equation (Eq. (1)):
Wherein: Y = experimental response, β0 intercept, β1, β2, β3 = linear coefficients, β11, β22, β33 = quadratic coefficients, β12, β13, β23 = interaction coefficients, A, B, C = independent variables, and ε = experimental error.
Each 10 mL of pitanga juice in Erlenmeyer flasks was added partially purified tannase at the proportions cited in Table 1 and incubated in a shaker at 120 ± 1 rpm at 30 °C, optimal temperature of the tannase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae CCMB 520 [33]. After the enzymatic application was done, according to the pre-established time, the enzyme was denatured at 70 °C, for 10 minutes.
2.9 Physico-chemical analysis of the pitanga juice
The physical–chemical evaluation is necessary since bioconversion cannot influence the loss of quality with respect to the pre-established minimum standards for the Standard of Identity and Quality of a specific product, in this case the integral pitanga juice.
2.9.1 pH
The pH was determined directly in the same with the aid of a previously calibrated pHmeter, after filtration [34].
2.9.2 Total soluble solids (°Brix)
Total Soluble Solids (°Brix) was determined by a Reichert digital refractometer by dropping two drops of the sample onto the surface of the properly calibrated apparatus.
2.9.3 Total acidity
A 2.5 mL sample of pitanga juice was previously homogenized and filtered in 100 mL Erlenmeyer flasks, afterwards it was diluted in 25 mL of distilled water and then stirred. Soon after, the electrode was introduced into the solution and then it was titrated with Sodium hydroxide solution (0.1 N) until the pH remained between 8.2 and 8.4 [34]. The potentiometer was previously calibrated before the analysis with pH 4 and 7 buffer solutions.
2.10 Total phenolics
The total phenolic content was estimated according to the Folin–Ciocalteu method [35].
2.11 Antioxidant activity
The antioxidant activity was assessed through the DPPH (2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) method [36].
The DPPH radical scavenging activity was calculated according to the equation (Eq.(2)) below:
DPPH%=Ao−A1/Ao⋅100.E2
Where A0 corresponded to the absorbance of the negative control, and A1 to the absorbance in the presence of the compound (sample and Trolox). Trolox was the positive control.
2.12 Statistical analysis
The results were analyzed in the SISVAR software - Variance Analysis System [37] and the means were compared through the Scott-Knott test at 5% probability level. In addition, the results were assessed through Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) in the Statistica Version 10.0 software (StatSoft, Inc., Tulsa, USA) [38] to find the variables presenting statistically significant effects on enzyme application (p < 0.05), as well as the model fitting the experimental data. All assays were performed in random order.
3. Results and discussion
3.1 Partial purification
As can be seen in Table 2, after the precipitation with ammonium sulphate, it was not possible to recover the activity of the enzymatic extract in the fractions of 0–20 and 60–80%. In the other fractions, it was not possible to obtain a considerable purification factor (greater than 1). Thus, it was found that the use of ammonium sulphate as a precipitating agent was not efficient in the precipitation of the target protein (tannase), since this salt may have caused the denaturation of the enzymes, under the experimental conditions evaluated.
Stage
VA (U/mL)
TP (mg/mL)
SA (U/mg)
PF
Crude extract
3.17
0.60
5.23
1.00
Retained (30 KDa)
21.080
0.67
31.66
6.040 a
Permeate (30 KDa)
19.56
0.67
29.010
5.54 a
Ammonium sulphate (0–20%)
—
—
—
—
Ammonium sulphate (20–40%)
2.41
0.54
4.46
0.85
Ammonium sulphate (40–60%)
1.10
0.80
1.30
0.24
Ammonium sulphate (60–80%)
—
—
—
—
Ethanol (50%)
—
—
—
—
Ethanol (60%)
—
—
—
—
Ethanol (70%)
—
—
—
—
Ethanol (80%)
0.19
0.28
0.66
0.085
Ethanol (90%)
0.27
0.37
0.72
0.093
Table 2.
Partial purification of tannase from S. cerevisiae CCMB 520.
VA – Volumetric activity; TP – Total protein; AE – Specific activity; PF – Purification factor. The experiments were performed in triplicate and the mean ± standard deviation values were presented. Values followed by the same letter did not statistically differ in the Scott-Knott test at 5% probability.
In the precipitation using ethanol, it was found that in the 50 to 70% saturation it was not possible to verify enzymatic activity and in the concentrations of 80 and 90% a reduction in it. In purification, the most desirable is that the proteins/contaminants are decreased and the activity of the target protein is concentrated or not decreased. The use of organic solvents as a precipitating agent may have negatively influenced the activity of the enzyme, as already demonstrated by several authors [39, 40, 41]. The ethanol and ammonium sulphate might have caused denaturation through a conformational change in the enzyme tertiary structure.
In reference [42], tannase was obtained and purified from Aspergillus niger. and The precipitation method using ammonium sulphate (50–70%) resulted in a purification factor of 4.89. Whereas in reference [43], after partial purification of tannase obtained from Aspergillus niger MTCC 2425, through precipitation with ammonium sulphate (75%) were obtained a purification factor around 1.4. In reference [44] tannase from Aspergillus nomius GWA5 was purified after three steps, using acetone and two chromatographic processes and the authors obtained the following purification factors: 1.59 (acetone fraction), 3.21 (molecular exclusion) and 4.48 (ion exchange).
After carrying out the 30 kDa membrane separation process, was possible to verify a higher degree of compaction, resulting from the internal encrustation caused by smaller particles that were adsorbed on the tube walls, thus providing a result that characterized a partial purification (factor of purification above 1), with no statistically significant difference between the two fractions obtained (retained and permeated).
3.2 Biotransformation of integral Pitanga juice by partially purified tannase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae CCMB 520
3.2.1 Physico-chemical analysis
The physical–chemical results are shown in Table 3 and the Standard of Identity and Quality for the pitanga juice are in Table 4. The samples of the integral pitanga juice before and after partially purified tannase application comply with the standards required by current Brazilian legislation [45].
Samples
pH
Total Soluble Solids (°Brix)
Total acidity (g/100 g, citric acid)
0
3.40 a
11,85 a
1.67 a
1
3.40 a
12.10 a
1.67 a
2
3.40 a
12.55 a
1.57 a
3
3.40 a
12.25 a
1.55 a
4
3.30 a
12.00 a
1.62 a
5
3.40 a
10.35 a
1.38 a
6
3.20 a
12.20 a
1.66 a
7
3.40 a
12.20 a
1.73 a
8
3.40 a
11.70 a
1.74 a
9
3.40 a
12.40 a
1.70 a
Table 3.
Physico-chemical parameters of integral Pitanga juice before and after application of partially purified tannase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae CCMB 520.
Sample 0: before application; Samples 1 to 9: after application. Values followed by the same letter did not statistically differ in the Scott-Knott test at 5% probability.
Legislation (BRAZIL, 2016)
Minimum
Maximum
pH
2.50
3.40
Total Soluble Solids (°Brix)
6.00
—
Total acidity (g/100 g, citric acid)
0.92
—
Table 4.
Standard of identity and quality for Pitanga juice.
From the data, we can evidence that the tannase application in integral pitanga juice did not change the evaluated parameters, indicating that it would be within the pre-established national standards.
3.2.2 Total phenolics
Through the results obtained for the total phenolic contents, presented here in Table 5, we can infer that in all tests these compounds increased when compared to their respective controls. The assay 8 (4.5% and 180 minutes) stood out statistically significantly among the others, reaching 3630 mg Eq. AG/L (285.59 mg/100 g).
Assay
Total phenolics (mg Eq. AG/L)
After application
1
3630.00 ± 106,066 d
2
4230.00 ± 318,20 b
3
4142.50 ± 53,033 b
4
3555.00 ± 141,42 d
5
3842.50 ± 53,033 c
6
3567.50 ± 159,099 d
7
4317.50 ± 88,39 b
8
4855.00 ± 35,36 a
9
3955.00 ± 106.066 c
Controls (white)
C1
2655.00 ± 70.71 f
C2
2467.50 ± 17.68 f
C3
2630.00 ± 35.36 f
C4
2830.00 ± 35.36 f
C5
2467.50 ± 17.68 f
C6
2642.50 ± 194.45 f
C7
3205.00 ± 176.78 e
C8
3567.50 ± 123.74 d
C9
3242.50 ± 17.68 e
Before application
2663.33 ± 115.47 f
Table 5.
Doehlert matrix results for total phenolics in Pitanga juice before and after application of partially purified tannase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae CCMB 520.
The experiments were performed in triplicate and the mean ± standard deviation values were presented. Values followed by the same letter did not statistically differ in the Scott-Knott test at 5% probability.
The phenolic compounds are substances involved in the prevention processes of chronic diseases, including diabetes, cancer, heart disease and Alzheimer’s, and knowledge about their presence in different fruit can contribute to the development of production, consumption, rural diversification and income generation [46].
In [47] after evaluating phenolic compounds in red pitanga found levels around 257 mg/100 g. Whereas in [45] found levels of 95.90 mg/100 g for the pitanga hydroalcoholic extract.
Analysis of variance applied to the data shown in Table 5.
Statistically significant at 95% confidence interval. Fcal – calculated F value; Ftab – tabulated F value. R2 = 0.94.
The results obtained experimentally for total phenolics were evaluated through F Test (Fisher’s Test) and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) (Table 6). The regression was statistically significant (Fcal 9.18 > 9.01 Ftab) and the lack of fit indicated a good agreement (Fcal 1.28 < 18.51 Ftab) between the fitted model and the experimental data. Furthermore, the quality of the fit was also confirmed through coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.94), and it implied that just 6% of the response variability was not explained by the model.
The model equation after regression, for the increase of phenolic compounds, was obtained (Eq. (3)):
Total phenolicsmgEQAG/L=39442.50⋅±5459.69−4545.83⋅EE⋅±805.25+161.11⋅EE2⋅±49.45−217.19⋅T⋅±40.56+0.36⋅T2⋅±0.093+12.29⋅EE⋅T⋅±2.71E3
From the Figure 2, we found that only the interaction (positive effect) was statistically significant in the experimental field studied. Figure 3 shows the response surface and contour curves obtained as a function of enzyme application time and tannase concentration, where it indicated that the increase in the variables under study increased the phenolic compounds. While, by decreasing the two variables, there was also an increase in phenolic compounds. This result can be seen in the positive interaction term obtained in Eq. (3) and Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Pareto chart for the effects of the variables on the total phenolic content of Pitanga juice, according to statistical planning of the Doehlert design.
Figure 3.
Response surface and contour plot to total phenolic content, according to the Doehlert design. The three-dimensional plot shows partially purified tannase concentration and application time.
3.2.3 Antioxidant activity
Studies have shown that the consumption of fruits and vegetables reduces the risk of chronic diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases and stroke [48]. This may be due to the presence of several secondary metabolites, these being related to various biological activities, including antioxidant activity.
The results of the total antioxidant activity are shown in Table 7, where it can be seen that test 8 (69.41%), as well as for phenolics (Table 5), was the one that presented values statistically superior to the other tests. We also found that all tests in the presence of the enzyme were superior to their respective controls. This demonstrates that the tannase from S. cerevisiae CCMB 520 acted on the compounds present in the integral pitanga juice, biotransforming them and increasing their biological activity.
Assay
Antioxidant activity – DPPH (%)
Antioxidant activity – μMTrolox/L
After application
1
57.56 ± 1.78 d
757.00 ± 35.56
2
64.96 ± 6.091 b
803.67 ± 40.069
3
61.34 ± 0.59 c
835.33 ± 4.71
4
64.71 ± 1.54 b
892.00 ± 29.63
5
65.55 ± 0.48 b
915.33 ± 9.43
6
64.71 ± 1.90 b
863.67 ± 11.79
7
62.35 ± 1.19 c
852.00 ± 23.57
8
69.41 ± 1.43 a
952.00 ± 28.28
9
59.16 ± 0.71 d
778.67 ± 14.14
Controls (white)
C1
50.00 ± 1.31 e
607.00 ± 25.93
C2
42.017 ± 2.38 f
448.67 ± 47.14
C3
42,10 ± 1.31 f
450.33 ± 25.93
C4
45.46 ± 2.97 f
517.00 ± 58.93
C5
42.27 ± 0.12 f
453.67 ± 2.36
C6
41.76 ± 0.59 f
443.67 ± 11.79
C7
50.42 ± 1.90 e
615.33 ± 37.71
C8
49.07 ± 0.71 e
588.67 ± 14.14
C9
46.97 ± 1.54 e
547.00 ± 30.64
Before application
51.26 ± 2.38 e
632.00 ± 47.14
Table 7.
Doehlert matrix results before and after the application of partially purified tannase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae CCMB 520.
The experiments were performed in triplicate and the mean ± standard deviation values were presented. Values followed by the same letter did not statistically differ in the Scott-Knott test at 5% probability.
The results obtained experimentally for the total antioxidant activity were evaluated by Test F and ANOVA (Table 8). The regression was statistically significant (Fcal 20.61 > 9.01 Ftab) and the lack of fit indicated a good agreement (Fcal 10.33 < 18.51 Ftab) between the adjusted model and the experimental data. The fit of the model was measured by the coefficient of determination (R2), which had a value of 0.97 suggesting that 97% of the total variation in residual antioxidant activity was explained by the adjusted model. It is worth mentioning that this is the first report on the application of tannase in integral pitanga juice and its effect on total antioxidant activity and phenolic contends.
From Figure 4, it appears that the time in its linear term was not statistically significant in the experimental field studied.
Figure 4.
Pareto chart for the effects of the variables on the total antioxidant activity of Pitanga juice, according to statistical planning of the Doehlert design.
Wherein: TAA = Total antioxidant activity.
The Figure 5 illustrates the response surface and contour curves regarding the relationship between application time and tannase concentration. Corroborating with the data obtained for phenolic compounds, it was found that increasing or decreasing the independent variables, together, increases the response variable.
Figure 5.
Response surface and contour plot to total antioxidant activity, according to the Doehlert design. The three-dimensional plot shows partially purified tannase concentration and application time.
In reference [49] was evaluated samples of aqueous, ethyl acetate and butanolic extracts from pitanga fruits, where the author observed total antioxidant activity in the highest concentration (1000 μg / mL): 35.6, 86.1 and 88.7%, respectively.
Several patent filings have demonstrated the application of tannase in juices with the aim of increasing antioxidant activity. The Indiana patent application 613/KOL/2005, in [50], which describes a 37% increase in gallic acid content and an 8% increase in antioxidant activity after tannase application in the pomegranate juice. The Brazilian patent application BR 10 2015 001163–6, in reference [51] describes a total antioxidant activity of 98.20%. The results obtained by other researchers corroborate those presented in the present study. In this work, an increase in antioxidant activity of around 18.15% was possible.
Considering that the antioxidant activity is largely attributed to the presence of phenolic compounds, Pearson’s correlation was calculated to verify the existence of a relationship between the two independent variables. The Figure 6 illustrates a moderate positive correlation between variables, by increasing phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity is increased.
Figure 6.
Pearson’s correlation between antioxidant activity and total phenolics.
The use of tannase for the release of phenolic antioxidants has become interesting for various types of food matrix. This is because most of them can release the phenolic compounds without requiring a pre-treatment such as the action of the pectinase or cellulase, or variation in temperature or pH [52]. The biotransformation of bioactive compounds is also an interesting alternative that deserves attention, since it precludes the use of toxic compounds such as organic solvents in the extraction. In these processes, bioactive compounds are obtained from natural sources by microorganisms through their secondary metabolism or by exogenous enzymatic action [53, 54]. According to [55], the bioconversion by enzyme as well as whole cell biocatalyst has tremendous importance in industry owing to escalated yields, low impurity profiles, environmental safety, and process reproducibility.
The values found after tannase application, in relation to phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity, were due to the conversion of substances present in integral pitanga juice. These data demonstrate the action of tannase obtained from S. cerevisiae CCMB 520 in the biotransformation of this food matrix, suggesting that the enzyme has biotechnological potential in the production of foods with better nutraceutical properties.
4. Conclusions
This is the first work to report application of tanase in integral pitanga juice. The purpose of the present study was to produce and apply tannase obtained from S. cerevisiae CCMB 520. From the results presented, we found that is possible, through enzymatic treatment, to increase the functional quality of integral pitanga juice, once there was an increase in total antioxidant activity, which is associated with an increase in total phenolic compounds.
The results suggest that the partially purified tannase of Saccharomyces cerevisiae CCMB 520 can potentially be used for industrial biotechnological application, as in the biotransformation of juices, to obtain a product with greater biological activity (functional property). It is worth mentioning that after the application of partially purified tannase, the juice remained with its physico-chemical characteristics within the Standard of Identity and Quality, according to the current legislation.
Acknowledgments
We thank Federal Education, Science and Technology Institute of Pernambuco for the granted scholarships, and the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (Grant n. 469406/2014-3) for the granted scholarships and financial support.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"antioxidant activity, bioconversion, Eugenia uniflora L., experimental design, tannin acyl hydrolase",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75349.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75349.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75349",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75349",totalDownloads:255,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:35,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 22nd 2020",dateReviewed:"January 19th 2021",datePrePublished:"March 2nd 2021",datePublished:"July 21st 2021",dateFinished:"February 19th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The pitanga (Eugenia uniflora L.) is a native species to Brazil and widely used by Brazilian industry, mainly in food, to juice, ice cream, soft drinks, jellies and liqueurs production. The fruit contains a high concentration of anthocyanins, flavonoids and carotenoids, which make it a promising source of antioxidant compounds. The objective of this work was to produce and purify tannase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae CCMB 520, to apply in the integral pitanga juice and to verify its physical and chemical effects. The tannase was produced under submerged fermentation in bench bioreactor. After the fermentation process the enzyme was partially purified. The partially purified tannase was applied in the integral pitanga juice using Doehlert statistical design. The effect of the enzymatic application was analyzed by means of phenolic compounds contents and antioxidant activity. Physical–chemical analyzes were carried out to investigate the Standard Identity and Quality of the juice. The best results for partial purification were obtained by ultrafiltration. After application, the total phenolics content was 4855 mg Eq. AG/L, and for the antioxidant activity was 952 μMTrolox/L (69.41%). It has been found that it is possible by means of enzymatic treatment to improve the functional quality of the integral pitanga juice.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75349",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75349",book:{id:"10214",slug:"saccharomyces"},signatures:"Gustavo Monteiro, Maria Araújo, Paula Barbosa, Marcelo Mello, Tonny Leite, Sandra Assis and Amanda Sena",authors:[{id:"332182",title:"Dr.",name:"Amanda",middleName:null,surname:"Sena",fullName:"Amanda Sena",slug:"amanda-sena",email:"amandareges@barreiros.ifpe.edu.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"345898",title:"Mr.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Monteiro",fullName:"Gustavo Monteiro",slug:"gustavo-monteiro",email:"gustavomonteiro44@outlook.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"345899",title:"MSc.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Araújo",fullName:"Maria Araújo",slug:"maria-araujo",email:"isabella.araujo61@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"345900",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",middleName:null,surname:"Barbosa",fullName:"Paula Barbosa",slug:"paula-barbosa",email:"paulabio05@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"345901",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo",middleName:null,surname:"Mello",fullName:"Marcelo Mello",slug:"marcelo-mello",email:"marcelomello@barreiros.ifpe.edu.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"345902",title:"Dr.",name:"Tonny",middleName:null,surname:"Leite",fullName:"Tonny Leite",slug:"tonny-leite",email:"toycly@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"345903",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Aparecida de Assis",fullName:"Sandra Aparecida de Assis",slug:"sandra-aparecida-de-assis",email:"sandrinhaassis@yahoo.com.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Material and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Reagents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Microorganism and its maintenance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Inoculum preparation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Enzyme production and extracellular tannase obtainment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 Enzyme activity and protein content",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.6 Partial purification by different methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.6.1 Ammonium sulphate precipitation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.6.2 Ultrafiltration membrane (30 KDa)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.6.3 Ethanol precipitation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.7 Preparation of integral pitanga juice",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"2.8 Enzimatic biotrasformation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"2.9 Physico-chemical analysis of the pitanga juice",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"2.9.1 pH",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"2.9.2 Total soluble solids (°Brix)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"2.9.3 Total acidity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"2.10 Total phenolics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"2.11 Antioxidant activity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"2.12 Statistical analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21",title:"3. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"3.1 Partial purification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"3.2 Biotransformation of integral Pitanga juice by partially purified tannase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae CCMB 520",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"Table 5.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"Table 7.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_27",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_28",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_31",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Brígida AIS, Rosa MF. Determinação do teor de taninos na casca de coco verde (Cocos nucifera). Proceedings of the Interamerican Society for Tropical Horticulture. 2003;47:25–27'},{id:"B2",body:'Monteiro JM, Albuquerque P, Araújo EL. Taninos: uma abordagem da química à ecologia. Química Nova. 2005;28:892–896. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-40422005000500029'},{id:"B3",body:'Santos SC, Mello JCP. Taninos. 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Purification, characterization and application of tannase enzyme isolated from marine Aspergillus nomius GWA5. Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology. 2018;12:1939–1949. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.22207/JPAM.12.4.30'},{id:"B45",body:'Brasil. Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento. Secretaria de Defesa Agropecuária. Instrução Normativa N° 37, de 1° de outubro de 2018. Diário Oficial da União: Edição 194, seção 1, 23, Brasília, DF, 08 de out. de 2018'},{id:"B46",body:'Souza AG, Facina AC, Saraiva F. Compostos bioativos e atividade antioxidante em frutas nativas do Brasil. Saraiva Agrotrópica. 2018;1:30, 2018. DOI: 10.21757/0103-3816.2018v30n1p73-78.pdf'},{id:"B47",body:'Lima VLA, Mélo EA, Lima DES. Fenólicos e carotenóides totais em pitanga. Scientia agrícola. 2002;59:447–450. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-90162002000300006'},{id:"B48",body:'Yeum KJ, Russell RM, Krinsky NI, Aldini G . Biomarkers of antioxidant capacity in the hydrophilic and lipophilic compartments of human plasma. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 2004;430:97–103. DOI: doi: 10.1016/j.abb.2004.03.006'},{id:"B49",body:'Pessanha FF. Eugenia uniflora L. (Myrtaceae): caracterização e avaliação dos compostos fenólicos, da vitamina C e da atividade antioxidante dos frutos da pitangueira [Dissertation]. Campos dos Goytacazes: Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro; 2010'},{id:"B50",body:'Indian Institute of Technology. Enzymatic debittering of pomegranate juice. India. Indian Patent Application Number 613/KOL/2005'},{id:"B51",body:'Amanda Reges de Sena. Suco de Jamelão e processo para fabricação de suco de jamelão utilizando extrato enzimático a base de tanase. Brasil. Depósito de pedido de patente n° BR 10 2015 001163–6. Revista de Propriedade Intelectual, n. 2405, 07 de fevereiro de 2017'},{id:"B52",body:'Junior JVM, Teixeira CB, Macedo GA. Biotransformation and bioconversion of phenolic compounds obtainment: an overview. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. 2015;35:75–81. DOI: 10.3109/07388551.2013.803020'},{id:"B53",body:'Martins S, Mussatto SI, Martínez-Avila G, Montãnez-Saenz J, Aguilar CN, Teixeira JA. Bioactive phenolic compounds: production and extraction by solid-state fermentation. A review. Biotechnology Advances. 2011;29:365–73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2011.01.008'},{id:"B54",body:'Puri M, Sharma D, Barrow CJ. Enzyme-assisted extraction of bioactives from plants. Trends in Biotechnology. 2012;30:37–44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2011.06.014'},{id:"B55",body:'Dhiman S, Mukherjee G, Singh AK. Recent trends and advancements in microbial tannase-catalyzed biotransformation of tannins: a review. International Microbiology. 2018; 21:175–195. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10123-018-0027-9'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Gustavo Monteiro",address:null,affiliation:'
Federal Education, Science and Technology Institute of Pernambuco, Brazil
Federal Education, Science and Technology Institute of Pernambuco, Brazil
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1. Introduction
The most complex and uncertain natural disaster is drought, even it is difficult to predict and mitigate due to numerous factors, magnitude as well as difficulties in defining a drought. Drought causes impacts on agro biodiversity in many ways [1]. Agro biodiversity is the part of biodiversity includes both genetic diversity and crop and animal diversity in diverse agro ecosystem and different agriculture [2, 3]. It was mentioned that agro biodiversity is essentially important for sustainable development both for natural and anthropogenic as well as livelihood [4, 5]. Homestead is the traditional place and promising option for plant species conservation [6]. These efforts may help mitigate ecosystem degradation and drought impacts while providing food and economic opportunities to rural people. In the homestead, members share responsibilities and distribute gardening tasks among themselves. Women like to use homestead products for household consumption and gifting and men for sale and cash income [7]. Numerous studies in the world showed that homesteads are the place of the highest plant diversity for crops and non-crops [8]). A study mentioned that agro biodiversity support sustainable agriculture [9]. Food and Agricultural Organization-FAO [10, 11] estimated that there are 2, 50,000 to 5, 00,000 plant species in the world. According to a study, in agriculture only 1,500 plant species are being used. Another study mentioned that agrobiodiversity exists at the varietal level though number of crop species is low [12]. Agrobiodiversity provide three types of value such as use value, option value, and existence value [13]. Ecosystems that maintain naturally are considered as the major support for sustainable production and enhance food and livelihood security at local to global scale [2, 5, 14]. Agro biodiversity is contributing to agricultural production, maintaining ecosystems and human food security [12, 15, 16, 17]. Ecosystem provides four major categories of services include provisioning services, supporting services, regulating services and cultural services. Benefit may get through intrinsic values (cultural and social) and supported by biological diverse system [15].
Agro biodiversity provides diverse benefits including nutritious diets (fruits and vegetables) for human health; longer productivity; adaptation to changing conditions; and conservation methods for enabling future use. Biological diversity reduces the general risk of economic and ecological failure at individual (farmer) level as well as on global scale while making those systems more sustainable and less susceptible facing the future challenges [17, 18, 19]. Diverse agricultural production system may be less threatening to biological diversity compared to highly intensified and uniform systems, such practices still do enhance pest damage, competition for water, soil, nutrition and pollinators, result in habitat and nutrient loss and have a negative effect on non-target species [20]. The reduction of agro biodiversity is closely linked to the loss of productivity, while threatening ecological stability, the security of food supply and livelihood worldwide [15]. Strategies for identification and conservation of agro biodiversity are lacking and hence, there is need to develop indices for identification of important component of agro biodiversity, food and nutritional security. Agro biodiversity has been disturbed due to switching from rain-fed agriculture to irrigated agriculture. Increasing frequency of extreme weather patterns and droughts are going to be the most important climatic factors affecting agro biodiversity [21, 22]. Diversity has been accounted at three levels such as alpha, gamma and beta [23]. Diversity at alpha level could be measured at community level, beta for composition (change from farmers to farmers) and gamma at the larger units [2, 24]. The assessment of drought impacts on homestead plant diversity in the Barind Tract is essentially important. The study was conducted with the view to assess and compare drought impacts on homestead plant diversity in high drought and low drought areas of Bangladesh. The study is also focused on following objectives:
Find out comparative plant diversity between drought and low drought prone areas at the homestead level in relation to season
Establish the relationship with the homestead plant diversity with the variables
Estimate plant species (Timber, spices, fruits, ornamental and vegetables) diversity in the homestead
The research elicited following research questions:
Research Questions:
How they perceived drought and plant diversity?
Are there any significant changes in homestead plant biodiversity between drought and non-drought prone areas?
Is there any relationship between drought and plant biodiversity?
How drought impacted on species (plants) at the homesteads?
Research Hypotheses:
H1: There is a trend of greater homestead plant diversity in the low drought prone area than high drought prone area
2. Methodology
The study was conducted over the period of twelve months starting from July 2018 and ended by May 2019. Two sites were selected for this study one from high drought prone site and another from low drought prone site of Barind Tract with the view to see the impacts of drought on the homestead plant diversity. Homestead agro biodiversity (plants) was calculated using Shannon’s Index. Homestead agro biodiversity (only plant species) was measured using similar size of homestead from different group (small, medium and large) as the quadrant. Plant species was studied using quadrat method covering random quadrat of 10 m × 10 m size was laid for trees, vegetables and other plants (shrubs and herbs) were laid in each homestead. Total 300 respondents (150 respondents from each site) considering equal numbers of respondents from small, medium and large category of the homestead. The farm owners were asked to know about the plant species and dietary diversity. Eight Focus Group Discussion (four from each site: two with elderly people and two with the ethnic people) have been carried out to know the insights of plant diversity at the homesteads. Semi-structured questionnaire, guided checklist, expert consultation and field observation has been carried out for this study. Quadrant method has been followed in collecting data from sample unit in the study areas. Nine quadrates from high drought prone areas and nine quadrates from low drought prone areas (3 from each farm size) have been laid for the measurement agro biodiversity. Survey on crops (species) has been carried out in the sampled quadrant. Secondary relevant information has been used to enrich the study. The agro biodiversity has been calculated using Shannon’s diversity Index.
H=−∑i=1Spilnpi
H = Shannon’s diversity index.
S = Total number of species in the community (richness).
pi= The proportion of species i relative to the total number of species (pi).
ln pi = The natural logarithm of this proportion.
3. Results
3.1 Perception of drought impacts on homestead plant diversity
An assessment on perception of drought impacts to the homestead plant diversity was carried out using Rating Percentage Index (RPI). The higher rate of respondents (RPI 30) from high drought areas perceived that plant diversity is decreasing in the homestead due to drought and low rate of respondents (RPI 42.5) from low drought areas assumed that homestead plant diversity is decreasing due to drought (Table 1). The participants from Focus Group Discussions opined that low diversity reduces production, consumption, dietary diversity and household nutrition.
Homestead diversity
High drought prone areas
Low drought prone areas
Perception of acceptance
Perception of rejection
RPI
Perception on acceptance
Perception on rejection
RPI
Decreasing
80
20
30
30
70
42.5
Increasing
0
100
50
10
90
47.5
Table 1.
Perception of drought impacts on homestead plant diversity (field data, 2019).
3.2 Homestead plant species diversity in different seasons
3.2.1 Homestead agro biodiversity in the Rabi season
There is a negative impact of drought in the study areas. Results showed that low species diversity in the high drought prone areas during Rabi season (Table 2). The low diversity is the spiraling issues of drought. The occurrence of rainfall in the high drought prone areas is low and erratic that give birth low soil moisture resulting low yields or harvests. Farmers are trying to grow several crops for better yield and managing drought. Total 38 plant species were recorded in the homesteads from high drought prone areas and 34 plant species in the low drought homestead areas. Several causes such as water and moisture scarcity, land degradation, soil infertility, lack of awareness, less rainfall, high temperature and climate change issues have been identified by the respondents for low species diversity in the homesteads.
Name of Species
High Drought Prone area
Low Drought Prone area
Total
PI
lnpi
-(−pi*lnpi)
Name of Species
Total
PI
lnpi
-(−pi*lnpi)
Mangifera indica
154
0.25581
−0.59208
0.151
M. indica
94
0.2117
−0.6743
0.14275
Artocarpus heterophyllus
9
0.01495
−1.82535
0.027
A. heterophyllus
8
0.018
−1.7443
0.03143
Psidium guava
17
0.02824
−1.54915
0.044
Psidium guava
19
0.0428
−1.3686
0.05857
Lagenaria siceraria
16
0.02658
−1.57548
0.042
L. siceraria
22
0.0495
−1.305
0.06466
Azadirachta indica
46
0.07641
−1.11684
0.085
Spondias mombin
7
0.0158
−1.8023
0.02841
S. mombin
12
0.01993
−1.70042
0.034
Ziziphus mauritiana
15
0.0338
−1.4713
0.04971
Z. mauritiana
14
0.02326
−1.63347
0.038
Moringa oleifera
11
0.0248
−1.606
0.03979
M. oleifera
10
0.01661
−1.7796
0.03
Cucurbita
9
0.0203
−1.6931
0.03432
Aegle marmelos
8
0.01329
−1.87651
0.025
Citrus Limonium
14
0.0315
−1.5013
0.04734
Amorphophallus paeoniifolius
7
0.01163
−1.9345
0.022
Musa paradisicum
19
0.0428
−1.3686
0.05857
Colocasia esculenta
41
0.06811
−1.16681
0.079
Annona reticulate
4
0.009
−2.0453
0.01843
Bambusa spp
4
0.00664
−2.17754
0.014
Tamarindus indica
2
0.0045
−2.3464
0.01057
Citrus limonium
68
0.11296
−0.94709
0.107
Rubus
7
0.0158
−1.8023
0.02841
Musa paradisicum
14
0.02326
−1.63347
0.038
Litchi chinensis
4
0.009
−2.0453
0.01843
Annona reticulate
67
0.1113
−0.95352
0.106
Citrus maxima
4
0.009
−2.0453
0.01843
Saccharum officinarum
2
0.00332
−2.47857
0.008
Syzygium jambos
3
0.0068
−2.1703
0.01466
Punica granatum
25
0.04153
−1.38166
0.057
Swietenia mahagoni
26
0.0586
−1.2324
0.07217
Momordica charantia
3
0.00498
−2.30248
0.011
Tagetes
34
0.0766
−1.1159
0.08545
Capsicum frutescens
2
0.00332
−2.47857
0.008
Phaseolus vulgaris
13
0.0293
−1.5334
0.0449
Dioscorea
15
0.02492
−1.60351
0.04
Areca palm
7
0.0158
−1.8023
0.02841
C. frutescens
7
0.01163
−1.9345
0.022
Rosa sinensis
19
0.0428
−1.3686
0.05857
Jiga
5
0.00831
−2.08063
0.017
Carissa carandas
2
0.0045
−2.3464
0.01057
T. indica
2
0.00332
−2.47857
0.008
Syzygium aqueum
6
0.0135
−1.8692
0.02526
Rubus
3
0.00498
−2.30248
0.011
Carica papaya
16
0.036
−1.4433
0.05201
Phoenix dactylifera
13
0.02159
−1.66565
0.036
Basella alba
14
0.0315
−1.5013
0.04734
L. chinensis
1
0.00166
−2.7796
0.005
Ocimum tenuifloru
7
0.0158
−1.8023
0.02841
Citrus × paradise
1
0.00166
−2.7796
0.005
Jasminum
5
0.0113
−1.9484
0.02194
S. jambos
5
0.00831
−2.08063
0.017
Cocos nucifera
26
0.0586
−1.2324
0.07217
S. mahagoni
12
0.01993
−1.70042
0.034
Dillenia indica
1
0.0023
−2.6474
0.00596
Tagetes
3
0.00498
−2.30248
0.011
Cestrum nocturnum
1
0.0023
−2.6474
0.00596
P. vulgaris
2
0.00332
−2.47857
0.008
Ficus racemosa
2
0.0045
−2.3464
0.01057
Arecacpalm
3
0.00498
−2.30248
0.011
Manilkara zapota
2
0.0045
−2.3464
0.01057
Rosa sinensis
3
0.00498
−2.30248
0.011
Ghasful
8
0.018
−1.7443
0.03143
Dalbergia sissoo
2
0.00332
−2.47857
0.008
Cascabela thevetia
2
0.0045
−2.3464
0.01057
C. carandas
2
0.00332
−2.47857
0.008
444
0.9752
1.28672
S. mombin
2
0.00332
−2.47857
0.008
C. papaya
1
0.00166
−2.7796
0.005
Bombax cieba
1
0.00166
−2.7796
0.005
602
1
1.201
Shanon Index (H)
1.201
Shanon Index (H)
1.286
Diversity (D)
9.239
Diversity (D)
12.7659
Table 2.
Plant species diversity in the homestead in Rabi season (field data, 2019).
3.2.2 Homestead agro biodiversity in the Kharif-1 season
Results showed that the plant species diversity is more in low drought homesteads and low in the high drought homesteads (Table 3).
High drought prone area
Low drought prone area
Species
Ni
Pi
In Pi
-(Pi*ln Pi)
Species
Ni
Pi
ln Pi
-(Pi*ln Pi)
Mangifera indica
171
0.299
−0.524
0.157
M. indica
104
0.219
−0.659
0.145
Artocarpus heterophyllus
13
0.023
−1.643
0.037
A. heterophyllus
8
0.017
−1.773
0.030
Psidium guava
17
0.030
−1.526
0.045
Psidium guava
19
0.040
−1.397
0.056
Lagenaria siceraria
12
0.021
−1.677
0.035
L. siceraria
22
0.046
−1.333
0.062
Azadirachta indica
52
0.091
−1.041
0.095
Spondias mombin
7
0.015
−1.831
0.027
S. mombin
12
0.021
−1.677
0.035
Ziziphus
15
0.032
−1.500
0.047
Ziziphus
14
0.025
−1.611
0.039
Moringa oleifera
11
0.023
−1.634
0.038
M. oleifera
10
0.018
−1.757
0.031
Bel(Aegle marmelos)
2
0.004
−2.375
0.010
Bel(A. marmelos)
8
0.014
−1.854
0.026
(Bambusoideae
46
0.097
−1.013
0.098
Amorphophallus paeoniifolius
41
0.072
−1.144
0.082
Citrus limonium
14
0.030
−1.530
0.045
Bamboo(Bambusoideae)
68
0.119
−0.924
0.110
Musa paradisicum
19
0.040
−1.397
0.056
Lemon(Citrus Limonium)
14
0.025
−1.611
0.039
amarindus indica
2
0.004
−2.375
0.010
Musa paradisicum
67
0.117
−0.931
0.109
Blackberry(Rubus)
7
0.015
−1.831
0.027
Punica granatum
3
0.005
−2.280
0.012
Phoenix dactylifera
5
0.011
−1.977
0.021
Momordica charantia
1
0.002
−2.757
0.005
Litchi(Litchi chinensis)
4
0.008
−2.074
0.017
Yam(Dioscorea)
15
0.026
−1.581
0.042
Citrus maxima
4
0.008
−2.074
0.017
Capsicum frutescen
7
0.012
−1.912
0.023
Syzygium jambos
3
0.006
−2.199
0.014
Luffa acutangula
5
0.009
−2.058
0.018
Swietenia species
26
0.055
−1.261
0.069
Tamarindus indica
2
0.004
−2.456
0.009
Tagetes
34
0.072
−1.144
0.082
Blackberry(Rubus)
3
0.005
−2.280
0.012
Palm(Arecaceae)
7
0.015
−1.831
0.027
P. dactylifera
13
0.023
−1.643
0.037
Rose(Rosa)
19
0.040
−1.397
0.056
Litchi(L. chinensis)
1
0.002
−2.757
0.005
Carissa carandas
2
0.004
−2.375
0.010
Mahagoni(Swietenia)
12
0.021
−1.677
0.035
Carica papaya
16
0.034
−1.472
−0.050
Marigold(Tagetes)
3
0.005
−2.280
0.012
Ccurbita
9
0.019
−1.722
0.033
Palm(Arecaceae)
3
0.005
−2.280
0.012
Annona reticulate
4
0.008
−2.074
0.017
Dalbergia sissoo
2
0.004
−2.456
0.009
Syzygium aqueum
6
0.013
−1.898
0.024
C. papaya
1
0.002
−2.757
0.005
Basellla alba
14
0.030
−1.530
0.045
Bombax cieba
1
0.002
−2.757
0.005
Ocimum sanctum
7
0.015
−1.831
0.027
Jasminum
5
0.011
−1.977
0.021
Cocos nucifera
26
0.055
−1.261
0.069
Chalta(Dillenia indica)
1
0.002
−2.676
0.006
Ficus racemosa
2
0.004
−2.375
0.010
Manilkara zapota
2
0.004
−2.375
0.010
Cascabela thevetia
2
0.004
−2.375
0.010
Total
571
Total
474
1.287
Shanon Index (H)
1.082
Shanon Index (H)
1.287
Diversity (D)
7.294
Diversity (D)
12.14
Table 3.
Plant species diversity in the homestead in Kharif-1 season (field data, 2019).
3.2.3 Homestead plant species diversity in the Kharif-2 season
It was found that homesteads of low drought areas show greater diversity than high drought area (1.287 ‹ 7.294) during Khari-2 season (Table 4). Respondents mentioned that it happened due to low rainfall and low soil moisture retention during the period.
High drought prone area
Low drought prone area
Species
Ni
Pi
In Pi
-(Pi*ln Pi)
Species
Ni
Pi
ln Pi
-(Pi*ln Pi)
Mangifera indica
125
0.22
−0.65
0.145028
M. indica
67
0.218
−0.66
0.14
Artocarpus heterophyllus
9
0.02
−1.80
0.028676
A. heterophyllus
7
0.023
−1.64
0.04
Psidium guava
15
0.03
−1.57
0.041893
Psidium guava
16
0.052
−1.28
0.07
Lagenaria siceraria
16
0.03
−1.54
0.043891
L. siceraria
15
0.049
−1.31
0.07
Azadirachta indica
46
0.08
−1.09
0.088780
Spondias mombin
5
0.016
−1.79
0.03
S. mombin
12
0.02
−1.67
0.035576
Ziziphus
8
0.026
−1.59
0.04
Ziziphus
13
0.02
−1.64
0.037740
Moringa oleifera
7
0.023
−1.64
0.04
M. oleifera
10
0.02
−1.75
0.031051
sweet gourd(Cucurbita)
6
0.019
−1.71
0.03
Bel(Aegle marmelos)
8
0.01
−1.85
0.026215
Citrus Limonium
9
0.029
−1.53
0.04
sweet gourd(Cucurbita)
6
0.01
−1.97
0.020990
Musa paradisicum
7
0.023
−1.64
0.04
Amorphophallus paeoniifolius
47
0.08
−1.08
0.089931
Ata(Annona reticulate)
3
0.01
−2.01
0.02
Colocasia esculenta
5
0.01
−2.05
0.018194
Tamarindus indica
2
0.006
−2.19
0.01
Bamboo(Bambusoideae)
65
0.12
−0.94
0.108144
Blackberry(Rubus)
7
0.023
−1.64
0.04
Lemon(Citrus Limonium)
14
0.02
−1.61
0.039844
Litchi(Litchi chinensis)
4
0.013
−1.89
0.025
Banana(Musa paradisicum)
59
0.10
−0.98
0.102562
Jambura(Citrus maxima)
4
0.013
−1.89
0.02
Ata(Annona reticulate)
2
0.01
−2.45
0.008688
Syzygium jambos
1
0.003
−2.49
0.01
Saccharum officinarum
25
0.04
−1.35
0.059988
Mahagoni(Swietenia)
14
0.045
−1.34
0.06
Bedena (Punica granatum)
3
0.01
−2.27
0.012096
Marigold(Tagetes)
29
0.094
−1.03
0.10
Momordica charantia
2
0.03
−2.45
0.008688
Phaseolus vulgaris
9
0.029
−1.53
0.04
Yam(Dioscorea)
15
0.03
−1.58
0.041893
Palm(Arecaceae)
5
0.016
−1.79
0.03
Chili (Capsicum frutescens)
7
0.01
−1.91
0.023658
Rose(Rosa)
11
0.036
−1.45
0.05
Jhinga (Luffa acutangula)
5
0.01
−2.05
0.018194
Carissa carandas
1
0.003
−2.49
0.01
Tamarind(T. indica)
2
0.00
−2.45
0.008688
(Syzygium aqueum)
6
0.019
−1.71
0.03
Blackberry(Rubus)
3
0.01
−2.27
0.012096
Papaya(Carica papaya)
13
0.042
−1.37
0.06
Phoenix dactylifera
14
0.02
−1.61
0.039844
Basella alba
7
0.023
−1.64
0.04
Litchi(L. chinensis)
2
0.00
−2.45
0.008688
Ocimum tenuifloru
7
0.023
−1.64
0.04
Jambura(C. maxima)
1
0.00
−2.75
0.004878
Jasminum
4
0.013
−1.89
0.02
Golap jam(S. jambos)
5
0.01
−2.05
0.018194
Coconut(Cocos nucifera)
22
0.071
−1.15
0.09
Mahagoni(Swietenia)
13
0.02
−1.64
0.037740
Chalta(Dillenia indica)
1
0.003
−2.49
0.01
Marigold(Tagetes)
3
0.01
−2.27
0.012096
Cestrum nocturnum
1
0.003
−2.49
0.01
P. vulgaris
2
0.00
−2.45
0.008688
Ficus racemosa
2
0.006
−2.19
0.01
Palm(Arecaceae)
4
0.01
−2.15
0.015242
Manilkara zapota
2
0.006
−2.19
0.01
Rose(Rosa)
2
0.00
−2.45
0.008688
Ghasful
5
0.016
−1.79
0.03
Sissoo(Dalbergia sissoo)
2
0.00
−2.45
0.008688
Cascabela thevetia
1
0.003
−2.49
0.01
C. carandas
2
0.00
−2.45
0.008688
Total
308
1
−59.58
1.31
Shanon Index (H)
1.082
Shanon Index (H)
1.287
Diversity (D)
7.294
Diversity (D)
12.14
Table 4.
Homestead diversity inKhari-2 (field data, 2019).
3.3 Relationship of plant species diversity with the seasons and variables
The respondents believe that it is happening due to drought (causal effects of low soil moisture, low water holding capacity of the soil, low soil fertility and low rainfall over the season). It also affects agro ecology for the production. The numbers of family member has the effect on homestead agro biodiversity followed by age, income, education, land size and farm category. According to the hypothesis there is significant difference of homestead agro biodiversity between high and low drought prone areas. The family member has the large effect on homestead agro biodiversity followed by age, income, education and farm category (Table 5).
Diversity value
Age
Income
Education
Farm category
Tenanat type
Location
member
0.134199134
38
140000
9
1
1
1
3
0.190675991
60
120000
0
1
3
1
6
0.131275168
46
72000
8
1
1
1
4
0.092691622
45
200000
1
2
1
1
4
0.087486157
42
70000
5
2
1
1
5
0.126855601
42
300000
8
2
1
1
6
0.089473684
46
300000
0
3
1
1
5
0.177253479
42
325000
10
3
3
1
5
0.260814249
60
310000
10
3
1
1
6
0.060846561
60
120000
10
1
3
2
2
0.111111111
33
35000
1
1
1
2
2
0.169117647
38
100000
1
1
3
2
5
0.070075758
53
100000
10
2
3
2
3
0.06685633
37
150000
8
2
3
2
4
0.083870968
52
175000
5
2
1
2
4
0.046444122
52
280000
0
3
3
2
4
0.109311741
50
245000
10
3
1
2
4
0.180225989
65
80000
8
3
3
2
4
r
0.25
0.15
0.16
0.08
−0.02
−0.40
0.56
Table 5.
Correlation of homestead plant diversity among the variables.
3.4 Homestead plant species diversity changing over times
As per Focus Group Discussions, the participants mentioned that plant diversity is decreasing in the high drought prone areas due to drought effects. Seventy seven percent household respondents from high drought prone areas reported that homestead plant diversity is decreasing with the increased frequency of drought (Figure 1). Only 10 percent household respondents from low drought prone areas believe that homestead plant diversity is decreasing with the influence of drought.
Figure 1.
status of homestead plant diversity in relation to farm category.
3.5 Drought impacts on the homestead production
It was found that 30 percent respondents perceived reduced plant species diversity in the high drought area. People in the low drought area are confused about the changing of agro biodiversity. About 53% people of low drought area observed extinction of some species (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Drought impacts on homestead diversity.
3.6 Testing of hypothesis
Low drought prone area tends to a greater homestead agro bio-diversity than high drought prone area. Calculated t value 0.004555 and table value with the df (2–1) (9–1) = 8 at 99% level is 2.896, i.e. the calculated t value is less than critical t value (0.004555‹ 2.896). The hypothesis is accepted and there is significant greater homestead agro biodiversity in low drought prone area (Table 6).
Homestead number
High drought prone area
Low drought prone area
H1
0.134199
0.060847
H2
0.190676
0.111111
H3
0.131275
0.169118
H4
0.092692
0.070076
H5
0.087486
0.066856
H6
0.126856
0.083871
H7
0.089474
0.046444
H8
0.177253
0.109312
H9
0.260814
0.180226
Table 6.
Species diversity (Ds) value of high drought and low drought prone area.
4. Discussion
It was found that homestead number five (medium farm) showed greater plant diversity in the high drought prone areas and homestead number seven (large farm) showed greater diversity in the low drought prone areas. A study reported that the small farm holders utilized their homesteads more efficiently [25]. The study found that the homesteads contained tree species, fruit tree species, vegetable species, spices, ornamental species, medicinal species and wild species for different uses (timber, fuel, food, medicine and esthetic). Total 43 plant species (trees, fruit, vegetables, spices, ornamental, fuel and medicinal) were found in the study areas. Similarly 43 plant species were reported in the homesteads from the central parts of Bangladesh [26]. Timber tree got more preferences followed by fruits, vegetables, spices and ornamental. The researcher reported that timber tree species have been found as the preferred species due to future capital as the wood [25]. The results showed that the homestead in the low drought prone areas represent greater plant diversity in the homesteads. Household use their homestead produces mostly for foods, fuel, medicinal purpose and cash income. One study concluded that home gardens can be a tool for conservation of biodiversity [27]. Homestead plant diversity is essentially important to cope with the climate change issues and drought. Similarly a study reported that homestead biodiversity enhance the resilience capacity of the community [28]. Another study found that diverse variety increases production especially in environmental extreme (drought, flood) situations, they maintain diversity to reduce the risks [29]. In our existence, more plant species biodiversity can secure food for the farming community. A study is also reported that it is hard in surviving severe drought frequently cause famine in farming communities [30].
5. Conclusion
Homestead is the great place for household food access, diet and nutrition. Drought affects homestead plant diversity and reduces production, availability and diversity that lead toward less supply and consumption. Drought arrest moisture and degrade the soil that support plant growth. Actually homestead provides regular bread and income in the rural areas with an effective mean for both economic and environmental well-being. People are getting good amount of subsidiary income without any extra care and effort. In managing homestead land and drought, household needs necessary technical and managerial training. In reducing drought impacts to the homestead, action research needs to be carried out on available knowledge, effective practices, water management and adoption of local varieties and knowledge in order to develop effective homestead integration. Government initiatives, community engagement and doing no harm to the environment and efficient uses of water could be great solutions for adverse effects of drought to the homestead plant diversity.
\n',keywords:"barind tract, biodiversity, drought, environment, homesteads, plant diversity",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79973.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79973.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79973",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79973",totalDownloads:2,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 10th 2021",dateReviewed:"December 5th 2021",datePrePublished:"June 21st 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"January 8th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Homestead is a great place for household food access, diet, and nutrition. Drought affects homestead plant diversity and reduces production, availability, and diversity that lead toward less supply and consumption. Drought detains moisture and degrades the soil that supports plant growth. Homestead provides regular bread and income in the rural areas with an effective means for both economic and environmental well-being. People are getting a good amount of subsidiary income without any extra care and effort. In managing homestead land and drought, the household needs necessary technical and managerial training. In reducing drought effects to the homestead, action research needs to be carried out on available knowledge, effective practices, water management, and the adoption of local varieties and knowledge to develop effective homestead integration. Government initiatives, community engagement and not harming the environment, and efficient uses of water could be great solutions for the adverse effects of drought on the homestead plant diversity.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79973",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79973",signatures:"Md. Shafiqul Islam",book:{id:"11131",type:"book",title:"Drought - Impacts and Management",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Drought - Impacts and Management",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Murat Eyvaz, Dr. Ahmed Albahnasawi, MSc. Mesut Tekbaş and M.Sc. Ercan Gürbulak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11131.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-544-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-543-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-545-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Perception of drought impacts on homestead plant diversity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Homestead plant species diversity in different seasons",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3 Relationship of plant species diversity with the seasons and variables",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.4 Homestead plant species diversity changing over times",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.5 Drought impacts on the homestead production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.6 Testing of hypothesis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Belle JA, Hlalele MB. Vulnerability assessment of agricultural drought hazard: A case of koti-se-phola community council, Thabana Morena, Mafeteng district in Lesotho. J Geogr Nat Disast. 2015;5(143):2167-0587'},{id:"B2",body:'Love B, Spaner D. Agrobiodiversity: Its value, measurement, and conservation in the context of sustainable agriculture. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture. 2007;31(2):53-82'},{id:"B3",body:'Vandermeer J, Perfecto I. Breakfast of Biodiversity: The Political Ecology of Rain Forest Destruction. Food First Books; 2013'},{id:"B4",body:'Frison EA, Cherfas J, Hodgkin T. Agricultural biodiversity is essential for a sustainable improvement in food and nutrition security. Sustainability. 2011;3:238-253'},{id:"B5",body:'Thrupp LA. Linking agricultural biodiversity and food security: The valuable role of agrobiodiversity for sustainable agriculture. International Affairs. 2000;76(2):283-297'},{id:"B6",body:'Gardner TA, Barlow J, Chazdon R, Ewers RM, Harvey CA, Peres CA, et al. Prospects for tropical forest biodiversity in a human-modified world. Ecol Lett. 2009;12:561-582. DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01294.x'},{id:"B7",body:'Reyes-García V, Vila S, Aceituno-Mata L, Calvet-Mir L, Garnatje T, Jesch A, et al. Gendered homegardens: A study in three mountain areas of the Iberian Peninsula. Econ Bot. 2010;64:235-247. DOI: 10.1007/s12231-010-9124-1'},{id:"B8",body:'Coomes OT, Ban N. Cultivated plant species diversity in home gardens of an Amazonian peasant village in northeastern Peru. Econ Bot. 2004;58:420-434'},{id:"B9",body:'Cleaveland DA, Soleri D, Smith SE. Do folk varieties have a role in sustainable agriculture? Incorporating folk varieties into the development of locally based agriculture may be the best approach. Bioscience. 1994;44:740-751'},{id:"B10",body:'FAO. The state of the world’s plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. FAO; 1998'},{id:"B11",body:'Wilkes HG. Gerplasm collections: their use, potential, social responsibility, and genetic vulnerability. In: Buxton DR et al., editors. International Crop Science I. Madison, WI: Crop Science Society of America; 1993. pp. 445-450'},{id:"B12",body:'Brush SB. Farmers\' Bounty: The Survival of Crop Diversity in the Modern World. United States: Yale University Press; 2004'},{id:"B13",body:'Pardey PG, Skovmand B, Taba S, Van Dusen ME, Wright BD. The cost of conserving maize and wheat genetic resources ex situ. In: Farmers Gene Banks and Crop Breeding: Economic Analyses of Diversity in Wheat Maize and Rice. Dordrecht: Springer; 1998. pp. 35-56'},{id:"B14",body:'FAO. Cultivating our future. sustaining the multiple functions of agricultural bio-diversity. Background Paper 1: Agricultural biodiversity. Maastricht, The Netherlands: Tech. Rep., Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nation (FAO); 1999'},{id:"B15",body:'Cardinale BJ, Duffy JE, Gonzalez A, Hooper DU, Perrings C, Venail P, et al. Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity. Nature. 2012;486(7401):59'},{id:"B16",body:'Esquinas-Alcázar J. Protecting crop genetic diversity for food security: Political, ethical and technical challenges. Nature Reviews Genetics. 2005;6(12):946'},{id:"B17",body:'Swift MJ, Izac AM, van Noordwijk M. Biodiversity and ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes—are we asking the right questions? Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 2004;104(1):113-134'},{id:"B18",body:'Baumgärtner S, Quaas MF. Managing increasing environmental risks through agro biodiversity and agrienvironmentalpolicies. Agricultural Economics. 2010;41(5):483-496'},{id:"B19",body:'Di Falco S, Perrings C. Crop genetic diversity, productivity and stability of agroecosystems. A theoretical and empirical investigation. Scottish Journal of Political Economy. 2003;50(2):207-216'},{id:"B20",body:'Zhang W, Ricketts TH, Kremen C, Carney K, Swinton SM. Ecosystem services and dis-services to agriculture. Ecological Economics. 2007;64(2):253-260'},{id:"B21",body:'Kotschi J. Agricultural biodiversity is essential for adapting to climate change. GAIA-Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society. 2007;16(2):98-101'},{id:"B22",body:'Tisdell C. Socioeconomic causes of loss of animal genetic diversity: Analysis and assessment. Ecological Economics. 2003;45(3):365-376'},{id:"B23",body:'Whittaker RH. Dominance and diversity in land plant communities: numerical relations of species express the importance of competition in community function and evolution. Science. 1965;147(3655):250-260'},{id:"B24",body:'McCune B, Grace JB, Urban DL. Analysis of Ecological Communities. Vol. 28. Gleneden Beach, OR: MjM Software Design; 2002'},{id:"B25",body:'Baul TK, Rahman MM, Moniruzzaman M, Nandi R. Status, utilization, and conservation of agrobiodiversity in farms: a case study in the northwestern region of Bangladesh. International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management. 2015;11(4):318-329'},{id:"B26",body:'Muhammed N, Masum MFH, Hossain MM, Chakma S, Oesten G, von Detten R. Floral composition and biodiversity conservation in homestead forests in Mymensingh, Bangladesh. International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management. 2011;7(4):247-257'},{id:"B27",body:'Saikia P, Khan ML. Homegardens of upper Assam, northeast India: a typical example of on farm conservation of Agarwood (Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.). International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management. 2014;10(4):262-269'},{id:"B28",body:'Sundaray JK, Bhattacharya A, Ponniah AG, Ghoshal TK, Deo AD, Sharma JP, et al. Homestead farming: A biodiverse system to enhance resilience to climate vulnerability. In: Revitalizing the Ganges Coastal Zone: Turning Science into Policy and Practices Conference Proceedings. Colombo, Sri Lanka: CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF). 600pp; 2015. p. 231'},{id:"B29",body:'Reda A, Tewelde F. Impact of invasive alien plants on biodiversity and livelihood of local communities in Tigray, Ethiopia. World Applied Sciences Journal. 2017;35(11):2364-2378'},{id:"B30",body:'Sircar S. (2019). Commercial shrimp farming in South-West Bangladesh. pub.epsilon.slu.se'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Md. Shafiqul Islam",address:"ms.du2019@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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Due to its advantages of abundant resources, less in cost, great workability and high physical properties, fly ash leads to achieving high mechanical properties. Fly ash is considered as one of the largest generated industrial solid wastes or so-called industrial by-products, around the world particularly in China, India, and USA. The characteristics of fly ash allow it to be a geotechnical material to produce geopolymer cement or concrete as an alternative of ordinary Portland cement. Many efforts are made in this direction to formulate a suitable mix design of fly ash-based geopolymer by focusing on fly ash as the main prime material. The physical properties, chemical compositions, and chemical activation of fly ash are analyzed and evaluated in this review paper. Reference has been made to different ASTM, ACI standards, and other researches work in geopolymer area.",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Aissa Bouaissi, Long Yuan Li, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah, Romisuhani Ahmad, Rafiza Abdul Razak and Zarina Yahya",authors:null},{id:"73729",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93500",title:"Solar Energy and Its Purpose in Net-Zero Energy Building",slug:"solar-energy-and-its-purpose-in-net-zero-energy-building",totalDownloads:603,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The Net Zero Energy Building is generally described as an extremely energy-efficient building in which the residual electricity demand is provided by renewable energy. Solar power is also regarded to be the most readily available and usable form of renewable electricity produced at the building site. In contrast, energy conservation is viewed as an influential national for achieving a building’s net zero energy status. This chapter aims to show the value of the synergy between energy conservation and solar energy transfer to NZEBs at the global and regional levels. To achieve these goals, both energy demand building and the potential supply of solar energy in buildings have been forecasted in various regions, climatic conditions, and types of buildings. Building energy consumption was evaluated based on a bottom-up energy model developed by 3CSEP and data inputs from the Bottom-Up Energy Analysis System (BUENAS) model under two scenarios of differing degrees of energy efficiency intention. The study results indicate that the acquisition of sustainable energy consumption is critical for solar-powered net zero energy buildings in various building styles and environments. The chapter calls for the value of government measures that incorporate energy conservation and renewable energy.",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Mostafa Esmaeili Shayan",authors:[{id:"317852",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mostafa",middleName:null,surname:"Esmaeili Shayan",slug:"mostafa-esmaeili-shayan",fullName:"Mostafa Esmaeili Shayan"}]},{id:"67105",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86279",title:"Social Innovation and Environmental Sustainability in Social Housing Policies: Learning from Two Experimental Case Studies in Italy",slug:"social-innovation-and-environmental-sustainability-in-social-housing-policies-learning-from-two-expe",totalDownloads:1011,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"This chapter critically examines approaches and solutions developed by social housing to sustainably respond to the housing emergency plaguing contemporary cities and Italian cities in particular. In a broader perspective, we also investigate how housing has become ‘difficult’ in Europe and the poorest segments of the population run the risk of having their right to housing dramatically denied. Analysing housing in terms of its procedural dimension, we focus on two Italian case studies that evoke a new way of inhabiting the city, cases in which high standards characterised social housing and yet remain accessible to all. The Sharing hotel residence in Turin and Zoia social housing in Milan combine housing with other socially innovative measures in a framework of sustainability and avant-garde construction. These are significant examples that speak to issues such as temporariness, flexibility and the coordination of measures. These two cases both pursued objectives having to do with social, planning, architectural and environmental quality, albeit each in their own way. There are by now numerous examples of social housing in Europe and these have recently attracted growing interest in Italy as well; in this country, however, such projects represent valid instances of experimentation but are not at all widespread.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Rossana Galdini and Silvia Lucciarini",authors:[{id:"281246",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Lucciarini",slug:"silvia-lucciarini",fullName:"Silvia Lucciarini"},{id:"282958",title:"Prof.",name:"Rossana",middleName:null,surname:"Galdini",slug:"rossana-galdini",fullName:"Rossana Galdini"}]},{id:"67084",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86278",title:"Comprehensive Strategy for Sustainable Housing Design",slug:"comprehensive-strategy-for-sustainable-housing-design",totalDownloads:1362,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Sustainable housing needs to be designed to maximize occupants’ well-being and minimize the environmental load. The pursuit of combining these two different aspects toward sustainability is a goal-oriented task. The science of control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks. Therefore, applying control science, we have been progressing in research on sustainable housing design. Our previous study has produced the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Based on these accomplished results, this study has comprehensively visualized the process of producing and revising the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist. Following this visualized process, also this study has concretely shown the production and revision processes of the sustainable design guidelines. The study results suggest that the comprehensive visualization can make these processes more manageable and help system designers to produce and revise the guidelines more efficiently. Furthermore, these results have led to indicating how to adjust the guidelines to different countries or regions as well as changing situations over time.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"57401",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71325",title:"Basic Schemes: Preparations for Applying Control Science to Sustainable Design",slug:"basic-schemes-preparations-for-applying-control-science-to-sustainable-design",totalDownloads:1223,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"It is the ultimate goal for humankind to deal with various problems and achieve sustainability. Control science can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks and has already produced remarkable results. Accordingly, applying control science to the task of achieving sustainability is a rational and reliable approach. In order to apply control science to sustainability issues, our first study has shown the “basic control system for sustainability” as well as the “model of sustainability.” After that, in order to identify system components of practical control systems for promoting sustainable design, we have devised “two-step preparatory work for sustainable design.” The two steps of this preparatory work are “determining the relationships between the standard human activities and sustainability” and “sustainability checkup on human activities as an object.”",book:{id:"5692",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",fullTitle:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71982",title:"Net-Zero Energy Buildings: Principles and Applications",slug:"net-zero-energy-buildings-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:2226,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Global warming and climate change are rising issues during the last couple of decades. With residential and commercial buildings being the largest energy consumers, sources are being depleted at a much faster pace in the recent decades. Recent statistics shows that 14% of humans are active participant to protect the environment with an additional 48% sympathetic but not active. In this chapter, net-zero energy buildings design tools and applications are presented that can help designers in the commercial and residential sectors design their buildings to be net-zero energy buildings. Case studies with benefits and challenges will be presented to illustrate the different designs to achieve a net-zero energy building (NZEB).",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Maher Shehadi",authors:null},{id:"57400",title:"Case Study: Detached House Designed by Following the Control System",slug:"case-study-detached-house-designed-by-following-the-control-system",totalDownloads:1548,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The previous chapter has demonstrated the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Following this control system, we have actually designed and constructed a detached house. To be concrete, the homeowner and the architects of the housing manufacture have designed the home’s parts, or elements, so that as much as possible the elements’ variables meet their desired values. The sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist have been readily accepted because the material and spatial elements are equivalent to real parts of the home. After the home started to be used, we have obtained external evaluations of the home’s sustainability performance. For example, CASBEE for Detached Houses, a comprehensive assessment system, has readily ranked the house in the highest “S.” An energy-saving performance assessment has shown that this home has reduced energy consumption by over 70%, as compared with the average home. On the other hand, the reactions of the occupants and visitors have indicated the comfort, healthiness and safety of this house. Furthermore, this home has received a sustainable housing award, especially due to its extremely high sustainability and energy-saving performance.",book:{id:"5692",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",fullTitle:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"67084",title:"Comprehensive Strategy for Sustainable Housing Design",slug:"comprehensive-strategy-for-sustainable-housing-design",totalDownloads:1362,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Sustainable housing needs to be designed to maximize occupants’ well-being and minimize the environmental load. The pursuit of combining these two different aspects toward sustainability is a goal-oriented task. The science of control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks. Therefore, applying control science, we have been progressing in research on sustainable housing design. Our previous study has produced the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Based on these accomplished results, this study has comprehensively visualized the process of producing and revising the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist. Following this visualized process, also this study has concretely shown the production and revision processes of the sustainable design guidelines. The study results suggest that the comprehensive visualization can make these processes more manageable and help system designers to produce and revise the guidelines more efficiently. Furthermore, these results have led to indicating how to adjust the guidelines to different countries or regions as well as changing situations over time.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"65804",title:"Effects of Street Geometry on Airflow Regimes for Natural Ventilation in Three Different Street Configurations in Enugu City",slug:"effects-of-street-geometry-on-airflow-regimes-for-natural-ventilation-in-three-different-street-conf",totalDownloads:1401,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Efficient natural ventilation is dependent on the micro climate conditions of an urban environment. This is affected by ambient wind flow, radiation and air temperatures. The airflow within the urban street can be cultivated into two regions. The first is a recirculation region, which forms in the near wake of each building. The Second is a ventilated region downstream of the recirculation region, formed when the street is sufficiently wide. The development of the flow into these two regions depends on geometry. This chapter looks at the impacts of street geometry on these regions of airflow cultivation in three different street configurations in high density residential settlements in Enugu city. It utilized schematic analysis of airflow regimes to identify the behaviors of flow in these street configurations relative to the height and width ratios of the street canyon. This schematic analysis can be utilized in preliminary design studies by city and building designers for justifying street dimensions and configurations in tropical regions where natural ventilation is paramount.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Jideofor Anselm Akubue",authors:[{id:"139659",title:"Dr.",name:"Akubue",middleName:"Jideofor",surname:"Anselm",slug:"akubue-anselm",fullName:"Akubue Anselm"}]},{id:"66000",title:"Fundamentals of Natural Ventilation Design within Dwellings",slug:"fundamentals-of-natural-ventilation-design-within-dwellings",totalDownloads:962,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Along with acoustical and lighting comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort upon households are essential to maintain a proper indoor environment, therefore ensuring a welfare toward the occupants. Nevertheless, sometimes, these features are neglected by building designers and constructers, causing problems such as the so-called sick building syndrome (SBS) and thermal discomfort, among others. Although there are short-term solutions such as purifiers, extractors, fans, and air conditioning, eventually these methods become not sustainable activities that consume energy and emit polluting gases such as chlorofluorocarbons. One alternative to this is natural ventilation, understood as the airflow throughout a building caused by changes of pressures naturally produced. In this chapter, the role of the early-stage building design as well as the correct occupant behavior is presented as essential to develop a naturally ventilated dwelling, which is an excellent alternative to achieve proper levels of indoor environment in a sustainable manner.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez",authors:[{id:"282172",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Oropeza-Perez",slug:"ivan-oropeza-perez",fullName:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"128",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. Portugal",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{id:"82285",title:"Parvovirus Vectors: The Future of Gene Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105085",signatures:"Megha Gupta",slug:"parvovirus-vectors-the-future-of-gene-therapy",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:38,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"79209",title:"Virtual Physiology: A Tool for the 21st Century",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99671",signatures:"Carmen Nóbrega, Maria Aires Pereira, Catarina Coelho, Isabel Brás, Ana Cristina Mega, Carla Santos, Fernando Esteves, Rita Cruz, Ana I. Faustino-Rocha, Paula A. Oliveira, João Mesquita and Helena Vala",slug:"virtual-physiology-a-tool-for-the-21st-century",totalDownloads:151,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7233",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7233.jpg",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",publishedDate:"December 5th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rita Payan-Carreira",hash:"74f4147e3fb214dd050e5edd3aaf53bc",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology",editors:[{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7144",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",publishedDate:"March 13th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",hash:"75cdacb570e0e6d15a5f6e69640d87c9",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"8524",title:"Lactation in Farm Animals",subtitle:"Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8524.jpg",slug:"lactation-in-farm-animals-biology-physiological-basis-nutritional-requirements-and-modelization",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Naceur M'Hamdi",hash:"2aa2a9a0ec13040bbf0455e34625504e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",editors:[{id:"73376",title:"Dr.",name:"Naceur",middleName:null,surname:"M'Hamdi",slug:"naceur-m'hamdi",fullName:"Naceur M'Hamdi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73376/images/system/73376.jpg",biography:"Naceur M’HAMDI is Associate Professor at the National Agronomic Institute of Tunisia, University of Carthage. He is also Member of the Laboratory of genetic, animal and feed resource and member of Animal science Department of INAT. He graduated from Higher School of Agriculture of Mateur, University of Carthage, in 2002 and completed his masters in 2006. Dr. M’HAMDI completed his PhD thesis in Genetic welfare indicators of dairy cattle at Higher Institute of Agronomy of Chott-Meriem, University of Sousse, in 2011. 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Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. 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He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334239",title:"Prof.",name:"Leung",middleName:null,surname:"Wai Keung",slug:"leung-wai-keung",fullName:"Leung Wai Keung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hong Kong",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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