\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9347",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Neuroimaging - Neurobiology, Multimodal and Network Applications",title:"Neuroimaging",subtitle:"Neurobiology, Multimodal and Network Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In vivo brain neuroimaging with cutting-edge technologies has achieved great success with high spatial and temporal resolutions. Several distinct medical imaging perspectives such as disease neurobiology, multimodal imaging techniques and applications, large-size clinical trials of neuro-oncology, and bioinformatics with illustrative examples and comprehensive summaries could expand our knowledge of neuroimaging mechanism, methodologies, and applications. This book highlights the possibility and achievement of early detection and multiple neuroimaging biomarkers based on various features for pathophysiological probing and therapeutic prevention. It examines the use of neuroimaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), electroencephalography (EEG), and near-infrared resonance spectroscopy (NIRS) with specific and innovative biomedical applications. It provides thorough reviews, accurate descriptions, and confirmative evidences of many related important research topics together with up-to-date imaging network management.",isbn:"978-1-78984-431-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-430-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-077-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83577",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"neuroimaging-neurobiology-multimodal-and-network-applications",numberOfPages:140,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a3479e76c6ac538aac76409c9efb7e41",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",publishedDate:"June 24th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9347.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4398,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 19th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 28th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 27th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 15th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 15th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259308/images/system/259308.jpeg",biography:"Yongxia Zhou obtained a Ph.D. in Biomedical Imaging from the University of Southern California. Her research interest is radiology and neuroscience technology and application. She had been trained as an imaging scientist at several prestigious institutes including Columbia University, the University of Pennsylvania, and the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Her research focuses on multi-modal neuroimaging integration such as MRI/PET and EEG/MEG instrumentation to make the best use of multiple modalities for better interpretation of underlying disease mechanisms. She is the author and editor of more than twelve books for well-known publishers including IntechOpen and Nova Science. She has published more than 100 papers and abstracts in many reputed international journals and conferences and served as reviewer and editor for several academic associations.",institutionString:"University of Southern California",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"University of Southern California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"213",title:"Neurobiology",slug:"life-sciences-neuroscience-neurobiology"}],chapters:[{id:"71941",title:"Targeting Neuroglial Sodium Channels in Neuroinflammatory Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92127",slug:"targeting-neuroglial-sodium-channels-in-neuroinflammatory-diseases",totalDownloads:778,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Hodgkin-Huxley model, at its 66th anniversary, remains a footing stone of neuroscience, which describes how the action potential (AP) is generated. As the core player of AP initiation, voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs) are always considered to be required for electrogenesis in excitable cells. Cells which are not traditionally been considered to be excitable, including glial cells, also express VGSCs in physiological as well as pathological conditions. The dysfunction of glial VGSCs is seemingly not related to abnormal excitation of neurons, but of importance in the astrogliosis and M1 polarization of microglia, which could induce refractory neuroinflammatory diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, stroke, epilepsy, and Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. Therefore, in this chapter, we aim to describe the physiological and pathological roles of VGSCs contributing to the activity of glial cells and discuss whether VGSC subtypes could be used as a novel drug target, with an eye toward therapeutic implications for neuroinflammatory diseases.",signatures:"Yu Yao, Xiaoli Wang, Shuzhang Zhang, Zhiping Zhang, Wei Wang, Yudan Zhu, Jiwei Cheng, Guoyi Li and Jie Tao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71941",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71941",authors:[{id:"279620",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jie",surname:"Tao",slug:"jie-tao",fullName:"Jie Tao"},{id:"279632",title:"Dr.",name:"Yudan",surname:"Zhu",slug:"yudan-zhu",fullName:"Yudan Zhu"},{id:"279639",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiwei",surname:"Cheng",slug:"jiwei-cheng",fullName:"Jiwei Cheng"},{id:"306073",title:"Ms.",name:"Xiaoli",surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaoli-wang",fullName:"Xiaoli Wang"},{id:"306075",title:"Mr.",name:"Zhiping",surname:"Zhang",slug:"zhiping-zhang",fullName:"Zhiping Zhang"},{id:"306078",title:"Dr.",name:"Guoyi",surname:"Li",slug:"guoyi-li",fullName:"Guoyi Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"72289",title:"Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome in Older Adults: The Rehabilitation Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92570",slug:"hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-hpa-axis-and-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-in-older-adults-the-rehabilitat",totalDownloads:639,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is a long-term and debilitating condition that regards as a neurological disease. Its symptoms include profound physical and mental fatigue (characteristically made worse by exertion), muscle and joint pain, disturbed sleep, and both concentration and memory problems. CFS is a kind of human stress-related disorders that are characterized by alterations in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity. Investigation of abnormal activity of the HPA axis in various neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders can date back at least 60 years, and its relation to CFS had been reported in the early 1990s. This chapter further disseminated updated evidence for disruption of HPA function in CFS, with the explanation on the relationship between cytokines and HPA activities. Moreover, very limited literature had addressed the importance of rehabilitation to them . This chapter addresses this gap by sharing a pilot rehabilitation outcome on a single-blinded randomized control trial with a parallel group experimental design in the application of activity scheduling (AS) program of occupational therapy for a group of community-dwelling older adults with CFS. The primary objective is to study the outcome of physical functioning of individual participants. The second objective is to study the outcome of AS on impact of caring role through assessing individual caregivers’ perceived burden in care. The third objective is to study the time that needed in taking care; individuals’ perception of enjoyment and achievement in their participated activities will be evaluated. There was a significant effect of AS on the physical functioning of participants as measured by Functional Independence Measure (FIM), as the primary outcome measure, in experimental group, with Wilk’s λ = 0.72, F (2,57) = 18.75, p < 0.001. Moreover, in secondary outcome measures, there is a significant decrease in the impact of caring role as reflected by their perceived burden as measured by the Chinese Zarit Burden Interview (CZBI) in caring for experimental group, with Wilk’s λ = 0.72, F (2,97) = 18.75, p < 0.001. Another study set out to examine the effect of time on caring activities for those recruited couples in AS group. There was significant effect of AS on caring activities with Wilk’s λ = 0.71, F (2,97) = 12.47, p < 0.001. With proper coaching and regular facilitation regarding AS, activity participation in older adults with CFS can be greatly enhanced. Behavioral intervention, such as AS, can supplement therapeutic treatment or may lead to decline in CFS symptoms.",signatures:"Frank Ho-Yin Lai, Maria Uscinska and Elaine Wai-hung Yan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72289",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72289",authors:[{id:"285336",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Uscinska",slug:"maria-uscinska",fullName:"Maria Uscinska"},{id:"303929",title:"Dr.",name:"Frank",surname:"Lai",slug:"frank-lai",fullName:"Frank Lai"},{id:"315509",title:"Ms.",name:"Elaine",surname:"Yan",slug:"elaine-yan",fullName:"Elaine Yan"}],corrections:null},{id:"70459",title:"Neuroimaging Findings for Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) in Adults: Critical Evaluation and Future Directions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90400",slug:"neuroimaging-findings-for-developmental-coordination-disorder-dcd-in-adults-critical-evaluation-and-",totalDownloads:843,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Approximately 75% of those diagnosed with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) exhibit motor problems in adulthood. Neuroimaging studies promise to reveal the endophenotypes of mature brain systems affected by DCD. The aim here was to review these publications. Bibliographic searches identified papers published before June 2019. Neuroimaging results revealed: functional abnormalities in the prefrontal, frontal and occipital regions, superior parietal lobe and cerebellum; structural white matter abnormalities in the corticospinal tract, internal capsule and inferior and superior longitudinal fasciculi; significantly reduced interhemispheric cortical inhibition within the primary motor cortex (hPMC); lack of increased hPMC activity during a motor imagery task and a reduced leftwards brain asymmetry for speech. These results suggest complex endophenotypes for adults with DCD (DCDAs). However, the studies have shortcomings. For instance, all relied upon small and unrepresentative samples. Gender and age were not tested systematically. The effects of many co-occurring disorders were not controlled. Most studies relied on between group comparisons, which, given the heterogeneity of DCD, may obscure the results for underrepresented cases. Overall, the young field of neuroimaging studies of DCDAs reported interesting results; however, there is an urgent need for investigations to address these shortcomings. Future research directions, including cutting-edge neuroimaging techniques and imaging genetics, are discussed.",signatures:"Agnieszka Anna Reid",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70459",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70459",authors:[{id:"255039",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnieszka",surname:"Reid",slug:"agnieszka-reid",fullName:"Agnieszka Reid"}],corrections:null},{id:"70477",title:"Electroencephalogram Based Biomarkers for Detection of Alzheimer’s Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90015",slug:"electroencephalogram-based-biomarkers-for-detection-of-alzheimer-s-disease",totalDownloads:777,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is an age-related progressive and neurodegenerative disorder, which is characterized by loss of memory and cognitive decline. It is the main cause of disability among older people. The rapid increase in the number of people living with AD and other forms of dementia due to the aging population represents a major challenge to health and social care systems worldwide. Degeneration of brain cells due to AD starts many years before the clinical manifestations become clear. Early diagnosis of AD will contribute to the development of effective treatments that could slow, stop, or prevent significant cognitive decline. Consequently, early diagnosis of AD may also be valuable in detecting patients with dementia who have not obtained a formal early diagnosis, and this may provide them with a chance to access suitable healthcare facilities. An early diagnosis biomarker capable of measuring brain cell degeneration due to AD would be valuable. Potentially, electroencephalogram (EEG) can play a valuable role in the early diagnosis of AD. EEG is noninvasive and low cost, and provides valuable information about brain dynamics in AD. Thus, EEG-based biomarkers may be used as a first-line decision-support tool in AD diagnosis and could complement other AD biomarkers.",signatures:"Ali H. Husseen Al-Nuaimi, Shaymaa Al-Juboori, Emmanuel Jammeh, Lingfen Sun and Emmanuel Ifeachor",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70477",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70477",authors:[{id:"292499",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali H Husseen",surname:"Al-Nuaimi",slug:"ali-h-husseen-al-nuaimi",fullName:"Ali H Husseen Al-Nuaimi"},{id:"293686",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"Ifeachor",slug:"emmanuel-ifeachor",fullName:"Emmanuel Ifeachor"},{id:"293687",title:"Dr.",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"Jammeh",slug:"emmanuel-jammeh",fullName:"Emmanuel Jammeh"},{id:"293692",title:"Dr.",name:"Lingfen",surname:"Sun",slug:"lingfen-sun",fullName:"Lingfen Sun"},{id:"313604",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaymaa",surname:"Al-Juboori",slug:"shaymaa-al-juboori",fullName:"Shaymaa Al-Juboori"}],corrections:null},{id:"70592",title:"Measurement and Evaluation of Brain Activity for Train Drivers Using Wearable NIRS",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90499",slug:"measurement-and-evaluation-of-brain-activity-for-train-drivers-using-wearable-nirs",totalDownloads:761,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Human errors of train drivers may cause serious damage. Therefore, research on human error prevention has been conducted by many researchers. In this context, brain activity measurement of train drivers using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) has been conducted to monitor the condition of train drivers. In this study, we developed a compact wireless wearable NIRS that can be used in natural environments. The wearable NIRS has been used to measure train drivers’ brain function using a train driving simulator. Experimental results showed that brain activity of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) increased when the driver made braking operation. The experiment for train driving with an accidental event was carried out to evaluate the relation between drivers’ attention and the brain activity. As a result, there was a difference in brain activity between with and without prior notice. Results showed that the increased attention of the train driver can be shown in the NIRS signal from the outer part of the prefrontal cortex.",signatures:"Hitoshi Tsunashima and Keita Aibara",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70592",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70592",authors:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima"},{id:"309633",title:"Mr.",name:"Keito",surname:"Aibara",slug:"keito-aibara",fullName:"Keito Aibara"}],corrections:null},{id:"68893",title:"Imaging and Neuro-Oncology Clinical Trials of the National Clinical Trials Network (NCTN)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89065",slug:"imaging-and-neuro-oncology-clinical-trials-of-the-national-clinical-trials-network-nctn-",totalDownloads:600,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Imaging in neuro-oncology clinical trials can be used to validate patient eligibility, stage at presentation, response to therapy, and radiation therapy. A number of National Clinical Trials Network trials illustrating this are presented. Through the Imaging and Radiation Oncology Core’s quality assurance processes for data acquisition and review, there are uniform data and imaging sets for review. Once the trial endpoints have been analyzed and published, the clinical trial information including pathology, imaging, and radiation therapy objects can be moved to a public archive for use by investigators interested in translational science and the application of new informatics tools for trial analysis.",signatures:"Thomas J. FitzGerald, Maryann Bishop-Jodoin, Fran Laurie, Richard Hanusik, Matthew Iandoli, Kathryn Karolczuk, Sandra Kessel, Fred Prior, Joel Saltz, Ashish Sharma, Michael Knopp, Mark Rosen, Ying Xiao, David Followill, Jeff Michalski, M. Giulia Cicchetti and Janaki Moni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68893",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68893",authors:[{id:"241806",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas J.",surname:"FitzGerald",slug:"thomas-j.-fitzgerald",fullName:"Thomas J. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1292.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"69396",title:"Soybean Amino Acids in Health, Genetics, and Evaluation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89497",slug:"soybean-amino-acids-in-health-genetics-and-evaluation",body:'\nSoybean is one of the world’s most economically and nutritionally important crops. In 2018, soybean were 61% of international oilseed production with 397.9 tons harvested worldwide [1]. The United States and Brazil were the largest producers at 4545 and 4299 million bushels, respectively, with China being the largest importer of U.S. whole soybeans valued over $3 billion U.S. [2, 3]. Soybean products, namely meal and oil, are popular in a myriad of industries for their versatility and utility. Soybean oil provides the most versatility with uses in fuel, solvents, candles, cosmetics, construction, and foam. However, soybean meal is the driving factor for 70% of the plant’s value with 97% of all U.S. soybean meal being used for animal feed [4]. As such, an enormous portion of soybean’s importance lies with its nutritional capabilities for livestock and humans.
\nNutritionally speaking, soybeans are a highly valued protein source. Proteins are a crucial macromolecule needed in the diets of human and livestock. However, the true significance of soybean protein is due to its well-balanced amino acid profile that aligns with dietary needs of humans and animals [5]. Amino acids are the functional subunits of proteins that, when linked together in different orders, generate the variety of proteins critical to life. Amino acids are also important intermediates for many biosynthesis pathways [6]. Deficiencies in single or multiple amino acids can negatively impact an individual’s growth and development [7, 8]. Intriguingly, an excess of certain amino acids has also been shown to worsen feed intake, nitrogen efficiency, and growth rate in livestock [9, 10, 11]. The importance of amino acid levels on human health has also been well documented [12, 13].
\nAmino acids are characterized by having amine (−NH2) and carboxyl (−COOH) functional groups as well as a “R-group” that is unique to each amino acid [14]. Amino acids are abundant in both proteinogenic (protein-incorporated) and non-proteinogenic forms [15]. The 20 common, proteinogenic amino acids are generally the focus of research in soybeans as they are the defining nutritive feature. Of those twenty, nine amino acids are essential for humans to consume. Livestock usually require these same amino acids from feed and might require others because of their biological systems [16]. Soybeans contain some level of all nine essential amino acids which creates a suitable nutritional foundation for livestock feed and human food.
\nEssential amino acids are ones that living organisms are unable to biosynthesize themselves and must obtain from their food source [7, 12, 16]. Therefore, in this term, “essential” refers to the amino acid requirements in dietary ingredients. The nine standard essential amino acids for humans present in soybean are: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine [17]. Arginine is regularly considered an essential amino acid for fish, poultry and sometimes swine due to absent or deficient urea cycles [9, 16]. Poultry and reptiles also require dietary glycine because of differing waste excretion pathways [16]. While crude protein content is normally recognized as the driving nutritional factor for soybean meal, these essential amino acids provide true utility.
\nIt has long been recommended that protein quality is based upon essential amino acid content. However, for many reasons, animal feed and human food markets have only recently begun assessing accordingly [5, 18, 19]. Equipment required for accurate amino acid measurement and the diversity of markets for amino acids makes it difficult for supply chain evaluators like elevator operators to appraise amino acid content on site. To some degree, the well-balanced soybean amino acid profile also devalues the need to measure individual amino acid levels. Since all essential amino acids are present, less attention is paid to deficient amino acids such as methionine and tryptophan [17, 20].
\nDeficiencies in soybean’s essential amino acid profile has led to a large section of the livestock industry focusing on feed mixing and supplementation. Rationing with other feed sources such as cereal grain and synthetic amino acid augmentation can effectively resolve the issue. Although, this comes with economic and environmental problems. Supplementing amino acids adds costs to farmers. For example, the average cost for amino acids supplementation for dairy farmers is 20 cents per head per day [21]. Maximizing crude protein for a growth limiting factor also negatively impacts livestock nitrogen-use-efficiency and environmental nitrogen outputs [8, 22]. Synthetic amino acid production can produce hazardous environmental waste and synthetic methionine, the most limiting soybean amino acid for poultry, has also been banned for organic poultry production [20, 23]. Movement towards sustainable agriculture will pressure the feed industry to alter how soybean meal is enhanced for essential amino acid livestock maximization. Furthermore, the increasing popularity of meat-less diets in humans will create new markets for soybean’s well-balanced amino acid profile.
\nNonessential amino acids should not be misconstrued as unimportant amino acids. Of the 20 proteinogenic amino acids, those considered nonessential are still necessary for living organisms. Healthy organisms are able to biosynthesize them and are not required from food and feed consumption. The 20 standard nonessential amino acids for humans found in soybean are: arginine, alanine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamine, glutamic acid, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine [24, 25, 26]. As previously mentioned, the necessity of amino acids such as arginine and glycine can differ amongst species. Some nonessential amino acids are also affected by the presence and amounts of essential amino acids.
\nCysteine not provided from food consumption is directly biosynthesized from methionine via trans-sulfuration [16, 27, 28, 29, 30]. Consequently, if cysteine is not provided in the diet, then enough methionine must be provided to compensate for both amino acid needs. For that reason, feed research for poultry occasionally measures methionine and cysteine jointly [10, 31, 32]. Tyrosine is also directly formed from phenylalanine via hydroxylation [16, 29, 33]. Other amino acids like arginine, glycine, and proline can be required from the diet when animals are young, old, sick, or otherwise deficient in body protein regulation. As human and livestock diets become more sustainably plant-based, it will become more important to evaluate nonessential amino acids, specifically the ones immediately affected by essential amino acids.
\nThe two proteinogenic sulfur-containing amino acids, methionine and cysteine, are critical to evaluating soybean meal as food and feed. While present in soybean, methionine and cysteine levels are both inadequate for consumer needs [8, 20, 24]. Similar to research determinations, the nutritional requirements for methionine and cysteine intake are often grouped together as overall sulfur consumption from protein. Adult humans are recommended to intake 910–1120 mg methionine and cysteine (based on body weight) per day [13]. For livestock, sulfur amino acids recommendations can vary based on species, age, end-use, and diet formulation. The importance of dietary sulfur amino acids for livestock is greatly emphasized in literature, especially with soybean meal as base feed [8, 20, 34, 35].
\nMethionine and cysteine are vital to biological functions because of the sulfur contained in their R-groups and versatility in macromolecule synthesis. Methionine is well-known for being the typical initiating amino acid for protein synthesis and has hydrophobic properties when incorporated into proteins [36]. These hydrophobic properties usually result in methionine incorporation within the core of proteins. However, certain proteins have surface-exposed methionine susceptible to oxidation that is associated with age-related disease [30, 37, 38]. S-adenosylmethionine, a methionine metabolism intermediate, is widely-used with functions in methylation as well as amine, methylene, and sulfur atom donation [30, 39, 40]. Methionine is especially important for poultry production as birds have exceedingly high sulfur amino acid requirements, and low methionine levels can negatively affect growth rate, carcass yield, fat content, and disease immunity [41, 42, 43]. Cysteine’s ability to form disulfide bonds makes it incredibly important to tertiary protein structure and can occur with and without enzyme interactions [30, 44]. Cysteine is involved with keratin and feather production in poultry and deficiencies have been correlated to poor breast muscle development [45, 46]. Swine also need higher amounts of cysteine as they age to compensate for body maintenance [29, 47].
\nSoybean has an extensive cultivated history dating back thousands of years to its country of origin, China.
The major soybean storage proteins are 11S (glycinin) and 7S (conglycinin) and provide the bulk of amino acids with limited non-proteinogenic amino acids in seed [54, 55, 56]. By increasing 11S and 7S quantity, more protein can ultimately be present in food and feed. Overemphasis on crude protein content can have negative ramifications on overall protein quality, specifically deficient amino acids. While an increase in protein content would theoretically entail an increase in amino acids including methionine and cysteine [57], the opposite effect has been more notable [58, 59]. Molecular breeding techniques have recently improved the understanding of amino acid genomic regulation. Multiple quantitative trait loci (QTL) studies have been performed to identify genomic regions that control amino acids levels in soybean seed [60, 61, 62, 63, 64]. A myriad of QTL’s were found to create amino acid phenotypic variation. Individual amino acids had reoccurring or proximal QTL’s discovered such as Satt 518 [60], ss107913002 [61], and BARC-048619 [62] for glycine and threonine. QTL’s for methionine and cysteine were also discovered which could lead to valuable improvements for soybean livestock feed [60, 61, 62, 63, 64]. Other genomic studies such as genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and genetic diversity analyses would further improve genetic understanding.
\nGenetic engineering experiments such as genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and gene editing are also promising avenues for improving amino acid profiles of soybeans. Compared to conventionally bred varieties, transgenic soybeans face additional adversity from registration requirements and public opinion. Transgenic efforts generally have one of three targets: magnifying biosynthesis genes, adjusting biosynthesis regulation, and modifying storage proteins. The earliest example would be a Brazil nut gene transfer in 1992. This successfully increased protein content and methionine biosynthesis, however a major food allergen was also transferred making commercialization impossible [65]. Expressing zein proteins from corn has also been shown to increase sulfur-containing amino acids levels in soybean [66, 67]. Altering biosynthesis feedback regulation amplified both non-proteinogenic and proteogenic lysine by circumventing normal enzymatic pathways [68]. Tryptophan in soybean also exhibited increased non-proteinogenic levels when a feedback-insensitive enzyme was transferred [25]. While soybean is not deficient in lysine or tryptophan, corn is deficient in both. By increasing lysine and tryptophan concentrations, soybean becomes an even more useful feed additive to corn rations. Even with limited research on modifying overall amino acids profiles in soybeans, modifying 11S and 7S storage proteins ratios [69] or silencing their expression entirely [70] has displayed increased amino acids levels. Similarly, a study using irradiated mutant soybeans lacking storage proteins as breeding parents demonstrated increased non-proteinogenic amino acids contents [54]. In addition, further research should be conducted to determine the bioavailability and digestibility of increased non-proteinogenic amino acids in soybean.
\nAmino acids concentrations in soybean are not only affected by their genetic potential. Agronomic properties greatly impact the final levels of amino acids. Agronomy encompasses all aspects of crop production including environmental effects, climatic variables, and abiotic factors. Perhaps the most considered agronomic factor is soil nutrient availability. Insufficient soil nutrient levels of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorous, sulfur, calcium, and magnesium create poor amino acid profiles in soybean plants [71]. Increased phosphorous rates have been shown to increase the percentage of methionine and tryptophan in seed but had no effect on protein content percentage [72]. Applications of sulfur, phosphorous, and nitrogen (individual and combined) produced a variety of different methionine and cysteine seed concentrations [73]. Sulfur deficiencies were also shown to inhibit the production of 11S proteins while almost eliminating methionine and cysteine in 7S proteins [74]. It is becoming more popular to also apply biological substances such as amino acids to plants through foliar and seed application. Amino acid uptake by soybean and wheat have been proven, and improved soybean growth rates and antioxidant effects have also occurred [75, 76]. Further research should be conducted to determine if biofortification solutions are possible through amino acid application.
\nAmino acid variation has also been shown to occur across environments [24, 59]. Specific correlations have emerged in response to temperature, solar radiation, and rainfall. One study shows that increased temperature leads to increased concentrations of all proteinogenic amino acids [77], while another concludes that only methionine and cysteine increase alongside temperature [78]. Increased solar radiation and greater available water appeared to have a negative relationship with amino acid content [77]. These favorable conditions would increase yield which has been shown to have a negative correlation with overall protein content [57]. The multitude of agronomic factors that affect amino acid profiles in soybean make it exceedingly important to compensate for variables when researching.
\nThe diversity in food, feed, and industrial used for soybean require the whole seed or seed components to be processed. Processing can affect the nutritional value of soybean protein and presence of amino acids in food and feed. Processing procedures can either separate seed components for different purposes or convert the entire seed into a product (usually human food). Some human soy foods such as edamame and soybean sprouts need little to no processing. Others including soymilk, tofu, natto, and soy sauce involve more processing. Soymilk and tofu processing are interconnected. Soymilk is a water-extract of whole or crushed soybeans that is coagulated and pressed into tofu [48]. While not all seed proteins convert into protein in tofu, 11S/7S storage protein ratios have been shown to be both positively and negatively correlated with tofu hardness [79, 80]. Natto is a soy food created by fermenting whole soybeans with
Soybean meal processing also impacts the level of amino acids in livestock feed. The first step in soybean meal processing is essentially separating protein from oil. A variety of methods exist including solvent extraction, screw pressing, and extruding [48, 82, 83]. All three processes have three final products: oil, meal (usually toasted to lessen anti-nutritional factors), and hulls. Over processing of solvent extracted soymeal has been shown to decrease lysine, cysteine, and arginine levels [84, 85]. Protein solubility and dispersibility measurements may be a useful indicator of over processing [86, 87]. Soybean hulls are sometimes added to livestock feed for additional fiber, however an increase in hull/meal ratios decrease the digestibility of amino acids [88]. While soybean is renowned for its protein and amino acid content, actual nutritional values can be decreased through certain processing methods.
\nAll previously mentioned aspects of soybean production in regard to amino acid levels and human and animal nutrition depend on a single common denominator: amino acid quantification. Amino acids must be reliably, effectively, and accurately identified, measured and evaluated. A Google Scholar search of “amino acid analysis” will display over 1 million results. Several reviews have been published regarding the development of amino acid analysis [89, 90, 91]. In general, contemporary analysis of amino acids from any source will be performed by chromatography or near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy. Chromatography is the common method with specific techniques including ion exchange chromatography (IEC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and gas chromatography (GC). HPLC is the more validated method for soybean amino acid analysis. It is more efficient than IEC, and it does not require the transformation into volatiles like GC [91, 92, 93, 94]. Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) is a more recent addition to amino acid analysis, and it has the potential to drastically improve the efficiency in soybean feed evaluation [19]. The inability to actually measure amino acid levels is main hindrance for NIRS amino acid analysis. NIRS methods must be developed from a calibration set of raw data (often from HPLC) [95, 96, 97]. Nonetheless, efficiency improvements should persuade researchers to continually explore future NIRS amino acid analysis applications.
\nSoybean is a valuable source of protein and amino acids for humans and livestock. Soybean’s well-balanced amino acid profile provides all essential amino acids as well as most nonessential. However, there is much room for nutritional improvement. Proteinogenic sulfur-containing amino acids, methionine and cysteine, are deficient in soybean and are especially needed in livestock rations. Increased levels of these amino acids would augment soybean meal value and lessen the need for synthetic amino acid supplements. Breeding efforts have made little progress in adjusting amino acid profiles thus far, however significant developments in understanding genomic control regions promise future success. Genetic engineering efforts have shown promising amino acid improvements, but regulations and public opinion made commercialization difficult. New gene-editing technology could be the key to unlocking true nutritional improvement.
\nAgronomic properties and processing methods both impact the final quantities of amino acids available to humans and livestock. Understanding these impacts are essential to improve the nutritional quality of soybeans. Amino acid evaluation through HPLC provides reliable and efficient quantification, yet even quicker measurements are possible through NIRS. As the world’s population continues to grow, soybeans will be essential to both human and livestock for amino acid requirements. Wholesome approaches that understand the complexities of amino acids in soybean will be required to maximize overall success and feed the world with balance soy proteins.
\nThe authors would like to acknowledge Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University’s Open Access Subvention Fund for funding the publishing fee.
\nThe authors declare there is no conflict of interest.
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\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
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\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
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\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
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Maldonado, Humberto Rodriguez-Fuentes, Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras and Julia Mariana Márquez Reyes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8939.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210702",title:"Dr.",name:"Shashank Shekhar",middleName:null,surname:"Solankey",slug:"shashank-shekhar-solankey",fullName:"Shashank Shekhar Solankey"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8308",title:"Agricultural Economics",subtitle:"Current Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"138b8e4117a40c74fc41ec72d552fa9f",slug:"agricultural-economics-current-issues",bookSignature:"Surendra N. Kulshreshtha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8308.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37057",title:"Dr.",name:"Surendra N.",middleName:null,surname:"Kulshreshtha",slug:"surendra-n.-kulshreshtha",fullName:"Surendra N. Kulshreshtha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6265",title:"Automation in Agriculture",subtitle:"Securing Food Supplies for Future Generations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"397d9aa9d63ecac6048c1c2274f35704",slug:"automation-in-agriculture-securing-food-supplies-for-future-generations",bookSignature:"Stephan Hussmann",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6265.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6250",title:"Prof. Dr.-Ing.",name:"Stephan",middleName:null,surname:"Hussmann",slug:"stephan-hussmann",fullName:"Stephan Hussmann"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5227",title:"Urban Agriculture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"722ebe60b63f7c01577d063a3e39c36a",slug:"urban-agriculture",bookSignature:"Mohamed Samer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5227.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"175050",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Samer",slug:"mohamed-samer",fullName:"Mohamed Samer"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:6,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"57703",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71582",title:"The Fourth Industrial Revolution and Precision Agriculture",slug:"the-fourth-industrial-revolution-and-precision-agriculture",totalDownloads:3050,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"The Fourth Industrial Revolution will see the convergence of artificial intelligence and data technology as a new solution to address industrial and social problems across the globe, by integrating cyber and physical fields. The Fourth Industrial Revolution will send a ripple effect of far-reaching repercussions throughout the labor-intensive field of agriculture. Combining artificial intelligence and big data will evolve into a high-tech industry that operates itself. These technologies allow for precision agriculture, such as yield monitoring, diagnosing insect pests, measuring soil moisture, diagnosing harvest time, and monitoring crop health status. In particular, the Internet of things (IoT) will measure the temperature, humidity, and amount of sunlight in production farms, making it possible for remote control via mobile devices. It will not only boost the production of the farms but also add to their value.",book:{id:"6265",slug:"automation-in-agriculture-securing-food-supplies-for-future-generations",title:"Automation in Agriculture",fullTitle:"Automation in Agriculture - Securing Food Supplies for Future Generations"},signatures:"Jehoon Sung",authors:[{id:"210240",title:"Dr.",name:"Jehoon",middleName:null,surname:"Sung",slug:"jehoon-sung",fullName:"Jehoon Sung"}]},{id:"59242",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73622",title:"Review of Variable-Rate Sprayer Applications Based on Real- Time Sensor Technologies",slug:"review-of-variable-rate-sprayer-applications-based-on-real-time-sensor-technologies",totalDownloads:2092,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Precision variable rate spray is one of the research hotspots in the field of modern agriculture spraying applications. Variable rate spraying of the canopy allows growers to apply adjusted volume rate of pesticides to the target, based on canopy size, and to apply plant protection products in an economical and environmentally sound manner. In the field of pesticide application, knowledge of the geometrical characteristics of plantations will guarantee a better adjustment of the dosage of the agrochemicals applied. This technology is integrated with intelligent real-time sensors, which have a high potential for agricultural precision spray applications. This book chapter presents the foundations and applications in agriculture of the primary systems used for real-time spray target detection of the geometrical characterization of tree plantations. Systems based on infrared, ultrasonic, light detection and ranging (LIDAR), and stereo vision sensors were discussed, respectively, on their performances to detect spray targets. Among them, laser scanners and stereo vision systems are probably the most promising and complementary techniques for achieving three-dimensional (3D) pictures and maps of plants and canopies. The advantages of data fusion applied in real-time target detection and its accuracy in density estimation of the plants were stressed.",book:{id:"6265",slug:"automation-in-agriculture-securing-food-supplies-for-future-generations",title:"Automation in Agriculture",fullTitle:"Automation in Agriculture - Securing Food Supplies for Future Generations"},signatures:"Zhihong Zhang, Xiaoyang Wang, Qinghui Lai and Zhaoguo Zhang",authors:[{id:"227982",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhihong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"zhihong-zhang",fullName:"Zhihong Zhang"},{id:"239622",title:"Mr.",name:"Xiaoyang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaoyang-wang",fullName:"Xiaoyang Wang"},{id:"239624",title:"Prof.",name:"Qinghui",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"qinghui-lai",fullName:"Qinghui Lai"},{id:"239625",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhaoguo",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"zhaoguo-zhang",fullName:"Zhaoguo Zhang"}]},{id:"71024",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91133",title:"Implication of Urban Agriculture and Vertical Farming for Future Sustainability",slug:"implication-of-urban-agriculture-and-vertical-farming-for-future-sustainability",totalDownloads:1882,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Urban agriculture (UA) is defined as the production of agricultural goods (crop) and livestock goods within urban areas like cities and towns. In the modern days, the urbanization process has raised a question on the sustainable development and growing of urban population. UA has been claimed to contribute to urban waste recycling, efficient water use and energy conservation, reduction in air pollution and soil erosion, urban beautification, climate change adaptation and resilience, disaster prevention, and ecological and social urban sustainability. Therefore, UA contributes to the sustainability of cities in various ways—socially, economically, and environmentally. An urban farming technology that involves the large-scale agricultural production in the urban surroundings is the vertical farming (VF) or high-rise farming technology. It enables fast growth and production of the crops by maintaining the environmental conditions and nutrient solutions to crop based on hydroponics technology. Vertical farms are able to grow food year-round because they maintain consistent growing conditions regardless of the weather outside and are much less vulnerable to climate changes. This promises a steady flow of products for the consumers and a consistent income for growers. Various advantages of VF over traditional farming, such as reduced farm inputs and crop failures and restored farmland, have enabled scientists to implement VF on a large scale.",book:{id:"8939",slug:"urban-horticulture-necessity-of-the-future",title:"Urban Horticulture",fullTitle:"Urban Horticulture - Necessity of the Future"},signatures:"Anwesha Chatterjee, Sanjit Debnath and Harshata Pal",authors:[{id:"312477",title:"Dr.",name:"Harshata",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"harshata-pal",fullName:"Harshata Pal"},{id:"316680",title:"Dr.",name:"Anwesha",middleName:null,surname:"Chatterjee",slug:"anwesha-chatterjee",fullName:"Anwesha Chatterjee"},{id:"316681",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanjit",middleName:null,surname:"Debnath",slug:"sanjit-debnath",fullName:"Sanjit Debnath"}]},{id:"64696",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82450",title:"Date Palm Value Chain Analysis and Marketing Opportunities for the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Countries",slug:"date-palm-value-chain-analysis-and-marketing-opportunities-for-the-gulf-cooperation-council-gcc-coun",totalDownloads:3572,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"In order to develop a sustainable date palm production system in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries of the Arabian Peninsula, an analysis of the date value chain in these countries was undertaken. Through the mapping of the chain, the overall objective was to identify the processes where values are created and how they are distributed among stakeholders along the entire date palm value chain. The method used in this analysis was based on an assessment of the data gathered from the multi-stakeholder surveys implemented in the three case studies of the GCC countries: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), Oman, and Kuwait. The empirical findings reveal several problems and constraints that might affect the future of the GCC date palm sector. Therefore, development of a competitive supply date palm chain (both market and agribusiness development) could provide a greater contribution to the GCC economy if producers paid more attention to marketing of this very important food commodity. Hence, date palm production is no longer a way of life but nowadays is considered as an investment option and source of revenues for many stakeholders if the GCC region.",book:{id:"8308",slug:"agricultural-economics-current-issues",title:"Agricultural Economics",fullTitle:"Agricultural Economics - Current Issues"},signatures:"Boubaker Dhehibi, Mohamed Ben Salah and Aymen Frija",authors:[{id:"197434",title:"Dr.",name:"Boubaker",middleName:null,surname:"Dhehibi",slug:"boubaker-dhehibi",fullName:"Boubaker Dhehibi"},{id:"268347",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salah",slug:"mohamed-ben-salah",fullName:"Mohamed Ben Salah"},{id:"268348",title:"Dr.",name:"Aymen",middleName:null,surname:"Frija",slug:"aymen-frija",fullName:"Aymen Frija"}]},{id:"59402",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73861",title:"Robotic Harvesting of Fruiting Vegetables: A Simulation Approach in V-REP, ROS and MATLAB",slug:"robotic-harvesting-of-fruiting-vegetables-a-simulation-approach-in-v-rep-ros-and-matlab",totalDownloads:2797,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"In modern agriculture, there is a high demand to move from tedious manual harvesting to a continuously automated operation. This chapter reports on designing a simulation and control platform in V-REP, ROS, and MATLAB for experimenting with sensors and manipulators in robotic harvesting of sweet pepper. The objective was to provide a completely simulated environment for improvement of visual servoing task through easy testing and debugging of control algorithms with zero damage risk to the real robot and to the actual equipment. A simulated workspace, including an exact replica of different robot manipulators, sensing mechanisms, and sweet pepper plant, and fruit system was created in V-REP. Image moment method visual servoing with eye-in-hand configuration was implemented in MATLAB, and was tested on four robotic platforms including Fanuc LR Mate 200iD, NOVABOT, multiple linear actuators, and multiple SCARA arms. Data from simulation experiments were used as inputs of the control algorithm in MATLAB, whose outputs were sent back to the simulated workspace and to the actual robots. ROS was used for exchanging data between the simulated environment and the real workspace via its publish-and-subscribe architecture. Results provided a framework for experimenting with different sensing and acting scenarios, and verified the performance functionality of the simulator.",book:{id:"6265",slug:"automation-in-agriculture-securing-food-supplies-for-future-generations",title:"Automation in Agriculture",fullTitle:"Automation in Agriculture - Securing Food Supplies for Future Generations"},signatures:"Redmond R. Shamshiri, Ibrahim A. Hameed, Manoj Karkee and\nCornelia Weltzien",authors:[{id:"182449",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:"A.",surname:"Hameed",slug:"ibrahim-hameed",fullName:"Ibrahim Hameed"},{id:"203413",title:"Dr.",name:"Redmond R.",middleName:null,surname:"Shamshiri",slug:"redmond-r.-shamshiri",fullName:"Redmond R. Shamshiri"},{id:"241193",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoj",middleName:null,surname:"Karkee",slug:"manoj-karkee",fullName:"Manoj Karkee"},{id:"241194",title:"Dr.",name:"Cornelia",middleName:null,surname:"Weltzien",slug:"cornelia-weltzien",fullName:"Cornelia Weltzien"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59402",title:"Robotic Harvesting of Fruiting Vegetables: A Simulation Approach in V-REP, ROS and MATLAB",slug:"robotic-harvesting-of-fruiting-vegetables-a-simulation-approach-in-v-rep-ros-and-matlab",totalDownloads:2797,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"In modern agriculture, there is a high demand to move from tedious manual harvesting to a continuously automated operation. This chapter reports on designing a simulation and control platform in V-REP, ROS, and MATLAB for experimenting with sensors and manipulators in robotic harvesting of sweet pepper. The objective was to provide a completely simulated environment for improvement of visual servoing task through easy testing and debugging of control algorithms with zero damage risk to the real robot and to the actual equipment. A simulated workspace, including an exact replica of different robot manipulators, sensing mechanisms, and sweet pepper plant, and fruit system was created in V-REP. Image moment method visual servoing with eye-in-hand configuration was implemented in MATLAB, and was tested on four robotic platforms including Fanuc LR Mate 200iD, NOVABOT, multiple linear actuators, and multiple SCARA arms. Data from simulation experiments were used as inputs of the control algorithm in MATLAB, whose outputs were sent back to the simulated workspace and to the actual robots. ROS was used for exchanging data between the simulated environment and the real workspace via its publish-and-subscribe architecture. Results provided a framework for experimenting with different sensing and acting scenarios, and verified the performance functionality of the simulator.",book:{id:"6265",slug:"automation-in-agriculture-securing-food-supplies-for-future-generations",title:"Automation in Agriculture",fullTitle:"Automation in Agriculture - Securing Food Supplies for Future Generations"},signatures:"Redmond R. Shamshiri, Ibrahim A. Hameed, Manoj Karkee and\nCornelia Weltzien",authors:[{id:"182449",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:"A.",surname:"Hameed",slug:"ibrahim-hameed",fullName:"Ibrahim Hameed"},{id:"203413",title:"Dr.",name:"Redmond R.",middleName:null,surname:"Shamshiri",slug:"redmond-r.-shamshiri",fullName:"Redmond R. Shamshiri"},{id:"241193",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoj",middleName:null,surname:"Karkee",slug:"manoj-karkee",fullName:"Manoj Karkee"},{id:"241194",title:"Dr.",name:"Cornelia",middleName:null,surname:"Weltzien",slug:"cornelia-weltzien",fullName:"Cornelia Weltzien"}]},{id:"70662",title:"Automation and Robotics Used in Hydroponic System",slug:"automation-and-robotics-used-in-hydroponic-system",totalDownloads:2838,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Hydroponic system requires periodic labor, a systematic approach, repetitive motion and a structured environment. Automation, robotics and IoT have allowed farmers to monitoring all the variables in plant, root zone and environment under hydroponics. This research introduces findings in design with real time operating systems based on microcontrollers; pH fuzzy logic control system for nutrient solution in embed and flow hydroponic culture; hydroponic system in combination with automated drip irrigation; expert system-based automation system; automated hydroponics nutrition plants systems; hydroponic management and monitoring system for an intelligent hydroponic system using internet of things and web technology; neural network-based fault detection in hydroponics; additional technologies implemented in hydroponic systems and robotics in hydroponic systems. The above advances will improve the efficiency of hydroponics to increase the quality and quantity of the produce and pose an opportunity for the growth of the hydroponics market in near future.",book:{id:"8939",slug:"urban-horticulture-necessity-of-the-future",title:"Urban Horticulture",fullTitle:"Urban Horticulture - Necessity of the Future"},signatures:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Julia Mariana Márquez Reyes, Héctor Flores Breceda, Humberto Rodríguez Fuentes, Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras and Urbano Luna Maldonado",authors:[{id:"105774",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"alejandro-isabel-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado"},{id:"215230",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Vidales Contreras",slug:"juan-antonio-vidales-contreras",fullName:"Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras"},{id:"220744",title:"MSc.",name:"Héctor",middleName:null,surname:"Flores Breceda",slug:"hector-flores-breceda",fullName:"Héctor Flores Breceda"},{id:"252026",title:"Dr.",name:"Humberto",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez-Fuentes",slug:"humberto-rodriguez-fuentes",fullName:"Humberto Rodríguez-Fuentes"},{id:"299825",title:"Dr.",name:"Julia Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Márquez Reyes",slug:"julia-mariana-marquez-reyes",fullName:"Julia Mariana Márquez Reyes"},{id:"303920",title:"Prof.",name:"Urbano",middleName:null,surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"urbano-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Urbano Luna Maldonado"}]},{id:"77112",title:"Advancements of Spraying Technology in Agriculture",slug:"advancements-of-spraying-technology-in-agriculture",totalDownloads:665,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Plant protection activities are most important practices during crop production. Application of maximum pesticide products with the sprayer. The application of fungicides, herbicides, and insecticides is one of the most recurrent and significant tasks in agriculture. Conventional agricultural spraying techniques have made the inconsistency between economic growth and environmental protection in agricultural production. Spraying techniques continuously developed in recent decades. For pesticide application, it is not the only sprayer that is essential, but all the parameters like the type and area of the plant canopy, area of a plant leaf, height of the crop, and volume of plants related to plant protection product applications are very important for obtaining better results. From this point of view, the advancement in agriculture sprayer has been started in last few decades. Robotics and automatic spraying technologies like variable rate sprayers, UAV sprayers, and electrostatic sprayers are growing to Increase the utilization rate of pesticides, reduce pesticide residues, real-time, cost-saving, high compatibility of plant protection products application. These technologies are under the “umbrella” of precision agriculture. The mechanized spraying system, usually implemented by highly precise equipment or mobile robots, which, makes possible the selective targeting of pesticide application on desire time and place. These advanced spraying technologies not only reduces the labour cost but also effective in environmental protection. Researchers are conducting experimental studies on the design, development and testing of precision spraying technologies for crops and orchards.",book:{id:"10454",slug:"technology-in-agriculture",title:"Technology in Agriculture",fullTitle:"Technology in Agriculture"},signatures:"Fiaz Ahmad, Aftab Khaliq, Baijing Qiu, Muhammad Sultan and Jing Ma",authors:[{id:"199381",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sultan",slug:"muhammad-sultan",fullName:"Muhammad Sultan"},{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad"},{id:"346652",title:"MSc.",name:"Aftab",middleName:null,surname:"Khaliq",slug:"aftab-khaliq",fullName:"Aftab Khaliq"},{id:"349757",title:"Prof.",name:"Qiu",middleName:null,surname:"Baijing",slug:"qiu-baijing",fullName:"Qiu Baijing"},{id:"349778",title:"Dr.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",slug:"jing-ma",fullName:"Jing Ma"}]},{id:"77058",title:"Solar Technology in Agriculture",slug:"solar-technology-in-agriculture",totalDownloads:683,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Promotion of sustainable agriculture is one of the most priority development goal set by United Nations for achieving the food security to meet the ever-increasing global population food demand. Because of extreme importance of agriculture sector, significant technological developments have been made that played pivotal role for sustainable agriculture by value addition in agricultural products and meeting energy demands for machinery and irrigation. These developments include improved cultivation practices, processing units for agricultural products and operation of machinery and irrigation systems based on solar energy. Moreover, the emergence of new technologies and climate smart solutions with reduced carbon footprints have significantly addressed the ever-increasing fuel costs and changing climate needs. PV based solar irrigation pumps and agricultural machinery is typical example of this. Because, awareness of these technological development is essential to overcome energy issues, availability of energy to perform agricultural activities for sustainable agriculture at farm level and socioeconomic uplift of farming community to meet food requirements needs in the future. Therefore, this chapter attempts at providing the introduction of technologies for direct and indirect use of solar energy in the agriculture sector. The typical examples of direct use of solar energy like greenhouses or tunnel farming for cultivation of crops and vegetables and use of solar dryers for drying agricultural products have been comprehensively discussed. Similarly, the solar powered tubewells, tractors, and lights, etc. are few important examples of indirect use of solar energy and have also been discussed in this chapter. The indirect use is made possible by converting solar energy into electrical energy with the help of photovoltaic devices, called “solar cells”. Also radio frequency (RF)-controlled seed sowing and spreading machines are discussed, which provide an eco-friendly method. Moreover, comprehensive discussion is made on solar based technologies in general as well regional context in view of their potential to scale-up and to address anticipated issues. The use of photovoltaics in agriculture is expected to be significant contribution in the near future that require urgent planning for the potential benefits and efficient use at the farm level. Therefore, the co-existence of “agrovoltaics” will be essential for the developments of agriculture and agroindustry.",book:{id:"10454",slug:"technology-in-agriculture",title:"Technology in Agriculture",fullTitle:"Technology in Agriculture"},signatures:"Ghulam Hasnain Tariq, Muhammad Ashraf and Umar Sohaib Hasnain",authors:[{id:"324017",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ashraf",slug:"muhammad-ashraf",fullName:"Muhammad Ashraf"},{id:"343829",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam Hasnain",middleName:null,surname:"Tariq",slug:"ghulam-hasnain-tariq",fullName:"Ghulam Hasnain Tariq"},{id:"415545",title:"Mr.",name:"Umar Sohaib",middleName:null,surname:"Hasnain",slug:"umar-sohaib-hasnain",fullName:"Umar Sohaib Hasnain"}]},{id:"79822",title:"Stored Grain Pests and Current Advances for Their Management",slug:"stored-grain-pests-and-current-advances-for-their-management",totalDownloads:296,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"During the offseason, when fresh food is not available, humans have to consume stored grain food. Unfortunately, these stored grains are later infested with many pests. Foods stored in bags and bins are very much susceptible to infestation with several pests which can cause extensive post-harvest losses, spoilage, and less demand in markets, causing a huge economic crisis. Hence, successful management of stored grain pests becomes necessary to prevent these from insect pests. Current approaches for their management are one of the promising goals, as it includes preventive practices, monitoring, sanitation, and identification of main pathogens. Different management strategies of all the common stored grain pests viz. grain weevils, grain borers, grain moths, flour moths, mealworms, grain and flour beetles, booklice, mites, and parasites are enlisted here.",book:{id:"10899",slug:"postharvest-technology-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",title:"Postharvest Technology",fullTitle:"Postharvest Technology - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications"},signatures:"Rayees Ahmad, Shafiya Hassan, Showkat Ahmad, Syed Nighat, Yendrambamb K. Devi, Kounser Javeed, Salma Usmani, Mohammad Javed Ansari, Sait Erturk, Mustafa Alkan and Barkat Hussain",authors:[{id:"319667",title:"Dr.",name:"Barkat",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"barkat-hussain",fullName:"Barkat Hussain"},{id:"444975",title:"Dr.",name:"Rayees",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rayees-ahmad",fullName:"Rayees Ahmad"},{id:"444976",title:"Dr.",name:"Shafiya",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan",slug:"shafiya-hassan",fullName:"Shafiya Hassan"},{id:"444977",title:"Dr.",name:"Showkat",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"showkat-ahmad",fullName:"Showkat Ahmad"},{id:"444978",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed",middleName:null,surname:"Nighat",slug:"syed-nighat",fullName:"Syed Nighat"},{id:"444979",title:"Dr.",name:"Yendrambamb",middleName:null,surname:"K. Devi",slug:"yendrambamb-k.-devi",fullName:"Yendrambamb K. 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He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"22",type:"subseries",title:"Applied Intelligence",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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