Comparison of different literatures with respect to methicillin- and vancomycin-resistant pattern of
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art novel imaging techniques by focusing on the most important evidence-based developments in this area.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d9159ce31733bf78cc2a79b18c225994",bookSignature:"Dr. Gabriel Cismaru",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11867.jpg",keywords:"Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy, Dilated Cardiomyopathy, Restrictive Cardiomyopathy, Transesophageal Echocardiography, Intracardiac Echocardiography, 3-Dimensional Echocardiography, Adult Congenital Heart Disease, Tetralogy of Fallot, Transposition of the Great Vessels, Coronary Artery Disease, Risk Stratification, Revascularization",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 21st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 18th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 5th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Cismaru Gabriel is an Assistant Professor at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, certified in Cardiology. After completing his certification in cardiology, Dr. Cismaru began his electrophysiology fellowship at the Institut Lorrain du Coeur et des Vaisseaux Louis Mathieu. He has authored or co-authored peer-reviewed articles and book chapters in the field of cardiac pacing, defibrillation, electrophysiological study, and catheter ablation.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Raluca Tomoaia is an MD, Ph.D. in novel techniques in Echocardiography at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy in Cluj-Napoca, Romania., assistant professor, and a researcher in echocardiography and cardiovascular imaging.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"191888",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Cismaru",slug:"gabriel-cismaru",fullName:"Gabriel Cismaru",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191888/images/system/191888.png",biography:"Dr. Cismaru Gabriel is an assistant professor at the Cluj-Napoca University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Romania, where he has been qualified in cardiology since 2011. He obtained his Ph.D. in medicine with a research thesis on electrophysiology and pro-arrhythmic drugs in 2016. Dr. Cismaru began his electrophysiology fellowship at the Institut Lorrain du Coeur et des Vaisseaux Louis Mathieu, France, after finishing his cardiology certification with stages in Clermont-Ferrand and Dinan, France. He began working at the Rehabilitation Hospital\\'s Electrophysiology Laboratory in Cluj-Napoca in 2011. He is an experienced operator who can implant pacemakers, CRTs, and ICDs, as well as perform catheter ablation of supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias such as ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation. He has been qualified in pediatric cardiology since 2022, and he regularly performs device implantation and catheter ablation in children. 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Similar study was carried out by Orrett and Land [2] in Trinidad and Tobago. In this study, 2430 isolates of
Oxacillin-resistant and multidrug-resistant
The prevalence of MRSA across the European countries from 1999 to 2002 was analyzed by Tiemersma et al. [6]. In this study a total of 50,759
Many studies on the prevalence of MRSA have been conducted in India. A total of 1426 wound swabs were taken from 450 high-risk patients by Vidhani et al. [7] of which
Another study conducted by Rajendra Goud et al. [8] revealed a prevalence 29.76% of community-associated MRSA. All community-associated MRSA were resistant to methicillin and penicillin, while resistance to erythromycin and vancomycin was 65 and 1.12%, respectively, but all MRSA isolates were sensitive to linezolid. A third study conducted by Sharma and Mall [9] found out that out of 200 nasal samples,
A number of similar studies were carried out in other Asian countries. A study carried out in Tehran by Vahdani et al. [12] exhibited marked variation in the drug susceptibility of MRSA. The results of this study showed that all the 90 MRSA isolates were resistant to penicillin (100%), ampicillin (92%), and cefotaxime (93%). Vancomycin and chloramphenicol were the most effective antibiotics, and only 7 and 14% of isolates were resistant, respectively. Nitrofurantoin, gentamycin, amikacin, ciprofloxacin, and other cephalosporins like cefepime and cefazolin were better active than penicillin, ampicillin, and cefotaxime. This study showed that 44% of hospital-acquired MRSA strains were resistant to co-trimoxazole. Akhter et al. [13] in Karachi isolated MRSA and determined the drug susceptibility of pattern of both MRSA and MSSA. A total of 87 strains of
A good number of research work on the prevalence, rate of isolation, and drug susceptibility profile of MRSA have been carried out in Africa. A study carried out by Ojulong et al. [15] investigated 188 pus swabs collected from patients with surgical site infections. Out of 54 (28.7%)
Okwu et al. [17] in Nigeria examined 120 samples taken from the nose. Of these 22 (18.3%) were found to be positive for
In Ethiopia, a retrospective study on the prevalence of MRSA was conducted by Geyid et al. [20]. The results of this study showed that among 249
Similarly, in a study conducted by Dilnessa et al. [22], of 1360 clinical specimens analyzed,
Authors (publication year) | \nCountry | \nSample size | \nNo. of | \nMRSA (N/%) | \nMSSA (N/%) | \nVRSA (%) | \nMDRSA (%) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Moran et al. (2006) | \nUSA | \n422 | \n320 (76) | \n249 (78.0) | \n71 (22.0) | \n— | \n— | \n
Ojulong et al. (2009) | \nUganda | \n188 | \n54 (28.7) | \n17 (31.5) | \n37 (68.5) | \n0 | \n— | \n
Sharma and Mall (2011) | \nIndia | \n200 | \n97 (48.5) | \n23 (23.7) | \n74 (76.3) | \n— | \n— | \n
Okwu et al. (2012) | \nNigeria | \n120 | \n22 (18.3) | \n13 (59.1) | \n9 (40.9) | \n— | \n100 | \n
Akpaka et al. (2006) | \nSpain | \n— | \n1912 | \n244 (12.8) | \n1668 (87.2) | \n0 | \n— | \n
Geyid et al. (1991) | \nEthiopia | \n17,142 | \n249 (1.4) | \n76 (30.5) | \n173 (69.5) | \n0 | \n80 | \n
Dilnessa et al. (2016) | \nEthiopia | \n1360 | \n194 (14.3) | \n34 (17.5) | \n160 (82.5) | \n5.1 | \n50.5 | \n
Olowe et al. (2012) | \nNigeria | \n— | \n67 | \n32 (47.8) | \n35 (52.2) | \n6.3 | \n100 | \n
Vidhani et al. (2000) | \nIndia | \n450 | \n188 (41.7) | \n97 (51.6) | \n91 (48.4) | \n— | \n79.5 | \n
Alamin et al. (2013) | \nMalaysia | \n— | \n85 | \n25 (29.4) | \n60 (70.6) | \n8 | \n— | \n
Comparison of different literatures with respect to methicillin- and vancomycin-resistant pattern of
MRSA, Methicillin-resistant
Factors that could contribute to variations in the prevalence rate of MRSA and vancomycin could be due to differences in the length of study period, number of study sites, sample size, and sample type, and the lab procedures employed can be mentioned. The isolates were multidrug resistant to several combinations of the tested antibiotics. According to Magiorakos et al. [23], MDR is defined as non-susceptibility to at least one agent in three or more antimicrobial categories. Over all drugs such as gentamicin, amoxicillin-clavulanate, clindamycin, cefuroxime, vancomycin, and cephalothin had relatively lower resistance.
\nThe prevalence of
Numerous mountainous regions of the world are being affected by high-impact extractive activities on the environment, such as mining. These projects are mainly placed in developing countries, where large mining conglomerates can often obtain environmental permits more expeditiously than in developed countries. Apart from the discussion of center and periphery geopolitical condition that began this precarious condition throughout the history of these mostly young countries, there is a general lack of knowledge of the environmental characteristics of the mountainous watersheds, which are necessary to contrast the environmental reports made by corporations.
\nThis institutional fragility condition when granting permits is usually driven by a lack of real environmental valuation, with pillars in null or scarce information of the strategic water resources of the basin.
\nSouth America is the home to the longest continental mountain range in the world, the Andes. This narrow and high vertebral column that borders along the subcontinental western side rests on seven countries (Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina) ranging from 10° to 55° S, along most of the latitudinal range of the Southern Hemisphere. This natural wall presents a great interference with the planetary winds, producing a redistribution of the precipitation and evapotranspiration that decants in the formation of the most important rainforest of the planet, the Amazon, toward the east of the massif. Inside the Andes, an accumulation of moisture is generated from the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. These precipitations fall mostly as snow and in the highest places accumulate more than it melts year after year. This condition allows the formation of glaciers and high elevation permafrost, with rock glacier development as characteristic permafrost periglacial environment geoforms. Thus, the snow and glaciers of the South American Andes irrigate these hydrologically allochthonous oases, which hold more than 40% of the subcontinent population, accounting for more than 160 million inhabitants.
\nThe importance of being able to understand these systems in an accessible and reliable way not only responds to the pressures exerted by human activities in the glacial and periglacial mountain environments but also relates to climate change processes that combined with the anthropogenic factor produces an enormous pressure over the balance and sustainability of this vital resource. Long-term climate projections do not present an encouraging picture for the Andean region, as they indicate a warming trend and a greater recurrence of droughts in the coming decades [1, 2, 3].
\nIn view of this perspective, it is important for the harmonious development of the population to have accurate information of basin water sources. In addition, it is necessary to recognize with spatial precision the different sources of water from the feeding areas within the basin to the areas where it is used by each inhabitant of the territory. All this, interconnected, serves as a basis for establishing development strategies and providing reliable data for decision-makers [4].
\nIn spite of known ice melting relevance in Andean basins, there is a lack of information of its variations of water supply in space and time. Important questions for the management of water in the territory remain unanswered. Some of the main questions are the following: what is the portion of the total water consumed by the inhabitants that is contributed by each water source (snow, glacial, groundwater) in each part of the basin? Productivity activities, such as cultivation or mining, present different water period need along a year, and this question appears: when is each of these sources inputs more or less important for each kind of water consumption in the basin? Because most of water sources in the basin come from high elevation areas, several of these essential questions remain unanswered. The Andean environment is complex and presents extreme fieldwork conditions for the development of accurate measurements [5]. In addition to this, the different methodologies used to measure the quantity of water do not manage to identify the different water sources and their subsequent variation. For instance, the use of satellite imagery allows to estimate the coverage of snow or glaciers, but not how much of its melt contributes to river’s streamflow from the melting of snow or ice, respectively. In the same way, gauges can be installed in every proglacial stream and estimate the ice melt contribution, but, besides the complex field-work scenario, the groundwater influence cannot be analyzed in this projection.
\nThe pressure of the large mineral extractive companies usually makes use of and abuse of this kind of information weakness. In mining environmental impact reports, phrases that refer to the insignificance of the water supplied by glaciers or the periglacial environment are usual. Many studies have demonstrated the ice melting relevance for the total streamflow, especially in dry years. These ice giants play a vital role as damp absorbers in warm and arid years, with higher rates of ablation, which can contribute from 67% [6] to 81% of the total summer flow in the Central Andes (31–37°S) [7]. This process is responsible for the droughts in this region to not reach more critical conditions [8].
\nThe relevance of glacial input to river streamflow can be observed in the stable water isotope (e.g., δ18O) composition from the rivers of the Cordillera Frontal geological province (Argentinean Central Andes), in the very dry years of 2011 and 2012 (Figure 1). In this example the rivers were receiving different water source inputs but presented the same isotopical composition as rock glaciers (Rgl).
\nStable water isotope (δ18O) composition for the different water sources draining the Cordillera Frontal region (32° 56’ S; 69° 22’ W). Ppt Ftal, total precipitation; snowFtal, snowfall samples during storm events; Rgl, rock glaciers; UdgW, groundwaters (Source: personal elaboration).
Faced with this lack of information, the present chapter proposes the use of indirect measurement methodologies to identify the contributions of different water sources to the total basin flow. It seeks to be able to know in an accessible and reliable way the significance of the contribution from each water source and the opportunity to deliver it in space and time using water natural tracers. These are water stable elements with different proportions in each different water source, without significantly changing their properties over time. This property can be analyzed and performs traceability during its journey in the hydrological cycle. In this chapter we will focus on the interpretation and use of two major types of natural water tracers: water stable isotopes and major ions.
\nThis could represent an important tool for policy-makers and the basin’s sustainable development in the present and future sociopolitical and climate scenarios.
\nInner-basin geological differences, in combination with climatic variables and sediment contact time through the basin, provide an ionic and isotope differential composition of natural waters [9, 10, 11, 12].
\nConsequently, this chapter will focus in showing a combination of stable water isotopes and ionic tracer analysis, allowing the readers to identify surface water that originates in different sources like water released from ice bodies, groundwater, rain storms, or snow catchments.
\nFrom the universe of water compounds, in this section, we will focus on major ions, which are usually analyzed. Total salinity, measured by electrical conductivity, will also be discussed.
\nIn Figure 2, an example from an arid mountain basin (the upper Mendoza River basin) can be observed. The geological map of the area is composed from different geological provinces represented in different mountain ranges, named as Cordillera Principal, Cordillera Frontal, and Precordillera, from west–east direction, respectively. As usually occurs in mountain areas, because of the geological differences from each mountain range, water-draining these geologically different basin areas is expected to present different compositions of minerals and ionic chemistry (Figures 3 and 4).
\nUpper Mendoza River basin (32° 50’ S; 62° 45’ W) geological map (Source: personal elaboration).
Different mountain ranges’ major ions, pH, and electrical conductivity water composition. (1) Ppal, refers to the Cordillera Principal geological province; (2) Ftal, to the Cordillera Frontal, and (3) Ppal-Ftal, to the Mendoza River where the waters incoming from Cordillera Principal and Frontal are mixed (Source: [
Different geomorphological units within the Mendoza River basin and water ionic composition Piper diagram (Source: [
In this case, the samples were taken at different sites in the basin, in 500 cc sterile plastic bottles. For these samples, electrical conductivity and the following major ions, bicarbonate (HCO3−), sulfate (SO4−2), chloride (Cl−), calcium (Ca+2), magnesium (Mg+2), sodium (Na+), and potassium (K+), were analyzed.
\nAs can be observed in Figure 3, the geological differences expressed different ionic quantities in the rivers draining the different areas, and the total salinity is like a summary of this process.
\nFor the ionic composition, in a more graphical representation with a Piper diagram (Figure 4), a sulfated calcium and magnesium composition for the samples extracted in the Cordillera Principal and calcium and magnesium bicarbonated for those of the Cordillera Frontal geological province can be seen. Precordillera presents bicarbonated sodium waters mostly. The influence of the petrographic characteristics from the Cordillera Principal, dominating with the presence of gypsum and marking the composition of the Mendoza River waters (mix), which is formed by all the tributaries along the whole studied basin can also be observed.
\nIsotopes are atoms of the same element that possess different neutron numbers in its nucleus, presenting equal atomic number but different mass numbers. The differences in mass generate a different behavior in physically reactions. The mass difference between the atomic nuclei is expressed in different reaction rates, because the isotopically heavier molecules have less mobility, resulting in a lower diffusion rate and a lower frequency of collision with other molecules. This derives in a lower possibility of physical reactions, a situation where light molecules react more frequently. This partitioning of isotopes between two substances or two phases of the same substance with different isotopic contents is known as isotopic fractionation [13].
\nIn order to express the contents of these less abundant isotopes, working standards are used for the measurement of the called δ values. Also, to facilitate interlaboratory comparisons, δ values are scaled to internationally accepted standards. Because water is composed by hydrogen and oxygen, and both present heavy stable isotopes, we will focus on these ones. The hydrogen heavy stable isotopes are deuterium and tritium. Oxygen presents two stable isotopes: 18O and 17O. This chapter will be focused in the more abundant and used: the deuterium 2H and the 18O [14]. The differential composition of the different water sources arises from this explained isotopic partitioning.
\nThe standard commonly used to report the values of δ18O and δ2H is the VSMOW (Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water). Then, the values are expressed in δ18O y δ2H ‰, according to Eq. (1):
\nIn this way, when ocean water (which is considered to have an average δVSMOW value equal to zero) evaporates, it will generate a heavy isotope depletion (which evaporates proportionally less). When moisture is then transported by winds into the continent, water will be discharged as precipitation fractionating preferentially heavy isotopes along its path; therefore, the water vapor will become increasingly depleted on the heavy isotopes. This will leave a characteristic composition in different water sources, depending on the effects that modify this fractionation (continental effect, latitude, altitude, temperature, etc.). The resulting isotopic composition can then be analyzed and its origin and evolution traced [12, 13, 15], as can be observed in Figure 5.
\nWater δ18O evolution content in the hydrological cycle (Source: personal elaboration).
In the basis that environmental factors (such as geological and topographical settings, climate, isotope fractionation processes during cloud formation and precipitation) will imprint the stable water isotope composition, researchers have been using this isotopic finger print to identify the water source draining processes to rivers around the world.
\nSummarizing, isotopic compositions from the different water sources are affected by soil-atmosphere exchange processes, such as precipitation, melting, evaporation, and sublimation [15], which will change according to the altitude, temperature, isotopic composition of the moisture source, and surface characteristics that affect the energy balance of the evaporation processes.
\nIn the case of surface water sampled from the different geomorphological units in a mountain basin (in this case, Cordillera Principal, Cordillera Frontal, and Precordillera mountain ranges), when the co-isotope (δ2H and δ18O) composition is plotted (Figure 6), a significant increase in heavy isotope concentrations as altitude decreases (going east, from the Cordillera Principal to the Precordillera) is clearly observed. Isotopic composition differences between different water sources (glaciers, rock glaciers, groundwater, snow, or rivers) are also observed.
\nDispersion of the stable isotope values of water samples analyzed in the Mendoza River basin. The blue line represents the Local Meteoric Water Line (LMWL), following the equation: δ2H = 8.29 δ18O + 13.13; R2 = 0.99. The red line represents the Global Meteoric Water Line, (GMWL) (15) (Source: [
Another useful tool derived from isotopical tracing is the “deuterium excess.” Under different conditions than 100% atmospheric humidity, the fractionation rate of hydrogen is higher than oxygen heavy isotopes. This difference in fractionation rates is expressed as the “deuterium excess” and is calculated according to Eq. (2):
\nSince 18O/16O variations in precipitation were observed [16], Craig [17] described the Global Meteoric Water Line, and Dansgaard [18] introduced the deuterium excess concept, many decades have passed and the stable water isotope applications have developed rather fast. Currently, stable isotopes are widely used by scientists from many different fields to provide information about the origin and geochemical history of water.
\nThis value is very important to determine different evaporation processes, such as by water stagnation and evaporation. In Figure 7 an example of water sources (in this case in Las Docas region, Central Chile) is presented. Deuterium excess values (d‰) from different streams, rain, and ocean, which fed the estuarine lagoon, show evident differences. The lower deuterium excess values of the lagoon are explained by evaporation processes. The hydrogen isotopes are more affected by the evaporation process than the oxygen heavy isotopes, by the explained mass difference resulting in different fractionation inertias.
\nDifferent water source deuterium excess values in Las Docas beach area, Central Chile (33° 8’ S; 71°42’ W). QLR stream refers to a seasonal stream inside Las Docas region. Lagoon stream refers to the tributary stream feeding the estuarine lagoon (Lagoon) (Source: personal elaboration).
Sometimes, two or more water sources cannot be distinguished significantly via δ2H, δ18O, or ionic determination. In this case, the differential signature can be detected using the deuterium excess value. In Figure 8, a graphic example is presented where it was possible to significantly differentiate uncovered glaciers (nr. 1) with snow basins (nrs. 7 and 9) through the differential evaporation condition expressed in the deuterium excess value for each source.
\nDifferent water sources (in numbers) deuterium excess values (D‰) in the Cordillera Principal mountain range area, upper Mendoza River basin. (1) glacier, (2) debris-covered glacier, (3) debris-covered glacier and rock glacier, (4) total precipitation, (5) rock glacier, (6) rivers and streams, (7) “Valle Azul” stream in winter and spring, (8) snow, (9) “Los Puquios” stream in winter and spring, (10) groundwater (Source: [
Using the chemical and stable water isotope characterization previously presented, a statistical analysis could be carried out to investigate if any significant differences can be identified and thus to strengthen the information that can be provided in order to identify different water sources. As it was observed for the Mendoza River basin (Figures 4, 6, and 8), the different tracer composition allows the contribution identification from different geographic origins in space and time, considering the characteristic composition of each type of water source in each subbasin and, from there, estimates the proportion and moment of water delivery in a basin [12].
\nA combination of both, ionic and isotopic compositions, can reveal river behaviors along a year. In this case, a simplification thought a principal components analysis (PCA) can be a useful way. As can be seen in Figure 9, the first dimension of a principal component analysis (PCA), related to ion chemistry, separates groundwater from snow and ice bodies. The second dimension, related to stable isotopes, separates the snow and the different types of ice bodies (snow and rock glacier from uncovered or debris-covered glaciers). The temporal evolution of the different rivers along the main dimensions of the PCA shows a movement along the stable isotope axis, which is considerable in summer compared to autumn in several rivers. Saline concentration is observed in autumn, indicating the contribution of water with greater contact with sediments (groundwater). The observed changes from autumn to spring are observed in the ion dilution dimension and then again become a predominantly snow contribution in early summer. In this case, it was a temporal lagoon detected (purple circle in Figure 9). The water source that had been feeding the lagoon was unknown, because it could be a snowmelt or a groundwater water source origin. As can be observed (Figure 9), after the PCA analysis, the snowmelt provenance of the water filling this temporal small lagoon was inferred [12].
\nStable isotopes and salts of water samples from the Mendoza River basin principal components analysis (PCA) plot. The behavior (marked by the dominance of the contribution of glaciers, groundwater, or snow) of the different subbasins that contribute to the Mendoza River (marked by the different rivers with the lines in different colors), throughout the seasons of the year. The number 1 corresponds to summer, 2 autumn, 3 winter, 4 spring, and 5 to the summer of the following year. In the upper left margin is the resulting characteristic of rock glaciers (brown stars) and snow precipitation (green and black circles). In the upper right of the groundwater (yellow rectangles and triangles) and, in the lower left, the characteristic features of glaciers (blue stars) (Source: [
In order to quantitatively estimate the relative contributions from each type of water source to a river flow, an end-member mixing analysis (EMMA) [19] could be performed based on the chemical determinations previously explained.
\nIn this way, the equation for proportions
where f is the discharge fraction and C is the component concentration. The subscripts refer to the components and superscripts to the tracers.
\nAnd, finally
\nFor three components and two tracer models, as it was the example, the mixing spaces are defined by the two tracers (e.g., isotopic composition and electrical conductivity). If they are graphed, the three components must form the vertices of a triangle, and all the samples of the river must be framed by the triangle. If this standard is not met, the tracers are not conservative, or there may be contributions from other sources not characterized (Figure 10).
\nScatter plot showing the isotopic and average electrical conductivity (EC) compositions for the different water sources that contribute to the Cuevas River in February (Source: [
In this example, the relative contribution from each water source for the Cuevas River in February 2014 is presented in Table 1.
\nWater source | \nGlacier | \nGroundwater | \nRock glacier | \nOther | \nTotal | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Water source contribution (%) | \n9 | \n56 | \n34 | \n1 | \n100 | \n
Percentage contribution from different water sources to the Cuevas River along February 2014 (source: [4]).
In water management, a lack of knowledge about the natural water source contribution variability in different periods of the year exists, which is critical at any time when it is necessary to maintain the water balance between supply and demand in a certain territory. Within the large basins, there is still a great complexity for the determination of water sources in high elevation areas. This is also a challenge for small basins, where water systems can be even more fragile. The difficulty lies in the fact that in high-altitude areas with different water sources, there are variations in the contribution proportion from each kind of water source, along each season of the year. Among them, we can count the presence of glaciers, snow, total precipitation, wetlands, groundwater, and permafrost, where all can contribute to the runoff and recharge aquifers in territories located in lower areas within the basin. As could be observed in this chapter, using chemical tracing through natural tracers represents a reliable way to distinguish and quantify the different water sources input in a river.
\nSociety is the main target of any water basin analysis, and, based on it, territorial prospecting can make important contributions in the estimation of impacts and in the mitigation infrastructure design. In this context, this chapter focuses on the determination of water sources in high-altitude areas using natural tracers, which can be very useful for the communities that inhabit the basins in mountain areas. The spatial and temporal distribution data of the water supply’s main components is fundamental for the hydrological resource use and distribution planning among the basin’s different social actors. These tools could be relevant to water supply projections and water demand regulations when analyzing the water source bail in upper basin areas, as a consequence of precipitation reduction and temperature increase in high elevations, which, for example, has resulted in a generalized retreat of the glaciers along the Central Andes [8, 20, 21, 22]. It is estimated that these glaciers’ fronts and areas’ negative variations are largely due to the rise of the 0°C isotherm in the region [23]. Also, when some corporations deny any specific water source contribution relevance, these tools can provide a good exploration analysis to determine their water contribution.
\nRecently, between 2010 and 2015, the Andes region between 29° and 35°S experienced the longest drought in the instrumental record [3]. This extraordinary event has occurred in the warmest decade of the last 100 years and apparently has no analogies in the last millennium, according to paleoclimatic reconstructions of this area [3]. The long-term climate projections also do not present an encouraging picture for this region of the Andes, since they indicate a tendency to warming and a greater recurrence of droughts in the coming decades [1, 3, 24].
\nIn view of the worrying future perspective that is coming for this region (and others) in terms of its reduction of strategic water resources, it is vital to know in detail the behavior of the different water sources associated with climate variability. In this chapter we have shown the different contribution along time and space from different water sources, which can be key information for the development of reservoir infrastructure and water distribution networks, generation of water supply, and distribution models for different uses, in addition to other adaptation plans aimed at specific sectors of the population.
\nThe use of ionic and isotopic tools, together with traditional hydrological and climatic data, can allow the creation of new information and early warning systems to reduce the risk of droughts and floods, among other applications that will modernize the way we guide decision-making in complex climate dynamic mountain basins. Besides this, extending these tools to other areas of the landscape, such as the foothills, lowlands, and valleys, will be useful to recognize and quantify changes in isotopic signatures in space and time. The knowledge of this water information can be considered analogous to the knowledge of the circulatory system in living organisms, because it is vital to diagnose the functioning and health of the ecosystems that feed on this resource in different basin zones. This information will favor the different water source feature identification from the feeding areas within the basin to the areas where it is used by each inhabitant of the territory.
\nIn summary, the development of new geographic and temporal information systems using chemical and isotopic tools is of fundamental importance for water distribution, flood, and drought damping infrastructure planning scenarios. Interconnected to other environmental parameters, it will serve as a basis to establish development strategies and provide information for decision-making in areas that depend on mountain hydrology and its complex network of water sources that supply the territory.
\nThe authors would like to acknowledge the Fondap 15110009 project, Center for Climate and Resilience Research [CR2] and to the Fondecyt project Nº 3180682, for their economic support.
\nIntechOpen has always supported new and evolving ideas in scholarly publishing. We understand the community we serve, but to provide an even better service for our IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we have partnered with leading companies and associations in the scientific field and beyond.
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That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"87",type:"subseries",title:"Economics",keywords:"Globalization, Economic Integration, Growth and Development, International Trade, Environmental Development, Developed Countries, Developing Countries, Technical Innovation, Knowledge Management, Political Economy Analysis, Banking and Financial Markets",scope:"
\r\n\tThe topic on Economics is designed to disseminate knowledge around broad global economic issues. Original submissions will be accepted in English for applied and theoretical articles, case studies and reviews about the specific challenges and opportunities faced by the economies and markets around the world. The authors are encouraged to apply rigorous economic analysis with significant policy implications for developed and developing countries. Examples of subjects of interest will include, but are not limited to globalization, economic integration, growth and development, international trade, environmental development, country specific comparative analysis, technical innovation and knowledge management, political economy analysis, and banking and financial markets.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11971,editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jaime-ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",biography:"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments in several universities around the world. Dr. Ortiz has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters, and he has university-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. He has advised, among others, the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Organization of American States, Pre-investment Organization of Latin America and the Caribbean, Technical Cooperation of the Suisse Government, and the World Bank. Dr. Ortiz is the author, co-author, or editor of books, book chapters, textbooks, research monographs and technical reports, and refereed journal articles. He is listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Finance and Business, Who’s Who in Business Higher Education, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who Directory of Economists. Dr. Ortiz has been a Fulbright Scholar and an MSI Leadership Fellow with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. 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Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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