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Jain, S. Datta and S. 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Gargiulo and Alistair McEwan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/506.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24082",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaetano",surname:"Gargiulo",slug:"gaetano-gargiulo",fullName:"Gaetano Gargiulo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2715",title:"Independent Component Analysis for Audio and Biosignal Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3915fb2a427c73e9aeee010bb1857ae5",slug:"independent-component-analysis-for-audio-and-biosignal-applications",bookSignature:"Ganesh R Naik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2715.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2276",title:"Dr.",name:"Ganesh R.",surname:"Naik",slug:"ganesh-r.-naik",fullName:"Ganesh R. 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Naik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"73075",title:"Microfluidic Devices: Applications and Role of Surface Wettability in Its Fabrication",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93480",slug:"microfluidic-devices-applications-and-role-of-surface-wettability-in-its-fabrication",body:'The era of microfluidics started in 1980s with the development of silicon etching procedures which were made for microelectronics industry. This paved way for manufacturing of first of its kind devices called Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS). In these devices mechanical microelements were integrated together on a silicon wafer. In the 1990s, researchers explored applications of these devices in the field of biology, chemistry and biomedical. They used these devices for controlling liquid’s movement in micro channels which paved way for microfluidics. Laboratories on chip were developed for incorporating all the major procedures of biology, chemistry or biomedical on single platform. But, this use to come with huge cost and infrastructure for microelectronics industry. In 2000s a new era of microfluidics was started with the development of molding micro channels in polymers. This lead to decrease in cost as well as manufacturing time that caused the boom in the area of microfluidics and motivated researchers of all fields to work using them [1]. In the era of fast pacing science, microfluidic are devices to enhance pace of research and decrease the experimental cost. They run on principle of various types of taxis, majorly chemotaxis. Taxis is the movement of particles according to some external guiding agent. This agent can be heat, oxygen, pressure, electric field or chemical, etc. Various types of taxis, their applications and microfluidics are discussed in this chapter. Microfluidic is the technology where movement of the particles is on the basis of microenvironment consisting of viscosity, surface tension and pressure. In microfluidics, micro channels are molded or etched over the silicon, glass or various polymer materials such as PolyDimethylSiloxane. These types of devices are vastly being used in all the fields of research, diagnostics and therapeutics. In microfluidics, the micro channels are formed to attain the desired result which can consist of: mixing, sorting, pumping or controlling the biochemical microenvironment. They have the advantage of decreasing the response time and experimental consumables and overall cost. They have the potential to perform large scale experimentation in small scale. Important factors to be considered for fabrication of microfluidic devices are temperature resistance, superior optical transparency of the material, high hardness, excellent electrical isolation, thermal stability, chemical inertness to many fluids, biocompatibility, and surface wettability. The performance of microfluidic device depends majorly upon etched or molded micro channel’s surface properties. Therefore surface modification is an important factor to improve overall performance of microfluidic devices. Surface roughness, surface heterogeneity and solution impurity are the key parameter which affects the wettability of microfluidic device.
Molecules are always in motion irrespective of their state. Molecules in solid state have least freedom while in gaseous state have maximum freedom. Freedom of movement of molecules in liquid phase lies between molecules in solid and gaseous phases. Heat and temperature are factors that affect the movement of molecules. Enhance temperature increases the translational movement of molecules. Movement of molecules can be random or directed towards certain stimuli. Random movement is termed as “kinesis” while directed movement towards certain stimuli is termed is “taxis”. For taxis, there is sensory component to detect the attractant and motor component to enable the movement towards the stimuli [2]. Taxis are classified on the basis of the stimulus into various categories.
Aerotaxis is the movement of molecules where oxygen acts as stimulant [3]. It has been observed in bacteria and other microorganisms. Active movement of cells is observed along the gradient of oxygen. Aerotaxis plays role in cell survival as optimal concentration of oxygen is required for cell metabolism and growth [4].
Anemotaxis is the movement towards wind. It is observed in drosophila and some terrestrial mammals such as rats which tend to follow the wind. Drosophilla has been observed to move against the air current [5]. Rats were also observed to follow anemotaxis as air current carries information regarding location and odor content [6].
Barotaxis is the movement towards stimulus that is pressure. Movement due to hydraulic resistance (resistance to flow as a result of liquid) is also termed as barotaxis. This type of movement is observed in the neutrophils, a type of immune cell. Neutrophils follows path of least hydraulic resistance.
Chemotaxis can be defined as the movement of cells towards the higher chemical concentration gradient [7]. It is directional locomotion of cells and was first described in the bracken fern spermatozoa in 1884 by Pfeffer. Later in 1888, this phenomenon was described by Leber in mammalian leukocytes in response to an injury. Chemotaxis is an important process required for the growth and development of multicellular organism, immune response and cancer metastasis [8].
Durotaxis is the movement of cells towards more rigid gradient which is a result of variation in the structural property of the extracellular matrix. This type of motion implies movement towards more stiffness [9]. This type of motion has been observed in various cell types such as human fibroblast cells, mesenchymal cells and cancer cells. Substrate rigidity is the stimulus that initiates the movement in durotaxis [10].
Electrotaxis is also termed as galvanotaxis and implies movement guided through electric field or current [11]. Living cells have the tendency to sense and follow direct current electric field. This type of movement is observed in both
Gravitaxis is characterized by directional movement in response to gravity [13]. This type of movement is observed in the motile microorganisms such as euglena where gravity acts as stimulus to select their niche in environment. It can be both positive and negative. Positive gravitaxis implies movement towards water while negative gravitaxis implies movements towards the surface [14]. This type of motion is observed in
Moisture acts as stimulus in hydrotaxis. Movement of cells, animals or plants towards more moisture is termed as positive hydrotaxis and towards less moisture is termed as negative hydrotaxis. Hydrotaxis is observed in the
Magnetotaxis is the movement due to magnetic field. This type of movement is a character of diverse group of gram-negative bacteria that perform their orientation and coordination movements according to earth’s magnetic field [19]. They are majorly aquatic and swim along the geomagnetic field lines. These types of bacteria are also termed as magnetotactic bacteria [20]. Supramolecular adaptive nanomoters have been developed that exhibit magnetotactic behavior and their guided motion is observed in the tissue model [21].
Phototaxis is the movement towards or away from the light source. This type of movement is characteristic of phototrophic organisms and is also observed in plants. Prokaryotes use type-I sensory rhodopsin photoreceptors for phototaxis and it allows them movement towards steep light gradient. Cyanobacteria can also perform phototaxis but they also can perform it in two-dimension only through gliding on the surface. Eukaryotes have the ability to navigate through light vector in three-dimension in open water [22].
Rheotaxis is the movement in response to water or air current. This type of motion is observed in aquatic animals where their movement occurs in response to water current [23]. When movement is towards oncoming water current, it is termed as positive rheotaxis while movement opposite of oncoming water current is termed negative rheotaxis [24]. This type of motion is observed in zebrafish, Crustaceans and American lobsters [25].
Thermotaxis is the movement towards or away from temperature gradient. In this motion, organism move towards temperature source. Slime molds and nematodes are known to move along shallow temperature gradient [26, 27]. Mammalian sperm is also observed to perform theromtaxis to reach towards the oviduct in the female body [28].
Microfluidics is the technology based upon behavior of fluids in the microenvironment. Fluids tend to behave very differently in micrometric scale as compared to macro scale. These characteristics of fluids are now been used for various studies based upon taxis. In macroscopic system, pressure, volume and temperature are the key players whereas viscosity, surface tension, high shear rate and geometric effects (high surface to volume ratios, constriction, and bifurcation) are the key drivers of the microfluidic system [29]. Microfluidics is the integration of fluids physically restricted to sub-millimeter dimensions with micro/nanostructures and devices [30]. Microfluidics is an emerging interdisciplinary field consisting of engineering, physics, chemistry, microtechnology, biotechnology and material sciences [31]. The reason for its emergence is miniaturization of operational unit in the microfluidic devices. Miniaturization is preferred as all operations can be packed in small form that can be automated and is portable [32]. Low amount of materials and chemicals are required for development and samples required is also less. Automation enables widespread use of the system without any special training requirements. Easy disposals, low cost, reduction of cross-contamination and fast response time are other benefits of the microfluidic system [33].
The global size of microfluidic devices was USD 13.5 billion in 2019 and is supposed to have a compound annual growth rate of 11.3%. The large market size is due to its multi-application and ease of usability. Basic layout of microfluidic devices consist of incorporated fluid channels in at least one direction. These channels provide high surface to volume ratio which is useful in applications such as biochemical analysis, antimicrobial susceptibility test and heat exchange modules. This field started with applications in chromatography and electrophoresis [34]. With time it has evolve and currently it has vast applications due to development of new fabrication materials and technologies [31]. Its applications include environmental sensing, biomedical applications, drug discovery, drug delivery, micro scale energy systems, artificial organs, micro scale chemical testing and production, micro propulsion, combinatorial synthesis and assays. These applications have been classified under broad categories for discussion in this chapter.
Microfluidics can be used in biomedical field as analytical arrays, gradients, separators, microdiluters, gel structures, droplets, painting cells and devices [35]. In arrays, a set of multiple microchannels is used to study the relationship between different cells with proteins or chemicals within a combinatorial system. This type of system can be used for detection of specific proteins in large number of samples, antibiotic resistance testing, etc. Microfluidics can be used for generation of very steep gradients that cannot be created using other macro techniques [35]. These gradients are useful in the study of macromolecules and cells in response to their varying environment. Biochemical gradients are useful in dictating physiological processes such as proliferation, differentiation and migration. These gradients play an important role in tissue generation as well. They are used for organ on chip techniques also. Phil et al. used drug gradients for activity measurement over CHO cells [36]. Migration and behavior of neutrophils according to protein gradient has also been studied [37]. Chung et al. used growth factor gradient to study the differentiation of human neural stem cells [38].
Microfluidics can be used as diluters where solution is passed through series of controlled dilutions to be used in a specific assay. Ainla et al. have shown use of pulse width flow modulation based designing of microdiluter [39]. They used this microfluidic diluter for analyzing the effect of Ca(2+) concentration over phospholipid bilayer spread onto a SiO2 surface. Microdiluters can also be used as immunoassays for detection of multiple antigens at a same time [40]. Microfluidics can be used in conjunction with gels or microchannels can be made in gels using soft lithography technique. Various types of gels in which microfluidic can be fabricated are agarose, agar and calcium alginate. These types of systems can be used to study complex microenvironment of cells. Takeuchi et al. used microchannels fabricated in agarose to grow
Point of care devices are diagnostic measures that are directly used by patients and without requirement of medical staff. A simple paper based microfluidic that can be used as point of care device are known as lateral flow test (LFT). Porous material such as glass fiber, nitrocellulose and cellulose paper can be used for fabrication of LFT. The components on microfluidic LFT device are sample collection pad, a dried conjugate pad followed by a reaction area and an absorbent wicking pad. This is incorporated within a plastic housing and plastic barriers throughout to maintain one dimensional flow. The best example of LFT is dipstick pregnancy test kit. This test works on the principle of an immunoassay. Sample which is urine is applied to the sample pad and rehydrates the goldnanoparticles conjugated detection antibodies [43]. These rehydrates antibodies bind to the target antigen present in the sample. Together they flow to the capture region which consists of control and test line. At the test line, non-labeled antibodies specific for the detection antigen are immobilized. When rehydrated labeled antibodies conjugated with the sample antigen reaches test line, it binds to the non-labeled antibodies specific for that same antigen. This interaction gives visual color change thereby making test line visible in case of positive results. This process is depicted through Figure 1a and b. The wicking pad in the device performs function of attracting the sample through LFT. After reaction membrane is completely wetted, the capture region functions through capillary action.
(a) Non-wetting phenomenon, (b) wetting phenomenon, (c) larger contact angle (non wetting), (d) wetting, (e) angle close to zero complete (wetting).
Paper microfluidics has also been used to provide point of care diagnostics for non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular disease and cancer. In this work, synthetic urinary biomarker is used which is detected through paper microfluidics [44]. These types of devices are also being used for saliva based detection of oral diseases. In the research work by Amy et al. point of care diagnostic device for oral diseased was developed using monolithic disposable cartridge. It was designed in a compact analytical device. This device combined sample pre-treatment procedure of filtering, enrichment and mixing of sample with electrophoretic immunoassays. It can efficiently and quickly measure analyte concentration in the minimally treated and very low volume (20 μl) of saliva sample [45]. Microfluidic devices are also used for digital polymerase chain reaction (PCR) which is a very powerful gene expression analytical tool. Christina et al. showed use of microfluidic based digital PCR for prenatal detection of fetal aneuploidy. Fetal Aneuploidy is the presence of an abnormal number of chromosomes (structures that contain genetic information) in the fetus [46].
Organ on chip is the new class of laboratory models that have advantages of both
The development in the field of integrated microfluidics was successfully laid by its incorporation with the optical elements such as plasmonic surfaces [51] and waveguides [52]. In 2000s, the development of liquid-crystal switchable gratings, microfluidically tunable photonic crystal fibers and bubble switch laid the foundation of using microfluidics as an essential part of the photonic devices. During mid-2000s a new field of “optofluidics” was evolved from the existing technologies in the field of photonics and microfluidics. Using microchannels and photonic elements, optofluidics has the strength of having precise control over light and fluidics at small scale [53]. Microfluidic systems are being used for development of photocatalytic microreactor. A planar microfluidic reactor was developed by Lei et al. It consisted of the small planar chamber where two TiO2 coated slides were used as top cover and bottom substrate. Microstructured UV-cured NOA81 layer was used as the sealant and flow input/output. This reactor has advantages of microfluidics such as easy control of flow, rapid fabrication and large surface/volume ratio. It is the key to more efficient photocatalytic water treatment [54]. TiO2 based microreactor has been developed by Matic et al. for photocatalytic applications. This system was fabricated on metal-titanium foil. Titania nanotubes were mechanically engraved in the substrate foil. Using anodization & hydrothermal treatment TiO2 anatase film was immobilized over the inner layer of these tubules. An additional TiO2 anatase layer was added on top of the film to provide larger photocatalytic area. This microreactor depicted enhanced durability and efficiency [55]. Meng et al. also developed microfluidic based photocatalytic microreactor. They used nanofibrous TiO2 through electrospun to develop this photocatalytic microreactor. It depicted enhance efficiency as compared to TiO2 film based microreactor [56].
Recently, applications of microfluidics have been developed in the form of microfluidic fuel cells. In these cells, all the systems such as fluid delivery, removal, etc. is confined to the microfluidic channel only. These cells do not require a physical barrier for separation of fuel and oxidant species and therefore they operate in co-laminar flow mode. Whereas, in conventional fuel cell a physical barrier such as proton exchange membrane is required. They can be used to power microsystems, generate on-chip power and in consume electronics as well [31]. Microfluidic fuel cells have attracted huge researchers as they are portable power sources with short startup time and environment friendly nature. Microfluidic fuel cell using laminar air flow had been developed by Eric et al. (Figure 2a). It was made through a Y-shaped microchannel consisting of two catalyst covered electrodes on opposite walls. Through these channels, fuel and oxidant merge and flow laminarly parallel between these two electrodes without turbulent mixing. They showed that this type of system can be effectively used to generate microscopic power source for room temperature [57]. There is patented microfluidic fuel cell system for portable energy applications. In this system, microfluidic container, substrate for catalytic composition, a liquid/gas separator, a fuel cell consisting of anode and cathode and electrical connections were all assembled to form this portable energy system [58]. The design of the system and fuel cell components is depicted through Figure 2b and c, respectively [58]. Luke et al. also developed these microfluidic cells based on microbial fuel that can be used to provide power supply to integrated biosensors. This system was developed in polydimethylsiloxane. Here, two carbon cloth electrodes and proton exchange membrane was used.
(a) The reaction of antibiotic dish with bacteria, (b) glass microchannel without bacterial coating, (c) reaction of antibiotic with bacteria in microchannel, and (d) the spreading of chemical reaction in microchannel with different antibodies.
Recent growth in the field of microfluidics has been observed in the field of environmental assessment. Microfluidics is advantageous as multiple processes such as pre-treatment, pre-concentration, separation and detection are incorporated at the same platform. It is used for trace analysis of materials as less risk of contamination is there due to preclusion of sample transportation process. Microfluidics play role in the development of subsurface energy based technologies in the future. Mark et al. developed a microfluidic system based upon high temperature and pressure. Within geo-material micromodels such as rock, cement, clay, etc., direct observations for flow and transport can be made using this system and that too in reservoir conditions. In this micromodel fabrication method, 3D tomography images of real fractures were used as micromodel template. This provided better representation of the pore space and fracture geometries in subsurface formations [61]. Several microfluidic devices can be used for detection and analysis based upon electrochemistry, surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy, chemiluminescence, absorbance and laser-induced fluorescence. These electrochemical and optical based systems can be conjugated on a single micro platform to perform environmental monitoring. These labs on chip systems can be used for real time tracking of pollutants in the environment. Major advantages of these systems are portable compact size, better process control, low-cost production, real-time analysis, low sample consumption and fast response. LOC is used for real-time analysis of pollutants in wastewater. Combining it with the wireless communication, make it a strong tool for modifying data acquisition parameters and data transfer [62].
Microfluidic systems are being used for detection of formaldehyde as well. Formaldehyde is the organic volatile compound found in many household products. It is associated with health risk factors and is also a cause of sick building syndrome. Therefore its detection at real-time in the surroundings is essential for a healthy living. Liu et al. developed a paper based microfluidic system for detection of formaldehyde. Acetoacetanilide reagent is used to implant paper-based chip at reaction site. Concentration of formaldehyde is detected using UV light which induces fluorescence intensity in the dihydropyridine. Dihydropyridine is the complex of formaldehyde with acetoacetanilide. This method was used to detect formaldehyde in the commercial food samples and proved to be an efficient method for detection of formaldehyde concentration [63]. Similarly, Czugala et al. developed a fully integrated microfluidic device to provide wireless and portable analytical platform. This system can be used for detection of nitrite anions in the water. Nitrite anions are one of the water contaminants along with lead, cadmium and nitrate. In this system detection is done through analysis of color intensity of complex formed between nitrite anions and Griess reagent. This color intensity was assessed using low cost Paired Emitter Detector Diode. Biomimetic photoresponsive ionogel microvalve controlled by LED was used for manipulation of on-chip fluid. This system was one of its type that conjugated fully functional microfluidics with photobased valving and photo detection [64]. Microfluidic devices along with porous plugs have also been developed. This device can be used for size based separation of particles including microorganisms and therefore have implications as miniature filter for analysis of water samples. Living radical photo-polymerization technique using wide range of polymers was used for fabrication of these devices. Salt-leaching technique was used for placement of porous plug in the microfluidic channels. Pore size of the porous plug in this device was determined using flow field-flow fractionation. It is a new and cost efficient simple tool for water assessment [65]. Research is moving at a fast pace for development and commercialization of such paper based microfluidic devices that can be conjugated with other existing techniques.
Surface wettability or wetting is the ability of the liquid to maintain contact and interact with the solid surface over which it is flowing. It results from the interaction of intermolecular forces between the molecules of liquid and molecules over the surface of the solid. Surface wettability measurement is a very critical technique to measure the flow of micro fluid in microfluidic applications. In microfluidic devices the detection of small volume change with change in fluid properties is very small because of the micrometer range. In order to detect this small change in micrometer range
In microfluidic devices the motion of chemical reaction governed by chemo taxis gradient and this gradient is responsible for the motion of droplet. The motion of droplet generally measured with the help of wettability and wettability of droplet depends upon the surface. Wettability has a dynamic impact on the displacement of fluid inside micro fluidic device. The change in displacement of any fluid inside any microfluidic device measured in term of spreading of fluid. The spreading behavior of any flowing liquid measured with its wetting behavior and it is generally measured in term of contact angle. The magnitude of contact angle formed by micro fluid with micro-channel wall has great importance to study the characteristics of micro fluidic device.
Example: Suppose a static fluid is placed at the center of any plate and we apply taxis gradient at the two end of plate. The taxis gradient (magnetic, chemotaxis) is responsible for the displacement of fluid inside. The fluid try to spread both in linear (parallel to gradient axis) and lateral (perpendicular to direction of applied gradient) direction. The two directional spreading of liquid makes difficulty in the quantitative measurement in displaced liquid. In order to overcome this issue microfluidic devices play the important role in various scientific testing applications.
The contact angle measurement is carried out using young’s equation is given in Eq. (1). The equation is derived by balancing different interfacial energy in all direction.
where θ = contact angle
σsv = solid/vapor interfacial energy
σsl = solid/liquid interfacial energy
σlv = liquid/vapor interfacial energy.
Wettability of fluid over the solid surface is measured in terms of contact angle (θ). The higher value of contact angle leads to lower wettability (low spreading area of displaced fluid) as shown in Figure 1c. The contact angle close to 0°, as droplet turns into flat puddle shows complete wetting (highest spreading area) as shown in Figure 1e, if angle exceeds zero but is less than 90° as shown in Figure 1d shows wetting [66].
In microfluidic devices the fluid displacement takes place only in linear direction because of micro channel cavity. The quantitative measurement of displaced fluid inside micro channel can be made by measuring the dimension of micro channel and displace length of fluid. The measurement of displace volume with little change in taxis gradient improves the overall sensitivity of device. Sensitivity of device is defined as the measurement of small change in the system by varying input parameter.
The existing process of antibiotic susceptibility measurement uses Petri dish coated with bacteria and divides the Petri dish into required number of segment using marker. An antibiotic dish (different concentrations) is then placed over the bacterial coated Petri dish. The petri dish is then placed over incubator for 24–48 hours. The reaction of bacteria with antibiotic takes place in petri dish and reaction takes place in radial outward direction as shown in Figure 1a. The measurement of reaction in radial direction is difficult to quantify in required scale. To overcome this issue a microfluidic device can be used as antibiotic susceptibility testing device. In this type of device, glass slide micro channel is coated with bacterial coating like petri dish as shown in Figure 1b. Different antibodies are then placed over bacterial coated micro channel for measuring the spreading of reaction due to chemo taxis in one direction and chemo taxis spreading phenomenon can be quantify using microfluidic chip time lapse microscopy as shown in Figure 1d. The spreading of reaction is then measured by the dimension of micro channel as shown in Figure 1c.
In this study, microfluidic device for mixing three liquid is used. In this device, three different liquid A, B and C is used to mix in different concentration and their mixing reaction is measured with the range of output mixing micro channel as shown in Figure 3. In this type of device the change in output parameter can be detect significantly my using small volume of liquid droplet. These devices are very useful to measure mixing behavior of two or more liquid for various chemical mixing applications.
Microfluidic device for mixing different liquid.
The wettability is generally are properties of displaced liquid measured in term of contact angle. The surface morphology, material impurity and porosity are the properties which affect the wettability.
Effect of surface roughness: All smother surfaces look rough in microscopic level. The rough surface of solid specimen affects the wettability of liquid over the solid surface. The contact angle formed with flat surface is called apparent contact angle θa and it is consider by considering ideal surface condition. The actual contact angle θA is generally higher than that of apparent contact angle θa as shown in Figure 4a,b. To calculate real surface free energies of liquid actual contact angle is used. Generally hydrophilic surface is considered to be the best surface where lower value of contact angle is obtain. The wettability of liquid surface generally increases as we decrease the surface roughness of solid surfaces. The relation between roughness and wettability was explained by Wenzel and stated that if the surface is chemically hydrophobic it will become more hydrophobic when surface roughness is added. According to Wenzel,
Effect of surface roughness on the wettability of fluid.
R is the surface ratio between actual and projected area of solid surface over which fluid is flowing. For smother surface R = 1 and apparent contact angle becomes equal to actual contact angle. Other than surface roughness, impurity and porosity in solid surface effect wettability.
In microfluidic device, the displacement of fluid takes place continuously, and it is very difficult to measure wettability (contact angle formed by moving fluid with the wall of micro channel). The Sessile drop method and image analysis techniques are the method used only for measuring the static contact angle of liquid in micro channel device. For biomedical and clinical application the chemotaxis reaction takes place continuously and required continuous monitoring of contact angle
In situ image capturing system for measuring wettability of microfluid devices.
In this system a microscope is just place at the top of microfluidic device and it captures the motion of chemical reaction change in micro channel. A light source is applied from the side to capture the video with more celerity with the help of high speed camera and store video into computer. The video is than sliced into image in required time interval as shown in lower left corner of figure. The Enlarge version of captured screen is shown in lower right corner of Figure 5 which shows the measurement of contact angle variation at different time interval.
The selection of microfluidic fabrication process is dependent on type of material selection for different microfluidic application. The special grade stainless steel, borosilicate glass, PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane), PMMA(Poly methyl metacrylate) copper, aluminum and Acrylic have been used as solid material for microfluidic device fabrication. Chemical etching, 3D printing, Additive manufacturing, micromachining are the common manufacturing practices for the development of different microfluidic devices [68, 69, 70].
Microfluidic devices are one of the most widely used devices of twenty-first century. They are being used in almost all the fields including biomedical, energy, chemical, environmental, etc. Microfluidics is the technology based upon various types of taxis, specifically chemotaxis. Surface wettability is an essential factor in the development of microfluidics. Elucidating mechanisms to improve surface wettability will help in the betterment of microfluidic devices. There are still unexplored applications of microfluidics such as in paint industry: to study the mixing and spreading of paints. Initially, microfluidics developed due to advancement in the field of silicon etching and molding of micro channels technique. The further advancement in the fabrication techniques will pave way for development of high-leveled microfluidic devices that will open a new era of research in all the fields.
We would like to acknowledge DARVUN India for providing us the opportunity of working for them.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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ASD is associated with deficiencies in communication and social interaction, as well as restricted and repetitive behavioural patterns, according to the fifth edition of the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5). By using the ISI Web of Knowledge as the reference data basis, we perform a bibliometric study of the use of VR as an educational tool for high-functioning ASD children. By this study we can quantify, on the one hand, the up to day importance of the different types of VR applied to this field: immersive or non-immersive, as well as the use of human or agent avatars. On the other hand, we can also differentiate amongst those interventions that work on emotional and social competences. The analysis of periods of research scarce, research abundance and research trends provides a dynamic view of the strategies used in this field in the last 20 years and suggests future lines of research.",book:{id:"6327",slug:"contemporary-perspective-on-child-psychology-and-education",title:"Contemporary Perspective on Child Psychology and Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Perspective on Child Psychology and Education"},signatures:"Jorge Fernández-Herrero, Gonzalo Lorenzo-Lledó and Asunción\nLledó Carreres",authors:[{id:"187920",title:"Prof.",name:"Gonzalo",middleName:null,surname:"Lorenzo",slug:"gonzalo-lorenzo",fullName:"Gonzalo Lorenzo"},{id:"189580",title:"Prof.",name:"Asunción",middleName:null,surname:"Lledó",slug:"asuncion-lledo",fullName:"Asunción Lledó"},{id:"213024",title:"Mr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandez-Herrero",slug:"jorge-fernandez-herrero",fullName:"Jorge Fernandez-Herrero"}]},{id:"68639",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88569",title:"Social Media and Young People’s Mental Health",slug:"social-media-and-young-people-s-mental-health",totalDownloads:2070,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Evidence suggests that social media can impact detrimentally on children and young people’s mental health. At the same time, social media use can be beneficial and have positive effects. This chapter outlines the detrimental and positive effects of social media use for young people. Schools play a critical role in educating young people about how to use social media safely and responsibly. However, schools cannot address all the issues and parents, social media and advertising companies also have a responsibility to protect children and young people from harm. This chapter outlines some of the potential solutions to the issues that are identified.",book:{id:"7927",slug:"selected-topics-in-child-and-adolescent-mental-health",title:"Selected Topics in Child and Adolescent Mental Health",fullTitle:"Selected Topics in Child and Adolescent Mental Health"},signatures:"Jonathan Glazzard and Samuel Stones",authors:[{id:"294281",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Glazzard",slug:"jonathan-glazzard",fullName:"Jonathan Glazzard"},{id:"309587",title:"Mr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:"Oliver James",surname:"Stones",slug:"samuel-stones",fullName:"Samuel Stones"}]},{id:"57391",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71287",title:"Influence of Parental Divorce on Anxiety Level of Adolescents",slug:"influence-of-parental-divorce-on-anxiety-level-of-adolescents",totalDownloads:1860,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Family divorce might have an effect on some aspects of child development. Adolescence as a transitional stage is marked by process of seeking identity, the need for intimate relationship, as well as the struggle for psychological independence from family. Anxiety is defined as a state of extreme worry, fear, and uncertainty which results from the expectation of a threatening event or situation. The aims of study are: to explore the differences in anxiety levels among adolescents from divorced and intact families; to explore the level of anxiety of adolescents from divorced and intact families with respect to their genders. A demographic questionnaire was created and The Beck Anxiety Inventory was applied to measure anxiety. The scale was applied with 162 participants who were chosen randomly from 5 different high schools in Istanbul province. The study found out that there are statistically significant differences in anxiety level of adolescents between children from divorced and intact families. Descriptive measures are in range as follows: (17.67 ± 9.645). The adolescents from divorced families had a higher level of anxiety (t = 17.322; p < .05). The result related to the second study aim shows that there are no statistically significant differences in anxiety between male and female adolescents from divorced and intact families (p > .05).",book:{id:"6327",slug:"contemporary-perspective-on-child-psychology-and-education",title:"Contemporary Perspective on Child Psychology and Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Perspective on Child Psychology and Education"},signatures:"Senija Tahirović and Gokce Demir",authors:[{id:"214445",title:"Dr.",name:"Senija",middleName:null,surname:"Tahirovic",slug:"senija-tahirovic",fullName:"Senija Tahirovic"},{id:"214465",title:"MSc.",name:"Gokce",middleName:null,surname:"Demir",slug:"gokce-demir",fullName:"Gokce Demir"}]},{id:"57686",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71672",title:"Children and Young People’s Vulnerabilities to Grooming",slug:"children-and-young-people-s-vulnerabilities-to-grooming",totalDownloads:2217,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Child abuse is evolving, pervasive and complex and children are vulnerable to its widespread reach in many aspects of their lives, from face-to-face interactions to those they have online. This chapter aims to review contemporary literature which outlines the vulnerabilities of children to face-to-face and online grooming as part of a process leading to child abuse and exploitation. The chapter will undertake a review of literature on two aspects of grooming: child sexual exploitation (CSE) and radicalisation. It will draw on contemporary case examples to illustrate grooming drawn from UK Serious Case Reviews (SCR) on CSE and, on radicalisation, the case of the three girls from Bethnal Green who were groomed for travel to Syria. It will then reflect on the push and pull factors of grooming to highlight the similarities between CSE and radicalisation. Moving on, the chapter will then consider how and if interactive social media simulations, linked to an innovative, preventative educational approach and designed with reference to Vygotsky’s social construction theory, have the potential to educate young people to help protect them from being groomed. The chapter will then make reference to the findings of a small pilot study which evaluated the use of this approach with young people.",book:{id:"6327",slug:"contemporary-perspective-on-child-psychology-and-education",title:"Contemporary Perspective on Child Psychology and Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Perspective on Child Psychology and Education"},signatures:"Jane Reeves, Emma Soutar, Sally Green and Tracy Crowther",authors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"},{id:"211838",title:"Dr.",name:"Tracy",middleName:null,surname:"Crowther",slug:"tracy-crowther",fullName:"Tracy Crowther"},{id:"211839",title:"Mrs.",name:"Emma",middleName:null,surname:"Soutar",slug:"emma-soutar",fullName:"Emma Soutar"},{id:"211840",title:"Mrs.",name:"Sally",middleName:null,surname:"Green",slug:"sally-green",fullName:"Sally Green"}]},{id:"57269",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71265",title:"Enhancing Young Children’s Access to Early Childhood Education and Care in Tanzania",slug:"enhancing-young-children-s-access-to-early-childhood-education-and-care-in-tanzania",totalDownloads:1476,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter draws on the current situation of limited access of young children to early childhood education and care (ECEC) settings in Tanzania. It offers information and evidence on early childhood education and care (ECEC) from an international perspective to those who are, directly or indirectly, involved with young children and their families. Basically, early childhood education and care in Tanzania is still unsatisfactory. Many children have no access to early childhood settings for various reasons including: lack of parents’ awareness on the importance of early investment in education, lack of support from the government, low socio-economic status of parents, gender discrimination, and traditional norms and cultural values. To improve the situation, there is need for a forging of partnership between the government, parents, and the community. Government policy-makers have to set clear policies regarding how quality early childhood education and care can be equitably funded and conducted throughout the country.",book:{id:"6327",slug:"contemporary-perspective-on-child-psychology-and-education",title:"Contemporary Perspective on Child Psychology and Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Perspective on Child Psychology and Education"},signatures:"Ignasia Mligo",authors:[{id:"212055",title:"Dr.",name:"Ignasia",middleName:null,surname:"Mligo",slug:"ignasia-mligo",fullName:"Ignasia Mligo"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57686",title:"Children and Young People’s Vulnerabilities to Grooming",slug:"children-and-young-people-s-vulnerabilities-to-grooming",totalDownloads:2217,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Child abuse is evolving, pervasive and complex and children are vulnerable to its widespread reach in many aspects of their lives, from face-to-face interactions to those they have online. This chapter aims to review contemporary literature which outlines the vulnerabilities of children to face-to-face and online grooming as part of a process leading to child abuse and exploitation. The chapter will undertake a review of literature on two aspects of grooming: child sexual exploitation (CSE) and radicalisation. It will draw on contemporary case examples to illustrate grooming drawn from UK Serious Case Reviews (SCR) on CSE and, on radicalisation, the case of the three girls from Bethnal Green who were groomed for travel to Syria. It will then reflect on the push and pull factors of grooming to highlight the similarities between CSE and radicalisation. Moving on, the chapter will then consider how and if interactive social media simulations, linked to an innovative, preventative educational approach and designed with reference to Vygotsky’s social construction theory, have the potential to educate young people to help protect them from being groomed. The chapter will then make reference to the findings of a small pilot study which evaluated the use of this approach with young people.",book:{id:"6327",slug:"contemporary-perspective-on-child-psychology-and-education",title:"Contemporary Perspective on Child Psychology and Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Perspective on Child Psychology and Education"},signatures:"Jane Reeves, Emma Soutar, Sally Green and Tracy Crowther",authors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"},{id:"211838",title:"Dr.",name:"Tracy",middleName:null,surname:"Crowther",slug:"tracy-crowther",fullName:"Tracy Crowther"},{id:"211839",title:"Mrs.",name:"Emma",middleName:null,surname:"Soutar",slug:"emma-soutar",fullName:"Emma Soutar"},{id:"211840",title:"Mrs.",name:"Sally",middleName:null,surname:"Green",slug:"sally-green",fullName:"Sally Green"}]},{id:"68639",title:"Social Media and Young People’s Mental Health",slug:"social-media-and-young-people-s-mental-health",totalDownloads:2070,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Evidence suggests that social media can impact detrimentally on children and young people’s mental health. At the same time, social media use can be beneficial and have positive effects. This chapter outlines the detrimental and positive effects of social media use for young people. Schools play a critical role in educating young people about how to use social media safely and responsibly. However, schools cannot address all the issues and parents, social media and advertising companies also have a responsibility to protect children and young people from harm. This chapter outlines some of the potential solutions to the issues that are identified.",book:{id:"7927",slug:"selected-topics-in-child-and-adolescent-mental-health",title:"Selected Topics in Child and Adolescent Mental Health",fullTitle:"Selected Topics in Child and Adolescent Mental Health"},signatures:"Jonathan Glazzard and Samuel Stones",authors:[{id:"294281",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Glazzard",slug:"jonathan-glazzard",fullName:"Jonathan Glazzard"},{id:"309587",title:"Mr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:"Oliver James",surname:"Stones",slug:"samuel-stones",fullName:"Samuel Stones"}]},{id:"57391",title:"Influence of Parental Divorce on Anxiety Level of Adolescents",slug:"influence-of-parental-divorce-on-anxiety-level-of-adolescents",totalDownloads:1860,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Family divorce might have an effect on some aspects of child development. Adolescence as a transitional stage is marked by process of seeking identity, the need for intimate relationship, as well as the struggle for psychological independence from family. Anxiety is defined as a state of extreme worry, fear, and uncertainty which results from the expectation of a threatening event or situation. The aims of study are: to explore the differences in anxiety levels among adolescents from divorced and intact families; to explore the level of anxiety of adolescents from divorced and intact families with respect to their genders. A demographic questionnaire was created and The Beck Anxiety Inventory was applied to measure anxiety. The scale was applied with 162 participants who were chosen randomly from 5 different high schools in Istanbul province. The study found out that there are statistically significant differences in anxiety level of adolescents between children from divorced and intact families. Descriptive measures are in range as follows: (17.67 ± 9.645). The adolescents from divorced families had a higher level of anxiety (t = 17.322; p < .05). The result related to the second study aim shows that there are no statistically significant differences in anxiety between male and female adolescents from divorced and intact families (p > .05).",book:{id:"6327",slug:"contemporary-perspective-on-child-psychology-and-education",title:"Contemporary Perspective on Child Psychology and Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Perspective on Child Psychology and Education"},signatures:"Senija Tahirović and Gokce Demir",authors:[{id:"214445",title:"Dr.",name:"Senija",middleName:null,surname:"Tahirovic",slug:"senija-tahirovic",fullName:"Senija Tahirovic"},{id:"214465",title:"MSc.",name:"Gokce",middleName:null,surname:"Demir",slug:"gokce-demir",fullName:"Gokce Demir"}]},{id:"57167",title:"The Early Childhood Educators’ Attitudes Towards Innovative Instructional Applications about Digital Learning Activities for Young Children",slug:"the-early-childhood-educators-attitudes-towards-innovative-instructional-applications-about-digital-",totalDownloads:1179,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The innovative value and practices of digital learning activities assist early childhood educators in employing effective instruction to improve young children’s performance as well as advance their own professional autonomy to implement digital learning activities for young children. This study examined the factors and relationships about early childhood educators’ attitudes towards the integration and behavioral intention of digital learning tools into young children’s innovative pedagogical activities using a questionnaire survey. The questionnaire consisted of five factors, including digital innovative value (DIV), digital innovative practices (DIP), perception of instructional use (PIU), instructional professional autonomy (IPA), and behavioral intention to use (BIU). The researcher used structural equation modeling to analyze the survey data. The results showed that early childhood educators’ perceptions about innovative value and applications of digital learning activities play a key role in the success of young children’s performance and competence in preschool. The early childhood educators with positive attitudes towards the innovative consideration and practical instructional applications of digital learning activities had more behavioral intention to plan and design instructional activities with innovative applications of digital learning tools.",book:{id:"6327",slug:"contemporary-perspective-on-child-psychology-and-education",title:"Contemporary Perspective on Child Psychology and Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Perspective on Child Psychology and Education"},signatures:"Ru-Si Chen",authors:[{id:"211677",title:"Prof.",name:"Ru-Si",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"ru-si-chen",fullName:"Ru-Si Chen"}]},{id:"57680",title:"Thinking and Learning Demands in Contemporary Childhood",slug:"thinking-and-learning-demands-in-contemporary-childhood",totalDownloads:1454,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Is today’s childhood is the same as the past’s? Frankly speaking, we cannot answer this question as a clear yes. It is obvious that children today are more into tablet computers, social networks and online games than traditional child games. Besides, our communication styles have been changed significantly for the past years. We, no longer need to meet others face to face to ask for help or to chat. Artificial intelligence, machine learning and robots are another story of the contemporary world. Robots capable of perceiving their surroundings and making decisions have started to deprive many people of their jobs. But what kind of jobs will human beings perform? The increasing emphasis on innovation, cooperation, critical thinking, being creative, problem solving, communication skills and project management is an indicator of what kind of a business world will today’s children meet in the future. This on-going trend also includes clues about how should children be educated. This study is focusing on thinking and learning demands expected contemporary children to meet. Throughout the chapter, the changing world was depicted briefly and then demands of the contemporary age on critical thinking, creative thinking, problem solving and learning were explored respectively.",book:{id:"6327",slug:"contemporary-perspective-on-child-psychology-and-education",title:"Contemporary Perspective on Child Psychology and Education",fullTitle:"Contemporary Perspective on Child Psychology and Education"},signatures:"Cenk Akbiyik",authors:[{id:"212205",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cenk",middleName:null,surname:"Akbiyik",slug:"cenk-akbiyik",fullName:"Cenk Akbiyik"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1390",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. 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In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/327897",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"327897"},fullPath:"/profiles/327897",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()