\r\n\tThere will be a chapter on secondary causes of sexual dysfunction disorders related to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. A chapter on remedial measures to enhance sexual activity and maintain human relationships will be discussed. As there is a growing number of cancer survivors a chapter on cancer-related sexual dysfunction will be welcomed for including it.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b988fda30a4e2364ee9d47e417bd0ba9",bookSignature:"Dr. Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11889.jpg",keywords:"Sex, Sexual Response Cycle, Erection, Premature Ejaculation, Libido, Orgasm, Painful Intercourse, Psychological, Female, Lack of Desire, Erectile Disorders, Pain Disorders",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He has done extensive research in andrology, sex education, and counseling.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/167875/images/system/167875.jpg",biography:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He had editorials written in the British Journal of Sexology, Journal of Royal Society of Medicine, Postgraduate Medicine, and Scientist. 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Epidemiology of anaphylactic shock will be reviewed. We will also discuss the biochemical markers and mediators most noted to triggering an anaphylactic reaction. Lastly, we will provide a review on clinical manifestations and management of an anaphylactic reaction in a nonclinical setting and in a clinical setting.
\nThroughout this chapter anaphylaxis will be defined according to the World Allergy Organization (WAO) definition
There are few studies on anaphylactic shock, and most recommendations for anaphylactic shock management come from major allergy organizations: WAO, AAAA/ACAAI, and EAACI. The recommendations of these groups for management of anaphylactic shock are presented in this chapter. Recent changes in anaphylaxis definitions require a review of the immunologic and nonimmunologic biochemical pathways of anaphylaxis.
\nReactions that occur via mechanisms other than IgE mediated mast cell degranulation have been referred to as
Anaphylaxis is typically taught as Gell-Combs classification type 1 hypersensitivity, that is IgE mediated. However, the World Allergy Organization (WAO) proposed a new expanded definition of anaphylaxis
End manifestation of anaphylaxis, occurs when there is inadequate tissue perfusion causing end organ damage.
\nStudies have estimated that the incidence of anaphylaxis is between 0.05 and 2.0% of the population [4], although the actual incidence is not clear. Issues previously identified with epidemiologic studies include variations in definitions, under reporting of anaphylaxis, and unclear use of incidence and prevalence of disease [5].
\nAlthough the actual incidence is not clear, there have been multiple studies showing that the incidence of anaphylaxis in the United States has increased in recent years [6, 7, 8, 9], although the case fatality rate has decreased [8]. Similar findings are reported in other countries, with UK reporting increasing rates of anaphylaxis [10, 11, 12], but no increase in the incidence of fatal anaphylaxis [10]. In Australia the incidence of anaphylaxis [13, 14, 15] and fatal anaphylaxis has increased as well [16]. One study on the incidence of anaphylaxis with circulatory symptoms found a rate of approximately 8–9 cases per 100,000 persons per year [17]. Severe anaphylaxis, including respiratory or circulatory symptoms, occurs more frequently at a rate of about 1–3 per 10,000 people [18].
\nFactors that may affect the incidence of anaphylaxis include geography, seasonal variations, age, and gender [19]. Demographic factors associated with higher incidence include living in northern areas of US [7, 20].
\nAnaphylaxis is caused by massive release of biochemical mediators from mast cell and basophils. Mast cells activation occurs mainly via antigen crosslinking of IgE bound to FcεRI receptors on cell membranes. However, other membrane receptors can activate mast cells as well or potentiate IgE activation [21]. The multiple activation pathways allow for immunologic (e.g. IgE mediated) and/or nonimmunologic activation (e.g. drug directly interacting with receptors) (Figure 1: mechanisms of mast cell degranulation). Some antigens may mediate effects via several mechanisms simultaneously (e.g. vespid venom, NSAIDs, opiates). In non-IgE mediated anaphylaxis, symptoms can occur on first exposure to an antigen as prior exposure and sensitization is not required.
\nMechanisms of mast cell degranulation. Abbreviations: RCM, radiocontrast media; TLR. Toll-like receptor; SCF, stem cell factor; FcεRI, high affinity IgE receptor; FcγR, IgG receptor; TCR, T-cell receptor; NMBA, neuromuscular blocking agent; PAF, platelet activating factor; MHC, major histocompatibility complex.
Reproduced from Spoerl et al. [22] in agreement with publishing under terms of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license.
\nIn IgE mediated anaphylaxis, an immunogen cross links membrane bound IgE in previously sensitized mast cell. Immunogens are typically large foreign proteins with multiple epitope binding sites (e.g. proteins in insect venom and certain foods) [23]. Antigens that are too small to cross link IgE (e.g. penicillin) must first bind to larger carrier molecules in order to elicit an immune response. Common triggers of IgE-mediated anaphylaxis include various food, venom and medications are summarized in Table 1: IgE-dependent triggers and discussed in more detail below.
\nThe most common foods causing anaphylaxis varies by region, in North America the most common food allergies includes milk, egg, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, shellfish, wheat, soy, and sesame [24]. Allergenic proteins have been identified for these common causes as well as in rice, barley, buckwheat, mustard, celery, potato, carrots, and apples [25].
\nMost cases of anaphylaxis due to food occurs in children or those with known food allergies, and fatal cases are rare [7, 8, 10]. When fatal, the cause of death is more often due to respiratory arrest, although shock can occur as well. Arrest occurs later compared to medication or venom, typically occurring 25–35 min after exposure [26].
\nStinging insects belonging to the order Hymenoptera produce venoms that can cause anaphylaxis. The important insects from this order include bees, vespids (wasps, yellow jackets, hornets) and stinging ants [27]. Vespid venom additionally activates complement in an IgE independent mechanism, which may potentiate anaphylaxis [28]. In addition to hymenoptera venom, bites from rattlesnakes [29], hamsters [30], and ticks [31] have been implicated as causes of anaphylaxis. Fatal cases due stings are more often due to shock than respiratory distress, arrest typically occurs 10–15 min after exposure [26].
\nThe most common medications causing anaphylaxis are beta-lactam antibiotics, NSAIDs, neuromuscular blocking agents, and chemotherapy [9, 32] . However, nearly any medication has the potential to cause anaphylaxis, some drugs that have been implicated includes intravenous iron [33], gelatin found in a vaccines [34], dextran [35], and human serum albumin [36]. In addition to IgE mediated mechanisms, other mechanisms of inducing anaphylaxis have been identified for multiple drugs [37]. This includes complement or contact activation (e.g. radiocontrast media, pegylated compounds, liposomal drugs [38], and heparin contaminated with oversulfated chondroitin sulfate (OSCS) [39]) and direct mast cell activation (e.g. opiates and neuromuscular blockers [37]). There have been multiple reports of anaphylaxis occurring to biologic agents, where the patient had IgG but no detectable IgE antibody to the therapy [40]. In medication induced anaphylaxis, shock is more common in severe cases than respiratory distress [26, 41]. Arrest occurs can occur rapidly after exposure, most cases in less than 5 min [26].
\nOnce activated, mast cells and basophils release a cascade of mediators which cause physiologic changes, activate other immunology pathways, and attract other immune cells. Preformed mediators are released immediately upon activation including histamine, tryptase, heparin, and chymase. Over several minutes additional mediators are generated including platelet activating factor, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins (Table 2). Various cytokines and chemokines are generated over several hours further propagate the inflammatory response [37, 42].
\nHistamine has long been considered the principal mediator of anaphylaxis, and concentrations of histamine correlate with symptom severity [42]. Histamine acts on receptors to cause vasodilation and increased permeability [43, 44], bronchoconstriction, and increase mucus secretion. In the heart H2 receptors have positive chronotropic and ionotropic effects and causes coronary vasodilation, while the H1 receptor causes coronary vasoconstriction [45].
\nPlatelet activating factor (PAF) has been increasingly recognized as important in the pathophysiology of anaphylaxis. In PAF receptor knockout mice, symptoms of anaphylaxis are reduced [46]. In humans PAF levels in the serum directly correlates with the severity of anaphylaxis symptoms [47]. In addition to activating platelets, PAF causes vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, decreased myocardial contractility, bronchoconstriction, and initiates allergic response through stimulation of other mediators [48, 49].
\nImmediate release | \nHistamine | \nVasodilation, edema, bronchoconstriction, mucus secretion, change myocardial contractility | \n
Tryptase | \nVasodilation, edema, bronchoconstriction | \n|
Chymase | \nVasodilation, edema, mucus secretion | \n|
Heparin | \nInitiates formation of bradykinin causing edema | \n|
TNFa | \nBronchoconstriction | \n|
Rapid generation (min) | \nPAF | \nVasodilation, edema, bronchoconstriction, platelet activation, decrease myocardial contractility | \n
LTs C4, D4 | \nPotent vasoactive and spasmogenic agents | \n|
Prostaglandin D2 | \nBronchospasm and increase mucus secretion | \n
Anaphylaxis causes a generalized systemic reaction affecting multiple organ systems, symptoms involving the skin occur in 80–90% of cases, respiratory tract in 70%, GI in 45%, CV in 45%, and CNS involvement in 15% [50, 51]. The cardiovascular and respiratory systems are the principal shock organs in fatal anaphylaxis. Death occurs in most often due to shock or acute respiratory distress, but DIC and epinephrine overdose have also been cited as cause of death [26, 52, 53, 54, 55]. Most fatal cases of anaphylaxis due to medication or venoms are a result of shock, in food related anaphylaxis respiratory involvement is the main cause of death although shock is still possible [26, 56].
\nAnaphylaxis develops rapidly with symptoms developing in minutes. Biphasic reactions, where symptoms resolve and then reappear later occurs around 20% of the time [57]. A systematic review of biphasic reactions found the medium time between resolution of initial symptoms and onset of delayed symptoms to be 11 h, with a range of 0.2–72 h [58].
\nCardiovascular manifestations of anaphylaxis develop due to direct and indirect effects of mediators on the vasculature and heart. Increased vascular permeability causes rapid fluid extravasation, with up to 35% of plasma volume shift occurring in a matter of minutes [59, 60]. Vascular smooth muscle relaxation causes vasodilation and a rapid decrease in SVR [61, 62]. Rapid drop in measured CVP suggests that venodilation plays a major as well. The combined effects as extravasation and venodilation cause significant reduction in preload. This can be severe enough to cause Empty ventricle syndrome, has been documented in autopsies of patients who died from anaphylaxis [63].
\nArrhythmias and myocardial infarction can also be seen in anaphylaxis. Arrhythmias may develop due to the combined direct effect of mediators, and hemodynamic changes previously described. Myocardial infarctions seen in anaphylaxis may be due to decreased venous return and direct effects of mediators on coronary arteries causing vasospasm or disruption of atherosclerotic plaques [64, 65].
\nCompensatory response to these changes includes rise in heart rate, ejection fraction, and cardiac index [61, 62]. Although Tachycardia is typical in anaphylaxis, although bradycardia may be seen as well. Bradycardia occurs due to a compensatory
The entire respiratory tract can be affected in anaphylaxis, involving the upper airway and/or lower airway [69]. Upper airway symptoms develop due to fluid extravasation causing mucosal edema [70]. Some symptoms of upper airway involvement include angioedema, stridor, dysphagia, and rhinorrhea [50, 71]. Lower airway obstruction occurs due to mucosal edema, bronchospasm, and mucous plugging [70]. Oxygen saturation may decrease secondary to respiratory effects of anaphylaxis limiting airflow. When there is diffuse lower respiratory tract involvement, decreased oxygen saturation can persist despite endotracheal intubation [72]. When PaO2 is adequate, tissue oxygenation can still be compromised causing anaerobic metabolism. In one study on rats, tissue oxygenation of muscle decreased faster in anaphylaxis compared to nicardipine induced hypotension. The anaphylactic group also showed a greater increase in lactate and lactate-pyruvate ratio indicating depletion of intracellular energy storage [73].
\nMucocutaneous symptoms (e.g. flushing, pruritus, angioedema, and urticaria) are common in anaphylaxis, however in cases of shock cutaneous symptoms are often absent. Vasodilation and increased vasculature permeability leads to flushing and angioedema [74]. In addition to vascular changes, urticaria develops due inflammatory cell infiltration and neuropeptide release from sensory nerves [75]. Gastrointestinal symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain [76]. These symptoms are likely due to intestinal smooth muscle contraction and alterations in water and electrolyte absorption [77, 78]. Neurologic changes are mostly secondary to hypotension and decreased perfusion and may manifest as dizziness, confusion, syncope/presyncope, or headache [50]. More serious effects including seizure and stroke may also be seen but are rare [74, 79].
\nIt is often difficult to recognize anaphylaxis, and many cases go undiagnosed [80, 81]. Early intervention in acute anaphylaxis reduces risk of severe reaction and need for hospitalization [82]. In order to aid in diagnosis of anaphylaxis, diagnostic criteria have been developed (Table 3). In the clinic or emergency department, it may be unclear if the patient had been exposed to an allergen. In the ICU or operating room, rapid development of symptoms after administering medication makes recognizing anaphylaxis easier. Following the acute phase of anaphylaxis, serum tryptase and histamine should be measured to aid immunologist in confirming the diagnosis of anaphylaxis during follow-up care [83, 84]. Plasma tryptase remains elevated for 6 h following the onset of symptoms, but histamine levels remain elevated for just 1 h [85, 86]. Urinary histamine metabolites remain elevated for a longer period and may therefore be more useful than plasma histamine for confirming anaphylaxis [86].
\nAnaphylaxis is likely when one of the following criteria is fulfilled: \n
| \n
There are several conditions which may mimic certain characteristics of anaphylaxis. Acute anxiety can present as dyspnea and near syncope with hyperventilation. Hypoglycemia can precipitate an altered sensorium and syncope. Vasovagal episodes can involve nausea with vomiting, hypotension, pallor, bradycardia, diaphoresis and syncope. Additional considerations include severe reactive airway disease, vocal cord dysfunction and non-allergy mediated angioedema. Vasovagal episodes can involve nausea with vomiting, hypotension, pallor, bradycardia, diaphoresis and syncope [50, 88].
\nThere is a general lack of evidence basis for the treatment of anaphylaxis [89], but multiple expert guidelines highlight the chief treatment as epinephrine, oxygen, and fluids [86, 90, 91].
\nEpinephrine is the first line treatment of anaphylaxis, and delayed administration increases the likelihood of poor outcomes [54, 55, 92]. Despite this, use of epinephrine in anaphylaxis is infrequent and often delayed [80]. There are no contraindications for use of epinephrine in anaphylaxis, and it should still be administered in patients with history of heart disease [93].
\nEpinephrine exerts its effects via alpha and beta adrenergic receptors in a dose-dependent response where beta receptors effects are dominant at low doses, but alpha receptors effects are seen at higher doses. The α1 receptors cause vasoconstriction increasing peripheral vascular resistance and blood pressure and improving coronary and cerebral perfusion. The β1 receptors exert positive chronotropic and inotropic effects which improves cardiac output and increases blood pressure. In the respiratory system, β2 receptors stimulation results in bronchodilation, and relief and respiratory symptoms. β receptors also inhibit release of mediators from mast cells and basophils, via increased cAMP production [94].
\nIn most situations intramuscular administration is preferred, but IV epinephrine can be used in the ICU. IM epinephrine should be given in 0.2–0.5 mg doses (1:1000 dilution), and repeated every 5 min depending on the resolution of symptoms [86]. Studies showed that peak epinephrine concentrations were higher when epinephrine was given IM into the thigh, compared to IM administration in the arm or subcutaneous administration [95]. Multiple doses of epinephrine may be required to reverse symptoms [96]. Care should be taken to closely monitor pulse and blood pressure when epinephrine is administered intravenously as there is greater risk of severe adverse effects compared to intramuscular administration including arrhythmias and myocardial infarctions [97].
\nFollowing epinephrine administration, patients should continue to be assessed for worsening signs of anaphylaxis. Patients should be placed on pulse oximeter and given high flow oxygen as needed. Patients in anaphylactic shock should be placed in supine or Trendelenburg position to increase blood return to the heart. Patients who are sitting upright can have a significant decrease in preload leading to empty ventricle syndrome and PEA [98].
\nDue to the intravascular depletion, fluid is often necessary to maintain pressure. Crystalloids or colloids may be used, although physicians should be aware of the anaphylactic potential of some colloid solutions. Normal saline (0.9% saline) should be chosen over other crystalloids as it remains in the intravascular space longer than dextrose solutions [86, 99]. Caution should taken while giving fluids to patients with heart failure to prevent fluid overload.
\nAntihistamines are often given as adjunct therapy in anaphylaxis, however there is no evidence to support or advise against their use in anaphylaxis [100]. Steroids may be used to prevent biphasic anaphylaxis [86], although there is no evidence to support the use of steroids in acute treatment of anaphylaxis [101, 102].
\nNebulized albuterol or other beta-2 agonists may be useful to treat respiratory distress due to bronchoconstriction. While there is no clinical trial on use of these medications in anaphylaxis, their effectiveness in treating other allergic diseases offers some basis for their use [90].
\nBeta blockers may complicate the treatment of anaphylaxis, as some of the beneficial effects of epinephrine will be diminished [103]. In patients on beta-blockers who do not respond to epinephrine and fluids, other vasopressors should be considered. Glucagon has been reported to be a successful treatment in several case reports of patients on beta blockers who experienced anaphylactic shock [104]. Glucagon mechanism of action is via direct activation of adenylate cyclase, bypassing the blocked adrenergic receptors.
\nVasopressin or phenylephrine can be used to increase systemic vascular resistance without further increasing heart rate. Dopamine or norepinephrine can be added in cases of relative bradycardia [105]. Mechanical support with ECMO has been reported to be successful at treating refractory anaphylaxis with profound myocardial dysfunction [106].
\nMethylene blue has been reported to be an effective treatment in cases of severe anaphylaxis not responding to epinephrine [88], as well as cases of anaphylaxis without hypotension. Methylene blue inhibits NO mediated vasodilation via competitive inhibition of guanylate cyclase decreasing cyclic GMP production and subsequent vasodilation [107]. This mechanism acts independent of adrenergic receptors, and may be effective in patients with refractory anaphylactic shock [108].
\nBefore discharging a patient that experienced anaphylaxis, they should be referred to an immunologist for a thorough evaluation. Labs to assess for anaphylaxis (i.e. tryptase, histamine) should be drawn to assist allergist in making a diagnosis. Patients should also receive a prescription for an epinephrine autoinjector, along with education on how to use it [87].
\nAnaphylaxis is a rapidly acting life-threatening hypersensitivity reaction. Diagnosis of anaphylaxis can be difficult, and early recognition and treatment is essential to prevent development of shock. Shock is more common in cases due to medication compared to food, although shock can occur. The primary treatment in anaphylactic shock is epinephrine, fluids, and oxygen. Additional medications including antihistamines, steroids, and inhaled beta-agonist should be used as needed. In patients who do not respond to epinephrine, other vasopressors or mechanical support can be used.
\nAAAAI | American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology |
ACAAI | American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology |
EAACI | European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology |
WAO | World Allergy Organization |
Ig | immunoglobulin |
Antigen | molecule capable of interacting with Ig, includes immunogens and haptens |
Immunogen | molecule that can interact with Ig and cause an immune response |
Hapten | molecule that can interact with Ig, but cannot cause immune response on its own |
Flexible electronics endows electronic circuits with novel flexibility, foldability, and scalability, breaking the restriction of wafers and greatly expanding the application in various fields, e.g., flexible displays, electronic textiles, and sensory skins [1, 2, 3]. Consequently, flexible electronics has attracted widespread attention from both academic and industrial communities and has witnessed marvelous breakthroughs in terms of material development [4, 5], device fabrication, packaging, and integration [6, 7, 8].
In flexible electronics, semiconductors and devices are mounted onto flexible substrates, mostly polymers [1, 9]. The key to flexible electronics is realizing both high flexibility and desired physical/chemical properties (mostly electrical performance) of the semiconductors. Due to the intrinsic softness and flexibility, polymer semiconductors have long been a popular candidate for flexible electronics [10, 11, 12, 13]. However, carriers in organic materials are rather localized, leading to poor electrical conduction. Another way to realize “flexibility” is to process inorganic materials into ultrathin format to reduce the stiffness [5, 14], and this is why 2D materials or thin films are widely used [15, 16]. However, the thinning-induced flexibility does not change the intrinsic brittleness and rigidity [17, 18] of the inorganic semiconductors, which are constituted mainly by covalent or ion-covalent bonding [19].
Regarding this issue, another important mechanical property, plasticity, should be considered. As a matter of fact, however, plasticity is a long-sought target for inorganic materials, e.g., ceramics [20]. On the one hand, plasticity means machinability, that is, plastic ceramics can be mechanically deformed and processed just like metals do. On the other hand, plastic deformation can prevent the sudden, catastrophic, brittle fracture, which is essential to not only structural materials but also functional materials. Hence, the discovery of the room-temperature plastic inorganic semiconductor Ag2S [21] and the fabrication of full-inorganic Ag2S-based thermoelectric (TE) power generation modules [22] are ground breaking, opening a new avenue toward next-generation flexible electronics.
This chapter will provide an in-time overview for the newly discovered plastic/flexible inorganic semiconductors. We shall first clarify the concept of flexibility and then illustrate the intrinsic plasticity for metals and brittleness for inorganic materials. Then, we will mention the special plasticity and the chemical bonding origins in a few ionic crystals such as AgCl. After that, we will systematically review the extraordinary mechanical properties of Ag2S and fully flexible thermoelectric devices. Finally, the prospect and challenge for plastic inorganic semiconductors as flexible electronic materials will be discussed.
As a matter of fact, “flexibility,” unlike “ductility” or “rigidity,” is not a scientifically clear concept. For flexible electronics, it is widely conceived that only elastic deformation is needed or allowed. In this sense, “flexibility” refers to the ability of the material/device to bend easily in an elastic way. According to Peng and Snyder [23], flexibility
The maximum elastic strain is reached when plastic deformation occurs: ε =
Removing the shape factor (2/
The value of
The ratio of yield strength to Young’s modulus for various materials. Raw data are taken from Ref. [
The above definition treats flexibility as elastic deformability, which is reasonable considering the real application. However, as discussed in Section 1, plasticity is important, particularly for efficient material processing. A plastic material can be easily processed into target geometry with little fracture or waste. In addition, a plastic material gains intrinsic flexibility without the restrict of size, that is, it can be readily deformed without breaking even in the bulk format, which is essentially important for applications requiring energy densities. Nonetheless, plasticity is rarely seen in inorganic semiconductors, which will be discussed in Section 3.
Ductile and brittle behaviors are schematically shown in Figure 2(a). Inorganic semiconductors are mostly constituted by covalent or ion-covalent bonds [25], which assure an appreciable electron orbital overlap, dispersive electronic band, and decent carrier mobility [26]. Covalent bonds are directional, saturated, and localized. Therefore, even a trivial bonding distortion will cause a large instability, which is vividly demonstrated by the deep and steep curve in the interatomic potential versus atomic distance diagram (Figure 2(b)) [20]. As a contrast, ionic bonding is unidirectional and nonsaturated. The columbic force is somewhat diffuse and extended within a large space. Consequently, the bonding distortion will induce a smaller variation in energy, as reflected by the shallow and flat potential-distance curve [20]. Nonetheless, charges in ionic materials are localized around anions, leading to a poor electrical conductivity. Metallic bonding strength is mediate between covalent and ionic bonds. Metal atoms use their outer-shell electrons for two- and multicenter polar interactions, which open the possibility to unite charge transfer with a nonnegligible density of states at the Fermi level. This makes up good electrical conductivity and ductility.
(a) Stress-strain curves for brittle and ductile materials and (b) atomic potential varying with atomic distances.
Beyond the covalent bonding characteristics, the absence of plasticity and flexibility in inorganic materials can be interpreted in terms of dislocations. Various defects exist in inorganic materials (e.g., ceramics) such as vacancies, interstitials, and voids, strongly inhibiting the movement of dislocations. In addition, grain boundaries can cause dislocation pile-up, which may be a kind of crack source. For metals, the pile-up of dislocations near grain boundaries will cause hardening in mechanical properties. For ceramics, ductility is limited by crack nucleation and glide. In fact, the main deformation mechanism for most ceramics is creep. This process is mainly controlled by dislocation climb and diffusion, both of which are strongly dependent on temperature.
Although most inorganic materials are generally brittle, some ionic crystals have been found to exhibit some degree of plasticity upon certain deformation even at room temperature, such as AgCl [27, 28], KCl [29], and LiF [30]. Under a slow strain rate, these crystals exhibit tensile properties like metals and show the phenomenon of neck down [29]. This ductile behavior is attributed to the wavy slip [31, 32]. During the deformation, each grain has its own change and should conform to the distortion of neighbors [33]. The wavy slipping allows to change planes in the vicinity of grain boundaries to permit distortions. The ability of crystals to relax the stress is essential for such a ductile deformation. At higher temperature, dislocations near the grain boundaries are easier to change the slipping planes due to the thermal active diffusion mentioned above, spreading out from boundaries to another grain. Thus, plastic deformation above transition temperature is mainly caused by the increase in slip systems and the dislocate-diffusion-induced creep and cross-slip.
First-principle calculations have been performed to compare the plasticity between AgCl and NaCl [34]. The generalized stacking fault energy (GSFE) and the double of the surface energy 2
The reason for the different plastic behaviors between NaCl and AgCl was further attributed to their fundamental differences in electronic structures (Figure 3). The calculations [34] show that the smaller band gap and larger atomic-orbital overlap (Ag-5s and Cl-3p) contribute to a weak ionic bonding in AgCl. Crystal Orbital Hamilton population (COHP) analysis shows that the energies of initial Ag-Cl bonds gradually decrease as slipping proceeds. Particularly, in the (110), (111) planes, new Ag-Cl bonds are formed; a strong Ag-Ag bond is also formed when slipping on (100) planes. These newly formed bonds lower the unstable GSF energies in these slipping systems. While in NaCl, no newly formed bonds are observed.
The ratio of GSF energy to the double surface energy 2γs of the {001} plane for different slipping systems in NaCl and AgCl. u denotes displacement, and b is the Burgers vector. The data are taken from Ref. [
The plasticity in AgCl was also understood from the perspective of dislocations [35]. Electronic structures of dislocations in AgCl exhibit larger bonding interactions between atomic orbitals than that of NaCl. Also, the nearest neighbor distances around the dislocation core are tend to be shorter than that in NaCl. The two properties lead to a lower core energy (
Very recently, ZnS, a well-known brittle material, was also reported to exhibit extraordinary “plasticity” in complete darkness [36]. ZnS crystals fractured immediately when they deformed under light irradiation. However, the crystals could be plastically deformed to a compression strain of 45% in complete darkness as shown in Figure 4. It is also found that the optical band gap decreased by 0.6 eV after deformation as also clearly reflected by the apparent colors, which is probably due to the formation of extra energy levels at the bandgap edge in the presence of dislocations.
Characterizations of plastic deformation. (a) Stress-strain curves of ZnS single crystals under white or UV light (365 nm) or in complete darkness. (b) An undeformed specimen. (c and d) The specimens deformed under (c) white light-emitting diode (LED) light and (d) UV LED light (365 nm). (e–g) The specimens deformed up to (e)
Based on optical and electronic microscopies, the plastic deformation in complete darkness is caused by glide and multiplication of dislocations belonging to the primary slip system. By contrast, plastic deformation under light irradiation involves deformation twinning. Obviously, the latter corresponds to a much poorer plasticity.
The origins for different deformation types are explained below. The dislocations in ZnS decompose into two partial dislocations. In darkness, the synergetic glide motion of the two partials will cause large slip deformations. On the contrary, under light irradiation, photo-excited electrons or holes can be trapped, thus charging some dislocations. The mobility of the dislocation can be limited by dragging the surrounding charge cloud compensating the dislocation charge. Therefore, the different charge states of the two dislocations in ZnS will lead to the great difference of their mobility, which will lead to the observed deformation twinning.
The work suggests that the mechanical properties are strongly intercorrelated to optical and electronic properties. It also implies that inorganic semiconductors are not necessarily “intrinsically” brittle.
The plastic ionic materials like AgCl are nearly insulating and cannot be used as semiconductors. Recently, α-Ag2S was discovered as the room-temperature ductile inorganic semiconductor as shown in Figure 5 [21]. The plasticity of Ag2S is extraordinary: the engineering strains are ~4.5% in tension, 50% in compression, and above 20% in three-point bending, typical characteristics of metals as shown in Figure 6. α-Ag2S is a typical nondegenerate
Elongation versus electrical conductivity for α-Ag2S and various materials. Adapted from Ref. [
Room-temperature mechanical properties of the semiconductor α-Ag2S. (a) A machined cylinder for the compression test (top) and its deformations under hammering (bottom). (b–d) Strain-stress curves for compression (b), bending, (c) and tension (d) tests at room temperature. Typical materials such as the ceramics yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) and Ti, SiC; the metals Al, Nb, Ni, Cu, Ag, Cu–8.5%Zr alloy, and Fe3C; and the intermetallic compound TiAl are shown for comparison. The inset in c shows the as-cast ingot samples before and after the bending test. Adapted from Ref. [
The marvelous plasticity of α-Ag2S comes from its special crystal structure. α-Ag2S adopts a monoclinic symmetry with the space group
The multicentered, diffuse, and relatively weak bonding gives rise to the small slipping energy and large cleavage energy, i.e., plastic material can slip easily without cleavage as shown in Figure 7. As for α-Ag2S, it is assumed that slip plane is (100) and slip direction [001]. According to the calculation, the slipping energy (
(a) Crystal structure of α-Ag2S along [001] direction. (b) Schematic map for energy variation as a function of interlayer distance
The distribution of the electron localizability indicator (ELI-D) shows a local maximum on the outer side of each S atom, and the basin of this maximum is caused by the formation of a lone pair or a strong Ag-S interaction shown in quantum theory of atoms in molecules (QTAIM). Besides, these lone pairs form double layers in the (100) plane. Thus, the
Li et al. [37] applied
Stress response of α-Ag2S against pure shear strain and biaxial tensile strain, respectively. (a) Shear-stress-shear-strain relations along various slip systems. (b) Tensile-stress-tensile-strain relations along various tensile systems. Adapted from Ref. [
The Ag-S octagon structure would be highly distorted under shear deformation. However, the Ag-S bond lengths change only slightly during shearing. Only when the strain is larger than ~110%, bond breakage would happen. This feature implies that Ag2S would retain its structural integrity even under very large shear deformation. Under (100) [010] shear load, Ag-Ag metallic bonds would form at 0.671 strain. These newly formed bonds strengthen the Ag-S frameworks and contribute to its structural integrity. Under [100] tensile load, the processes of breakage and the formation of Ag-S bond happen at the same time. The structural integrity could thus be preserved to a large strain. Based on these discoveries, they proposed that the easy slip pathways with good structural integrity under shear load are the origin of ductility in Ag2S.
Recent research also found that the single-layer Ag2S is a kind of auxetic materials with unusual negative Poisson’s ratio [38]. According to their calculations, single-layer Ag2S has relatively low Young’s modulus with 61.61 N·m−1 along [010] direction and 2.78 N·m−1 along [100] direction. This is the lowest value found in various 2D materials such as graphite and MoS2. This means that along [100] direction, single-layer Ag2S will show extraordinary flexibility. Moreover, single-layer Ag2S shows negative Poisson’s ratio in both in-plane and out-of-plane directions, which is unique among quasi-2D materials.
The discovery of plastic Ag2S makes it possible to fabricate full-inorganic flexible devices. Pristine Ag2S exhibits a medium band gap (~1.0 eV), high mobility (~100 cm2/Vs), and extremely low lattice thermal conductivity (~0.5 Wm−1K−1 near room temperature) [21], which makes it a potential candidate for thermoelectric application. However, the extremely low carrier concentration (about 1.6 × 1014 cm−3 at room temperature) leads to its poor electrical conductivity. Therefore, the thermoelectric performance of Ag2S should be further optimized, and its plasticity should be maintained at the same time.
By alloying with Se/Te, Liang et al. successfully tuned the carrier concentration of Ag2S by virtue of the lowered defect formation energy of Ag interstitial atoms. Consequently, the electrical conductivity and power factor were largely optimized: the electrical conductivities of Ag2S0.5Se0.5, Ag2S0.8Te0.2, and Ag2S0.5Se0.45Te0.05 reach around 104 S m−1 at room temperature, which are comparable to state-of-the-art brittle inorganic TE materials. The power factors of Ag2S-based materials can reach 5 μW·cm−1·K−2 at room temperature. Meanwhile, Ag2(S, Se), Ag2(S, Te), and Ag2(S, Se, Te) have record low thermal conductivities of 0.3~0.6 Wm−1 K−1 at 300–450 K, among the lowest values observed in fully densified inorganic solids. The band gap of Se or Te alloyed Ag2S-based materials is also reduced, shifting the peak value of
More interestingly, alloying does not severely impair the plasticity. According to the mechanical property test, the ductility and flexibility of Ag2S-based materials would be maintained if the Se content is less than 60% or the Te content is less than 70%. Hence, the materials would possess both good ductility and TE performance when the Se/Te content is in the range of 20~60%, as shown in Figure 9(c). To further verify the robustness of Ag2S-based materials under different usage scenarios, bending cycle test was conducted on Ag2S0.5Se0.5 strip with a thickness of about 10 μm. As shown in Figure 9(f), the variation in Seebeck coefficient and electrical conductivity is less than 10% after 1000 bending cycles with a bending radius less than 3 mm. In addition, the relative resistance variation in the strip under different bending radius is also estimated.
(a) TE figure of merit
Using Ag2S0.5Se0.5 strips as
(a) Upper panel: A schematic of the Ag2S0.5Se0.5/Pt-Rh in-plane device with Ag2S0.5Se0.5 as
The conventional strategy toward flexible TE devices is mounting TE thin-film materials onto the intrinsically flexible substrates. Ding et al. [39] fabricated flexible TE devices based on Ag2Se nanowires and plastic nylon substrate. The hybrid film was hot pressed at 200°C and 1 MPa for 30 min, which endows the film high TE performance and excellent flexibility at the same time. The highest power factor value of as-prepared Ag2Se/nylon film reaches 9.87 μWm−1 K−2 at 300 K, almost the highest value among reported
This chapter reviews the newly emerging plastic inorganic semiconductors (e.g., Ag2S) for next-generation flexible electronics. The term “flexibility” is clarified at the very beginning. It should be recognized that plasticity is important for flexible electronics due to the availability of feasible processing and deformability free of size restricts. The intrinsic brittleness for inorganic semiconductors and ceramics is explained from unidirectional and saturated characteristics of covalent bonds. Historically, ionic crystals like AgCl have been found to exhibit certain plasticity but lack decent electrical conductivity. Groundbreakingly, Ag2S was discovered as the room-temperature ductile semiconductor. From the chemical bonding perspective, the multicentered, diffuse, weak interactions induce easy slipping while maintaining the integrity, which holds well not only for Ag2S but also for other plastic materials. The generalized bonding features are useful guidance for developing new flexible/plastic semiconductors. The electrical properties and thermoelectric performance of Ag2S are readily optimized upon Se/Te alloying while maintaining the plasticity and flexibility. Successively, full-inorganic thermoelectric devices are fabricated based on plastic and flexible Ag2S-based semiconductors, yielding much higher output power density than organic counterparts.
The discovery and application demonstration of plastic Ag2S inorganic semiconductor pave a new way toward next-generation flexible electronics. Facing large-scale applications in electronics and energy conversions, several key challenges lie ahead. First and basically, the mechanisms for plastic deformation in Ag2S needs further investigation, especially on the individual and synergetic effects of both chemical bonding and dislocations, which calls for tremendous efforts of both experimentalists and theorists from a variety of disciplines. Second, practical criteria are required to rapidly screen potentially new, plastic/flexible semiconductors. These performance indicators should be easily available yet insightful, and it is better that they can be implemented into the high-throughput calculations. Third, all the techniques are to be renewed including material processing, electrode/substrate selection, device fabrication, and circuit integration.
Facing all these exciting challenges and fascinating opportunities, there is no doubt that the flexible/plastic inorganic semiconductors will bring a revolution to academic communities, electronic/energy industries, and worldwide market. The next-generation flexible electronics is meant to deeply change our life and reshape the world. The future has come.
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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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This topic is dedicated to biologically plausible descriptions and computational models - at various abstraction levels - of neurons and neural systems. This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"joao-luis-garcia-rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82465",title:"Agroforestry: An Approach for Sustainability and Climate Mitigation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105406",signatures:"Ricardo O. 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