Major dietary carotenoids and their health properties.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83881-111-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-992-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-112-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"acb2875b3bfc189c9881a9b44b6a5184",bookSignature:"Dr. Abdo Abou Jaoudé",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11865.jpg",keywords:"Linear Operators, Normal Operators, Spectral Theorem, Applications, Differential Operators, Integral Operators, Functional Calculus, Complex Variables, Complex Analysis, Theory, Recent Advances, Latest Trends",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 13th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 20th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 7th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"12 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé is a pioneering Associate Professor of Mathematics and Statistics at Notre Dame University-Louaizé. He holds two PhDs in Mathematics and Prognostics from the Lebanese University and Aix-Marseille University. His research interests are in the field of mathematics.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",middleName:null,surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248271/images/system/248271.jpg",biography:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé has been teaching for many years and has a passion for researching and teaching mathematics. He is currently an Associate Professor of Mathematics and Statistics at Notre Dame University-Louaizé (NDU), Lebanon. He holds a BSc and an MSc in Computer Science from NDU, and three PhDs in Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, and Applied Statistics and Probability, all from Bircham International University through a distance learning program. He also holds two PhDs in Mathematics and Prognostics from the Lebanese University, Lebanon, and Aix-Marseille University, France. Dr. Abou Jaoudé's broad research interests are in the field of applied mathematics. He has published twenty-three international journal articles and six contributions to conference proceedings, in addition to seven books on prognostics, pure and applied mathematics, and computer science.",institutionString:"Notre Dame University - Louaize",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Notre Dame University – Louaize",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lebanon"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"15",title:"Mathematics",slug:"mathematics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"66329",title:"The RR Interval Spectrum, the ECG Signal, and Aliasing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85327",slug:"the-rr-interval-spectrum-the-ecg-signal-and-aliasing",body:'\nThe RR interval spectral analysis is usually based on heart rate data collected in two ways. In one method, the data are collected by analog to digital conversion of the ECG signal and computer evaluation of the RR intervals from the ECG signal. In the second method, devices are used whose output is the RR interval alone. The advantage of the first method is the control of accuracy and flexibility of the evaluations. The second method has the advantage of storing smaller amount of data, and it can be easily used online.
\nIn the first method, usually the number of collected data (sampled ECG signal) is of two to three orders of magnitude larger than the RR interval data. Thus if only RR interval is analyzed, a large amount of data is unused. In this paper we are trying to take advantage of the ECG sampled signal and to derive new information in addition to the conventional RR interval analysis [1, 2, 3, 4, 5].
\nThe ECG signal spectrum is bounded below the frequency f
In order to get an insight, we performed an experiment, in which the ECG signal of one of the authors (AG) was detected, while the breathing rate was larger than half the heart rate. A constant breathing rate for a time exceeding 5 minutes was monitored with good accuracy using a special breathing procedure with a metronome. The results show distinctively a very sharp peak in the spectral analysis of the ECG signal and corresponding (diffused) aliasing peaks in the RR interval spectral analysis.
\nThe spectral analysis of the ECG signal was performed with the standard FFT procedures. The spectral analysis of the RR intervals was performed with several techniques in order to take into consideration that the data were unevenly sampled. This is presented in Section 2. In Section 3, we discuss the possibility of aliasing in the spectral analysis of the RR intervals. In Section 4, we compare power estimations of ECG’s and RR intervals of three experiments. In Section 5, we analyze the results. In Section 6, summary and conclusions are presented.
\nThe methods of spectral analysis are well developed for evenly sampled data [6, 7]. The RR interval data are unevenly sampled in time. In most cases an analysis is performed with respect to beat numbers which are evenly spaced. We will below justify this method using least square principles. But as was recently indicated by Laguna et al. [8], the resampling of data is causing the appearance of additional harmonics. They recommend to use a method developed by Lomb [9]. The errors of resampling the beats can, to large extent, be overcome by using a cubic spline interpolation. In this work we are suggesting a new method of treating unevenly sampled data, which, unexpectedly, gave good results beyond the Nyquist frequency.
\nLet us assume that the RR intervals are given at unevenly sampled times \n
and let us generate in the interval \n
We will use the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) for a basis formed from the evenly sampled times \n
The coefficient \n
with the result
\nEqs. (3 and 5) can be handled easily with standard FFT programs. This is the usual procedure which is adopted in most of the papers dealing with RR interval analysis [4, 5].
\nFFT can be applied more efficiently if the unevenly sampled data are interpolated at evenly spaced intervals of Eq. (2). The cubic spline interpolation is one of the good ways to do it.
\nThe Lomb method [9] was extensively analyzed in Ref. [8]. We give here only the formulae in the form of the Lomb normalized periodogram:
\nwhere \n
We present here a new method of treating unevenly spaced events which we call the “nonuniform discrete Fourier transform” (NUDFT).
\nLet us assume that \n
Our aim is to find a good approximation to this expression in terms of the unevenly sampled signal \n
We start with the Euler summation formula:
\nand make the following decomposition of the integral on the right hand side of Eq. (9)
\nand approximate each of the integrals on the right hand side with the trapezoidal rule
\nFrom Eqs. (9) and (11), we obtain:
\n\n
When \n
and the final result, the approximation to Eq. (8), after rearranging the terms, becomes
\nwhere
\nwith the inverse formula
\nwhich is an interpolation formula for \n
Aliasing is a result of undersampling and is a well-known phenomenon. In Ref. [10], aliasing was looked upon from the point of view of symmetry. It is an example of wrong symmetry and as such should be given more attention. It is the outcome of an incomplete basis. It was found in Ref. [10] that for evenly sampled data with a sampling rate \n
where \n
In order to avoid the aliasing symmetry of Eq. (17), the frequencies should be bounded by the Nyquist frequency (denoted here by \n
The ECG signal was sampled with sampling rate 250 Hz, and an electronic filter was applied, which have eliminated practically all frequencies above 32 Hz, thus aliasing cannot occur at frequencies below 125 Hz or even below 32 Hz. The RR intervals were calculated directly from the ECG signal. The sampling rate for RR intervals can be defined only for evenly sampled data and for the methods that interpolate the unevenly sampled data, or one can consider the average sampling rate from Eq. (1) in both cases:
\nwhere \n
Another possibility of detecting aliasing is by comparing the heart rate spectrum with the ECG signal spectrum. Marked differences below the Nyquist frequency for the power distribution of the RR intervals compared to the ECG signal power distribution in the same range may indicate aliasing. But we do not have yet a sound basis to treat this problem.
\nWe have devised an experiment which definitely demonstrates the aliasing in the RR interval spectrum. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first experiment in which one can exactly know the correct frequency above the Nyquist frequency and can follow the development of the aliasing, which appears to be diffused to great extent because the symmetry of Eq. (17) is represented not by one sampling rate but by a distribution of sampling rates, as the RR interval is unevenly sampled.
\nBelow we describe three experiments. One of them was devised to demonstrate aliasing and the other two for learning about the relations between the RR interval spectrum and the spectrum of the ECG signal.
\nWe present below results of three experiments. In the first experiment, the ECG signal was collected in a normal resting state. The aim of this experiment was to compare the ECG spectrum with the RR interval spectrum. In the second experiment, very slow breathing was monitored at a rate of 0.04 Hz. Again the ECG and RR interval spectra were compared. In the third experiment, very fast breathing was accurately monitored at the rate of 74/min and 84/min. These respiratory rates were above half of the heart rates, thus allowing to observe in detail the development of aliasing.
\nIn this experiment (linked with the names of Zahi and Ori, where the second is one of the authors: O.G), which was done in normal, resting conditions, we compare the power estimation of the RR interval and the ECG signal, from which the RR interval was obtained. The ECG signal was sampled at a rate of 250 Hz. Stable intervals of 7-minute duration were chosen for analysis.
\nIn Figure 1a the power distribution of the ECG signal of Zahi is depicted. The attenuation of the power with increasing frequency above 12 Hz is due to the action of an electronic filter. Above 32 Hz the contribution is practically zero. The average heart rate was 0.97 Hz. The above results were zoomed to the interval [0–12] Hz in Figure 1b. One can see distinctively the peak around the average heart rate and the higher harmonics of this peak. The second harmonic is missing, but the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth are distinctively visible; higher harmonics became more and more smeared and indistinguishable above the sixth harmonic. One should also note the large difference in power in the heart rate range, below the Nyquist frequency of 0.49 Hz, which is much smaller than the peak around the average heart rate 0.97 Hz.
\nThe relative power of the ECG signal of Zahi, (a) in the spectral range of 0–36 Hz and (b) in the spectral range of 0–12 Hz.
The power distribution of the RR intervals in the range {0–0.5} Hz was computed according to the methods discussed in Section 2 and is presented in Figure 2a (DFT, beat number analysis), Figure 2b (Spline interpolation), and Figure 2c (NUDFT). For comparison also the power distribution of the ECG signal in the above range is presented in Figure 2d.
\nThe relative power computed (from the ECG signal of Zahi) by four different methods, in the spectral range of 0–0.5 Hz, (a) by DFT, (b) by spline interpolation of the RR data, (c) by NUDFT, and (d) from the ECG signal.
The results of Figure 2a–c are quite similar, but the spline interpolation (Figure 2b) and the NUDFT (Figure 2c) are practically identical. The three graphs show the structure commonly found in the power estimation analysis of RR intervals, namely, the existence of the “high-frequency” (HF), “low-frequency” (LF), and the “very low-frequency” (VLF) peaks. The ECG spectrum shows qualitatively the same structure (but not a quantitative agreement), except that the ECG spectrum is highly suppressed below 0.04 Hz, in the VLF region, indicating a possibility of aliasing in this region in the RR analysis.
\nIn Figures 3 and 4a–d, the results of Ori are presented. The conclusions are similar to those of Zahi, except that in the ECG spectrum, both VLF and LF peaks are missing, indicating the possibility of aliasing in these regions for the RR analysis. Also in the ECG spectrum of Ofek, VLF and LF, present in Figure 5a, are missing. VLF is missing in J.C.’s ECG spectrum (see Figure 6a–6b).
\nThe relative power of the ECG signal of Ori.
The relative power computed (from the ECG signal of Ori) by four different methods, in the spectral range of 0–0.52 Hz. (a) by DFT, (b) by spline interpolation of the RR data, (c) by NUDFT, (d) from the ECG signal.
The relative power computed (from the ECG signal of Ofek) by two different methods, in the spectral range of 0–0.6 Hz, (a) by spline interpolation of the RR data, (b) from the ECG signal.
The relative power computed (from the ECG signal of J.C.) by two different methods, in the spectral range of 0–0.46 Hz, (a) by spline interpolation of the RR data, (b) from the ECG signal.
In this experiment (linked again with the name Ori), we have checked the ECG spectrum near the VLF region, as the VLF was absent in the ECG spectrum for the resting state in the first experiment. The question was whether such a result persists in all ECG spectra. Therefore we have probed the VLF region by monitoring very prolonged breathing with a rate of 0.04 Hz. For the spectrum of RR intervals, we found that the DFT, spline interpolation, and NUDFT give similar results, and again NUDFT was practically identical to the spline interpolation. Therefore we present only the results of NUDFT, which are presented in Figure 7a. For comparison the spectrum of the ECG signal is given in Figure 7b. In Figure 7a one can see a very clean pattern of a peak at 0.04 Hz and its higher harmonics. In Figure 7b one can see a similar but somewhat diffused pattern. Thus this experiment indicates that similar respiratory patterns exist in both the RR and in the ECG signals.
\nThe relative power computed (from the ECG signal of Ori with breathing rate of 0.04 Hz) by two different methods, in the spectral range of 0–0.62 Hz, (a) by NUDFT, (b) from the ECG signal.
In this experiment (linked to the name Alex, who is one of the authors: AG), very fast breathing was accurately monitored at the rate of 74/min and 84/min, respectively. These rates were well above half of the average heart rate, thus allowing to observe in detail the development of aliasing. In Figure 8 the ECG spectrum is dominated by the very high and narrow peak at the frequency \n
The relative power of the ECG signal of Alex with a breathing rate of 1.234 Hz.
The relative power computed (from the ECG signal of Alex with a breathing rate of 1.234 Hz) by two different methods, in the spectral range of 0–1.5 Hz, (a) by NUDFT, (b) from the ECG signal.
A 100 bin histogram of the heart rates of Alex which are subtracted by the breathing rate of 1.234 Hz.
In principle the NUDFT and the Lomb methods should not be used above the Nyquist frequency. Surprisingly enough we have found that both methods have a sharp peak at \n
Similar results for the breathing frequency 84/min are presented in Figures 11–12.
\nThe relative power of the ECG signal of Alex with a breathing rate of 1.404 Hz.
The relative power computed (from the ECG signal of Alex with a breathing rate of 1.404 Hz) by two different methods, in the spectral range of 0–1.6 Hz, (upper figure) by NUDFT, (lower figure) from the ECG signal.
Since our experiment, which demonstrated how aliasing is developing in human beings, nobody had performed experiments on human beings. The reason is that till now, nobody dared (except one of us, AG) to do extremely fast breathing of 74 breaths/min and 84/min, for more than 5 minutes. After reading our preprint, Campbell [17] and his colleagues found an aliasing in fish [17]. Other researchers were more concerned with preventing aliasing, observing the phenomenon in speeded heart rate, and in constructing aliasing filters [18, 19, 20, 21].
\nThe ECG signal spectrum is bounded below the Nyquist frequency f
In order to get insight into this problem, three experiments have been analyzed. In the first experiment, the ECG signal was collected in a normal resting state. The aim of this experiment was to compare the ECG spectrum with the RR interval spectrum. In the second experiment very slow breathing was monitored at a rate of 0.04 Hz. Again the ECG and RR interval spectra were compared. In the third experiment, very fast breathing was accurately monitored at the rate of 74/min and 84/min, respectively. These respiratory rates were above half of the heart rates, thus allowing to observe in detail the development of aliasing.
\nThe experiments which were described above led us to the following conclusions:
The spectral analysis of the ECG signal is more sensitive and accurate than the RR interval spectral analysis and is free from aliasing. Still in the present stage, it contains too much information to be of practical use. Efforts should be made to understand what will be the best way to extract information (not related to the heart condition alone as in the standard analysis of ECG) about the external influences on the heart signal.
We have conducted an experiment which gave a clear insight about the mechanism of aliasing in the RR interval spectrum. The very sharp peak in the spectrum of the ECG signal, which came as the result of enforced quick breathing, reappeared as a diffused signal in the RR spectrum. The extension of the diffuseness agrees with the extension of the sampling rates of unevenly sampled data.
The VLF peak observed in the RR interval spectrum is usually missing in the ECG spectrum. This leads us to suspect that the VLF observed in the RR spectrum has its origin in aliasing.
In some cases the LF peak does not show up in the ECG spectrum. This led us to suspect that part of the LF peak is of aliasing origin.
Unlike in electronic devices, it is very difficult to devise procedures to detect aliasing in humans. In electronic devices aliasing can be easily detected by changing the sampling rate. In humans the fluctuations of the heart rate are of the same order as the required changes in the sampling rates. It will be an important task to develop a proper procedure for detecting aliasing in humans.
We have developed a new technique for spectral analysis for unevenly sampled data called nonuniform discrete Fourier transform (NUDFT). When employed to the RR data, below the Nyquist frequency, it gave similar results as those obtained by interpolating the data with a cubic spline. Above the Nyquist frequency, the correct peak in the spectrum was detected with great accuracy. A similar result was obtained with the recently rediscovered Lomb method. We interpret this unexpected result by a partial destruction of aliasing symmetry in both methods. More efforts should be made in order to understand the anti-aliasing properties of the above methods.
We consider aliasing to be a wrong symmetry, resulting from the use of an incomplete basis, which has intrinsic symmetries inconsistent with the properties of the signal. Aliasing can be partially removed by reducing the symmetry of the basis.
Tomato (
Carotenoids are well-known bioactive compounds involved in preventing the development of diseases such as diabetes, gastrointestinal and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), for example, by reducing the amount of oxidized low-density lipoproteins (LDLs). They are also known to reduce the risk of developing degenerative diseases such as blindness, xerophthalmia, and degeneration of muscles. In addition, carotenoids possess anticancer properties in health conditions, such as stomach, lung, and prostate cancers [3], being this disease-preventing action attributed to their antioxidant components. Lycopene and β-carotene are carotenoids with particularly strong antioxidant activities, based on their abilities to quench singlet oxygen and trap peroxyl radicals [8]. In this chapter, the potential of tomato carotenoids in chronic disease prevention is discussed. The role and types of carotenoids are presented, after which the composition and distribution of carotenoids in tomato and tomato-based products are documented. The factors influencing the bioavailability of tomato carotenoids are explained. Finally, the action of carotenoids in the risk reduction of non-communicable diseases is detailed.
Carotenoids represent a large family of non-water-soluble pigments that range from yellow to red and are predominantly found in fruits and vegetables [9, 10]. Generally, carotenoids are a class of isoprenoid molecules that are commonly referred to as pigments due to their characteristic yellow to red color. This physical property is due to a polyene chain containing 3–13 conjugated double bonds that act as a chromophore. All photosynthetic organisms (such as plants and algae) and some non-photosynthetic bacteria and fungi synthesize carotenoids that are tetraterpenes (terpenes consisting of eight isoprene units, C40H64) derived from phytoene, a 40-carbon isoprenoid [11, 12]. Some carotenoids called higher carotenoids are made up of a 45- or 50-carbon skeleton, while those having carbon skeletons with fewer than 40 carbons are called apocarotenoids [13]. Carotenoids can be synthesized de novo by flora and microbes, and do not occur naturally in mammals with minor exceptions [14]. Therefore, carotenoids found in animal tissues are either directly obtained from their diets or partially modified during metabolic reactions [15, 16]. Carotenoids are essential compounds in all photosynthetic species, such as algae, cyanobacteria, and plants, and are involved in basic physiological processes, such as photoprotection and photosynthesis. They serve numerous important functions, such as light-harvesting, photoprotection during photosynthesis, and photo-oxidative damage prevention, and also accumulate in non-photosynthetic organs of plants, such as fruits, pericarps, seeds, roots, and flowers. They provide color to flowers and fruits which is useful in pollination and seed dispersal through pollination vector attraction. They also serve as precursors for the biosynthesis of the phytohormone, abscisic acid (ABA) in non-photosynthetic organs [12, 13, 16].
Carotenoids can broadly be classified into two subgroups according to their chemical structure—(1) carotenes (hydrocarbon carotenoids), which are made up of carbon and hydrogen. Examples of carotenes include α-carotene, β-carotene, β, ψ-carotene (γ-carotene), and lycopene; (2) oxycarotenoids or xanthophylls (oxygenated carotenoids), which are derivatives of the hydrocarbons (carotenes) and are constituted by carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atom in the form of hydroxy, epoxy, or oxy groups. Examples of xanthophylls include β-cryptoxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, astaxanthin, fucoxanthin, and peridinin [13, 14, 16, 17, 22]. Moreover, carotenoids are divided into primary or secondary. Primary carotenoids are compounds required by plants in photosynthesis (β-carotene, violaxanthin, and neoxanthin), whereas secondary carotenoids are localized in non-photosynthetic organs of plants, such as fruits and flowers (α-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin, antheraxanthin, capsanthin, and capsorubin) [14].
More than 700 naturally occurring carotenoids have been identified, and new carotenoids are continuously identified [17]. The nutritionally important carotenoids in human foods include the carotenes; β-carotene, α-carotene, and lycopene and the xanthophylls; β-cryptoxanthin, lutein, and zeaxanthin. These nutritionally important carotenoids are of major interest because they are detectable in the human plasma and can further be classified into provitamin A and non-provitamin A carotenoids. Provitamin A carotenoids are β-carotene, α-carotene, and β-cryptoxanthin, whereas non-provitamin A carotenoids are lutein, zeaxanthin, and lycopene [18]. Provitamin-A carotenoids are a major source of vitamin A, when ingested by human beings, they are converted into vitamin A, which has several important functions including vision, immune response, bone mineralization, reproduction, cell differentiation, and growth [19].
β-Carotene is the most widely distributed carotenoid in the human diet. α-Carotene is usually detected in similar foodstuff as β-carotene but in lower quantities. Table 1 summarizes the main carotenoids in foodstuff and their effects on human health.
Carotenoid | Food sources | Health properties |
---|---|---|
β-Carotene | Carrot, sweet potato, mango [18], pumpkin, kale, apricots, pepper, tomato paste [18], cassava [23] | Protection against oxidative stress due to the inactivation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) [20] Anticancer properties [20] Risk reduction of CVDs [24] Protects against macular degeneration and reduces aging [25] |
α-Carotene | Spinach, cantaloupe [21] Tomato [28, 29] | Antioxidant and anticarcinogenic agent [21, 24] |
Lycopene | Tomato and processed products, red carrot, red bell pepper, watermelon, papaya [18] | Decreased risk of prostate cancer [18] Strong antioxidant effect due to the inactivation of ROS and the quenching of free radicals [20] Anticancer properties [24] Risk reduction of CVDs [24] Reduce the risk of macular degeneration [25] |
β-Cryptoxanthin | Oranges, papaya, peaches, tangerines, maize (yellow/orange) [26] mangoes [21], tomato [28, 29] | Antioxidants and anticancer properties [21] Antimutagenic and immunomodulatory activities [24] Protective against lung cancer and improved lung function [26] |
Lutein | Tomato, goji berry, romaine lettuce, zucchini, kiwifruit, garden peas, olive [18], parsley, broccoli, avocado, Brussels sprouts, beans [21], corn [23] | Protective action against ocular diseases such as macular degeneration and cataract [23] Antioxidant agents [24] improves visual acuity, scavenges harmful ROS [25] |
Zeaxanthin | Same as lutein Mandarins, peaches, oranges [21] | Protects against macular degeneration and cataract [23] Antioxidant properties [24] improves visual acuity, scavenges harmful ROS [25] |
Major dietary carotenoids and their health properties.
Carotenoids are highly abundant in tomatoes [27]. Over 20 carotenoids have been previously characterized in tomato and tomato-based products, this includes lycopene, α-carotene, β-carotene, γ-carotene, ξ-carotene, ζ-carotene, phytoene, phytofluene, cyclolycopene, neurosporene, lutein, violaxanthin, neoxanthin, zeaxanthin, α-cryptoxanthin, and β-cryptoxanthin [28, 29]. The carotenoid content in tomato fruits is unevenly distributed and its composition is highly dependent on the cultivar (genotype), degree of maturation, climatic conditions, environmental factors, and cultural practices [7, 20, 30]. The maximum quantity of total carotenoids and lycopene is found in the outer pericarp, while the locules have a high proportion of carotene compounds [31].
Carotenoids are synthesized in the leaves, flowers, and fruits of tomato plants. Lutein is found in high quantities in the leaves where it functions as a photoreceptor during photosynthesis. The xanthophylls, violaxanthin, and neoxanthin are abundant in flowers and are responsible for their characteristic yellow coloration. The ripe fruits of
Tomato type | Analytical method | Carotenoid concentrations [mg/100 g fresh weight (FW)] | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Cherry tomato | High-performance liquid chromatography with diode-array detection (HPLC-DAD) | Phytoene (0.43–2.01) Phytofluene (0.12–0.8) β-Carotene (1.16–4.15) Lycopene (0.17–9.66) | [32] |
Industrial (processing) tomato | HPLC-DAD and HPLC | Phytoene (5.57–10.75) Phytofluene (1.89–3.55) ζ-Carotene (3.01–7.07) Neurosporene (0.8–1.74) β-Carotene (0.23–0.45) Lycopene (3.51–11.61) Lutein (0.076–0.429) | [32, 33] |
Tomato for salad | HPLC | Lutein (0.077–0.338) Lycopene (5.18–8.47) β-Carotene (0.29–0.62) | [33] |
Mean carotenoid composition of ripe fruits of different types of tomato.
There is a diverse carotenoid profile within tomato cultivars. This is particularly true for traditional varieties constituting a wide source of genetic variation [25]. Tomatoes are abundant sources of lycopene, with average concentrations ranging from 8 to 40 μg/100 g of FW. This represents about 80% of the total dietary intake of this carotenoid [34]. Lycopene is a polyunsaturated compound containing 13 double bonds that can exist in
The β-carotene content in tomatoes is approximately one-tenth of the lycopene content [31]. β-Carotene is equally an essential carotenoid identified in tomatoes, of special interest mainly due to its pro-vitamin A activity [33]. In commercial cherry tomatoes, β-carotene quantity reached 1.26 mg/100 g FW (Table 2). The uniqueness of β-carotene is that it is the most powerful precursor to vitamin A (comprised of retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid, which are classified as retinoids). Vitamin A activity can be measured as retinol equivalents (RE) or retinol activity equivalents (RAE). Current assumptions regarding the RAE or RE of the three major provitamin A dietary carotenoids based on their bioavailability from foods, consider β-carotene as a prominent contributor to the vitamin A intake with potential for conversion to retinol, which is twice that of α-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin [36]. The central oxidative cleavage of β-carotene in the intestine catalyzed by β-carotene 15,15′-monooxygenase allows for its conversion to two molecules of vitamin A, compared to one molecule from another provitamin A carotenoids [37]. Lesser amounts of lutein are present in tomatoes, with concentrations up to 338 μg/100 g FW (Table 2). Raw tomato purchased from the supermarket was reported to have lutein concentrations up to 32 μg/100 g FW, against a lutein content up to 800 μg/100 g FW reported in a cherry tomato variety [35]. Other carotenoids identified in tomatoes are the colorless hydrocarbon carotenoids (carotenes), phytoene, and phytofluene, precursors of colorful carotenoids such as lycopene and β-carotene [25].
Although tomatoes are consumed fresh, over 80% of tomato intake is in the form of processed products, such as tomato pulp, ketchup, juice, and sauce [38]. During food processing, the naturally occurring carotenoid composition of products is altered. Reactions induced by heat, acids, light, or oxygen exposure occur as a consequence of the processing steps [39]. Thermal treatment is responsible for an increased level of total carotenoid content and antioxidant capacity by 30% and 15%, respectively. Tomato processing may activate the enzymes ε- and β-carotene cyclase, involved in the synthesis of β- and α-carotene. Consequently, stimulating the production of α- and β-carotene [40]. The concentrations of carotenoids in different tomato products are depicted in Table 3.
Tomato Product | Analytical method | Carotenoid concentrations (mg/100 g FW) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Ketchup | HPLC | Lycopene (18.80–100.87) β-Carotene (0.46–10) | [41] |
Canned cherry tomatoes | HPLC | Lycopene (11.42–11.78) β-Carotene (0.74–0.76) Lutein (0.14–0.16) | [42] |
Tomato Purée | HPLC | Lycopene (53.36–128.60) β-Carotene (0.40–2.80) | [41] |
Concentration of carotenoids in processed tomato products.
During tomato processing, an increase in carotenoid content on a fresh weight basis is observed as a result of water loss [41]. This may also be ascribed to the technological treatments of pasteurization and homogenization which can improve the extractability of pigments from the fruit matrix. For canned tomato products, the carotenoid increase can be explained by the use of tomato juice derived from high ripening stage tomatoes with very high lycopene content [42]. Increased content of the major tomato carotenoids, lycopene, and β-carotene was reported after processing at 45°C (drying) and 95°C (thermal treatment of tomato juice) [43]. Similarly, an increase in lycopene content in tomatoes exposed to drying at 42°C was previously demonstrated. This occurs due to the release of lycopene bound from the tissues [44]. A decrease in the lycopene content of dried tomatoes treated at 55–110°C was found [45, 46, 47]. On a dry weight basis, there is an increase or decrease of the lycopene content depending on the origin of the tomato variety, while the β-carotene content reduces or remains relatively constant [41]. Nevertheless, in certain instances, processing causes little or no change in the content and activity of naturally occurring bioactive compounds [48].
Only 25 carotenoids are present in the human bloodstream, out of approximately 40 carotenoids present in foods normally included in the human diet and most of these carotenoids found in human blood are present just in fresh tomato and related products [43]. This is due to the selective intake of carotenoids in the gastrointestinal tract and the food matrix surrounding them [16, 43]. Carotenoids present in the human serum tend to be associated with specific body tissues. For example, lycopene is concentrated in the prostate, β-carotene is concentrated in the corpus luteum, and lutein and zeaxanthin are concentrated in the neural retina and brain neocortex. These carotenoids can retard the development of disease at these locations based on reducing inflammatory and oxidative stress [49]. For carotenoid intake, the food matrix made up of fiber or protein must first be broken down by mastication, gastric acid, pancreatic enzymes, and bile acids to ensure the release of these nutrients [16]. Carotenoid release from the tomato matrix and its subsequent incorporation in the oil and micellar phase are crucial steps in rendering these compounds bioavailable during digestion [19]. There is a great variation in the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of different dietary carotenoids between the type of food consumed (whether it is chopped or pureed, raw or cooked, and whether or not fat is consumed simultaneously), and for a given carotenoid in different foods [36, 50]. Bioaccessibility is defined as the fraction of carotenoid released during digestion from the food matrix to mixed micelles and thus, made accessible for absorption in the gut following digestion [51], whereas bioavailability of carotenoids is the amount of these micronutrients that are absorbed by the intestinal absorptive cell, transported in the bloodstream and/or deposited in target tissues where it can exert its biological function [52].
The bioavailability of carotenoids is higher from processed foods than their raw or less processed counterparts [52]. In general, the relative bioavailability of carotenoids has been estimated to vary from less than 10% in raw, uncooked vegetables to 50% in oils or commercial preparations [50]. Processing techniques such as grinding, marinating, fermentation, freezing, and moderate heating improve the release and absorption of carotenoids. This is explained by the release of these nutrients from the food matrix as a result of the disruption of plant tissues and the transfer of carotenoids to the lipid carrier. It is believed that since carotenoids in plant tissues occur in the form of complexes with proteins, mild thermal processes allow them to break down these connections and destroy cellulose structures in plant cells, thus contributing to an increase in the absorption of these compounds [53]. The bioavailability of β-carotene is improved as a result of gentle heating or enzymatic disruption of the vegetable cell wall structure during processing [48]. Lycopene bioavailability is higher in thermally processed tomato products, such as paste, puree, ketchup, juice, soup, and sauce, than in fresh tomatoes [33, 35, 54]. This fact could be attributed to the lower availability of lycopene from the raw tomatoes where it is probably bound in the surrounding food matrix [55]. The incorporation of oil in tomato sauce has been reported to enhance the accessibility and extractability of carotenoid compounds in tomatoes. A constant quantity of fat and other ingredients significantly increases the bioavailable lycopene in tomato paste compared to fresh tomatoes [40]. Previous research demonstrated that a combination of homogenization and heat treatment improves the bioavailability of carotenoids from fruits and vegetables. Studies on the effect of heat treatment and homogenization on the carotenoid bioavailability of industrially heat-treated peeled and canned tomatoes have shown that blood plasma lycopene responses increased with increasing degree of homogenization and additional heat treatment, while homogenization enhanced the plasma response of β-carotene only if the tomatoes were not subjected to additional heat treatment [56]. Moreover, high-pressure homogenization has a greater impact on the bioavailability of carotenoids compared to homogenization under normal pressure, since it disrupts extra cell membranes [42].
The physical state of carotenoids has been proven to significantly impact their bioaccessibility and bioavailability and consequently their health-promoting properties [39]. Carotenoids exist in a variety of geometric isomers and predominantly occur in their all-trans conformation in fresh tomatoes. For instance, trans-lycopene accounts for approximately 95% of the lycopene present in raw tomatoes [48]. Food processing may induce the formation of cis isomers possessing different biological properties. Trans-to-cis isomerization can also be initiated during storage [55]. Trans-isomers are thermodynamically more stable, whereas cis are more polar, more soluble in oil and hydrocarbon solvents, and are less prone to crystallization than their all-trans counterparts [38, 55]. More than 50% of the carotenoids identified in the human body are in the cis configuration, suggesting that this is the most bioavailable form [40]. Several reports have demonstrated that the cis isomers of lycopene are more bioavailable and play a more important biological function than all-trans lycopene properties [57, 58] because of being more soluble and easily absorbed from the intestinal lumen than the trans-lycopene [59]. Therefore, lycopene from processed tomato products is generally more bioavailable than the one from the unprocessed counterparts. Nevertheless, inadequate processing and storage conditions can cause isomerization during the byproducts’ formation, diminishing the absorption of carotenoids and making the product less desirable to the consumer [19]. On the other hand, cellular studies reported that cis isomers of β-carotene are not easily absorbed by intestinal enterocytes. High quantities of cis isomers of ß-carotene are not detected in the bloodstream, suggesting preferential absorption of the all-trans isomer of nutrients possessing provitamin A activity [52].
Consumption of fruits and vegetables with beneficial health properties has been exploited for their ability to treat or prevent several chronic diseases [60]. There is an inverse relationship between the balanced consumption of tomatoes and tomato-derived products and the incidence of chronic diseases such as CVDs and various forms of cancers. These beneficial effects are attributed to carotenoids and phenolic compounds, which have high antioxidant capacities [48].
Oxidative stress plays an essential pathophysiological role in various chronic diseases such as CVDs, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer [60]. Free radicals, or other reactive oxygen- or nitrogen-containing species, are responsible for oxidative stress [48]. Oxidative stress occurs when there is a relative excess of ROS when compared with antioxidants [61]. ROS are reduced oxygen metabolites characterized by strong oxidizing capabilities. They are deleterious to cells at high concentrations but at low concentrations, they play a major role in cellular signaling and function [62]. ROS are formed as a by-product of mitochondrial respiration or metabolic activities (such as breathing, digesting food, metabolizing alcohol and drugs, and turning fats into energy) or by enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, catalase, peroxiredoxins, and myeloperoxidases [60, 63]. Cells possess complex biochemical and genetic mechanisms to maintain ROS at physiologically normal concentrations, and deregulation in this balance has detrimental health effects [61, 62]. This is because abnormally high ROS levels may attack certain biomolecules (DNA, RNA, proteins lipids, and carbohydrates) causing damage to cells, tissues, and organs. [64]. The continuous production of free radicals in humans must be equivalent to the rate of antioxidant intake/synthesis [60]. Molecules such as ascorbate, a-tocopherol, and carotenoids are examples of antioxidants that are capable of quenching ROS. The structural properties of carotenoid molecules, particularly the presence of conjugated carbon–carbon double bonds enable the quenching of ROS and subsequently a reduction in ROS levels [18]. Tomato and related products contain carotenoids, particularly lycopene, one of the most potent antioxidants that have been found to protect against these chronic diseases by mitigating oxidative damage and improving the oxidative status [19, 48, 65]. Lycopene exerts strong antioxidant activity because it contains many double-conjugated bonds (11 conjugated double bonds and two unconjugated double bonds), which explains why lycopene can quench ROS and efficiently scavenge free radicals [7]. A study demonstrated that a long-term tomato-rich diet consisting of tomato juice, tomato sauce, tomato paste, ketchup, spaghetti sauce, and ready-to-serve tomato soup can reduce oxidative stress, this was attributed to an increase in serum lycopene levels from 181.79 ± 31.25 to 684.7 ± 113.91 nmol/l, as well as an increase in total antioxidant potential from 2.26 ± 0.015 to 2.38 ± 0.17 mmol/l Trolox equivalent [65]. The level of oxidative stress induced by in-vitro X-ray exposure in healthy adults was determined using serum 8-oxo-7, 8-dihydro-2-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG), and plasma reactive oxygen metabolite-derived compounds (d-ROMs), the results suggested that continuous tomato juice consumption could decrease extracellular 8-oxo-dG and d-ROMs [66]. Previous studies have shown that tomato extracts containing 6% lycopene, other tomato carotenoids (phytoene and phytofluene above 1%, beta-carotene above 0.2%), can prevent oxidative stress-induced damage to fibroblast skin cells [67].
Worldwide, CVDs are an increasing concern due to the rising prevalence and consequent mortality and disability with a heavy economic burden since it is an important contributor to the cost of medical care [68, 69]. In 2019, 17.9 million people died from CVDs, representing 32% of all global deaths [70]. There is a growing body of epidemiological evidence that tomato and tomato products intake lower the risk of CVDs, through antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and hypotensive effects [71]. The improvement of biomarkers associated with CVD development and the subsequent reduction in CVD risk has been ascribed to increased plasma lycopene levels. Moderate intake (2–4 servings) of tomato products such as soup, paste puree, juice, or any other tomato beverages, when consumed with the addition of dietary lipids, such as olive oil or avocados, leads to a rise in plasma carotenoids, particularly lycopene [72]. Dietary lycopene consumed as oil-based tomato products confers cardiovascular benefits. The consumption of ≥7 servings/week of tomato-based food products has been associated with a 30% reduction in CVD development in women [73]. Consumption of two glasses of tomato juice satisfies the recommended daily intake of lycopene (35 mg), [74]. Table 4 shows the lycopene content of tomatoes and some frequently consumed tomato-derived products.
Product | Lycopene (mg/100 g) |
---|---|
Fresh tomatoes | 0.72–20 |
Tomato juice | 5–11.60 |
Tomato puree | 16.67–34.7 |
Tomato paste | 5.40–150.00 |
Ketchup | 9.90–17.00 |
Epidemiological studies also suggest that the risk of myocardial infarction is lowered in individuals with higher lycopene content in adipose tissue. The EURAMIC (European community multicenter study on antioxidants, myocardial Infarction, and breast cancer) case–control study conducted in 10 European countries to assess the relations between antioxidant status and acute myocardial infarction, found lycopene concentration of adipose tissue to be independently protective against myocardial infarction [76]. A recent study by Cheng et al. [77] reported that higher intakes of lycopene or its high serum concentrate have been associated with significant reductions in the risk of stroke (26%) and CVDs (14%). Another carotenoid present in processed tomato products associated with CVD risk reduction is β-carotene [78].
Low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and elevated LDL cholesterol are established CVD risk factors [79]. Pharmacological therapies aimed at LDL lowering have convincingly proven to reduce CVD disorders, such as coronary heart disease. Therefore, LDL cholesterol levels should be lowered as much as possible to prevent CVD [80, 81]. Lycopene may modulate the expression of adhesion molecules in human vascular endothelial cells and increase the expression of LDL receptors involved in the regulation of cholesterol metabolism [75]. Increasing the concentration of HDL can slow and even reverse the progression of coronary atherosclerosis (coronary heart disease) and reduce CVD risk in those with dyslipidemia (abnormal levels of blood lipids including cholesterol). Consumption of two uncooked tomatoes per day demonstrated a significant elevation of HDL levels in overweight women [79]. Michaličková et al. [71] conducted a randomized controlled study to examine the effect of tomato juice on LDL cholesterol. The intervention group was supplemented with 200 g of tomato juice for 4 weeks and a significant reduction in total cholesterol and LDL was observed [71] indicating that tomato and derivatives have favorable effects on lipid metabolism.
Systemic arterial hypertension is a condition in which an individual has abnormally high blood pressure (BP) and is a primary risk factor for CVDs [82]. BP above 140 mmHg systolic and/or 90 mmHg diastolic is considered hypertensive [83]. Several studies indicated that tomato products intake leads to a significant reduction in BP [84, 85]. A higher dosage of tomato-derived supplements (containing more than 12 mg lycopene per day) could significantly lower systolic blood pressure (SBP), particularly among populations with baseline SBP > 120 mmHg [84]. The effect of treatments with tomato nutrient complexes (containing 5, 15, and 30 mg lycopene) was compared with 15 mg of synthetic lycopene and a placebo over 8 weeks, significant reductions in mean SBP were noted in tomato nutrient complexes treatments with 15 or 30 mg of lycopene [86]. A recent trial highlighted the benefits of processed tomato products on BP management in overweight middle-aged adults. A lowered diastolic BP was observed in participants that consumed a high tomato diet consisting of approximately 200 g/day or 1400 g/week of tomato products [78]. In a quasi-experimental study, 32 type 2 diabetes patients consumed 200 g raw tomato daily for 8 weeks. A significant decrease in systolic and diastolic BP was noted at the end of the study compared with initial values [87]. Tomato consumption might be beneficial for reducing CVD risk in type 2 diabetic patients.
The consumption of tomatoes and tomato-derived products is inversely related to the incidence of different types of cancers, (prostate, stomach, and lung cancers) [7, 72, 88, 89]. A study on elderly patients in the US attributed a 50% reduction in mortality rates from cancer of all sites to a high intake of tomatoes [90]. Tomatoes and tomato products are typical components of the Mediterranean diet (MD). The MD represents a dietary pattern suitable for the prevention of chronic diseases [91]. A meta-analysis of observational studies, which evaluated the effects of the adoption of the MD on incidence and mortality of different types of cancer, showed that the high adherence to this diet was associated with a significantly lowered risk of overall cancer, especially colorectal cancer, pharyngeal and esophageal cancer, and prostate cancer [92]. The protective role of tomatoes is predominantly ascribed to the carotenoid, lycopene [93]. Researchers found that there was a lower rate of mortality from cancer in the group of US adults with the highest tomato and lycopene intake (42.5% and 45.9%, respectively) [94].
Extensive research has been conducted on the role of lycopene in the prevention of prostate cancer, the second most frequent cancer (after lung cancer) diagnosed in men worldwide [7, 72, 95], with higher incidence and mortality observed in developed countries [96]. Findings from ecological and migrant studies suggest that the wide disparity in incidence rates of prostate cancer worldwide may be attributed to a “Westernized” diet and lifestyle in developed countries [97]. A study conducted in 2011 using DU145 cells (human prostate cancer cells), revealed that the proliferation of these cells was significantly inhibited by lycopene. The authors found that lycopene induced a reduction of the proliferation rate at concentrations of 15 and 25 μM, but not at physiological concentrations (>2 μM) [98]. The US health Professionals Follow-up Study investigated the relationship of various carotenoids and retinol consumption with the risk of prostate cancer. There was an inverse relationship between the estimated intake of lycopene and the risk of this cancer. This reduced incidence was not observed with any other carotenoid. A reduction in risk of almost 35% was observed for a consumption rate of 10 or more servings of tomato products per week, and the protective action was greater with more advanced or aggressive prostate cancer [95]. In a more recent study, there was an 18% lower risk of prostate cancer associated with adherence to the same recommended tomato intake [97].
Evidence pointing to the protective effect of tomato product consumption for other cancer sites other than the prostate is ambiguous [99]. Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death, with an estimated 1.8 million deaths (18%) [100]. Growing evidence suggests that tomato lycopene may be preventive against the development of this cancer [101]. In 2020, a study demonstrated that lycopene treatment may inhibit the growth of lung tumor cell line A549. Varying amounts of lycopene (2.5, 5, and 25 μL) were used to treat lung cancer cell cultures and higher lycopene concentrations were more damaging to cancer cell nuclei [102]. Among 14 case-control lung cancer studies, only 6 studies showed a statistically significant risk reduction for cancer incidence, averaging 51%. However, cohort studies showed no beneficial relation between lung cancer reduction and tomato product consumption [99]. According to epidemiological studies, higher lycopene intake is associated with either a reduced or no change in lung cancer risk when compared to lower intake levels [103]. Gastric (stomach) cancer remains one of the dominant causes of cancer mortality in the world [104, 105]. Tomato or lycopene intake has proven to reduce gastric cancer risk in a variety of populations [72, 95]. However, few studies have been conducted to date. A meta-analysis study consisting of 21 studies supports an inverse association between tomato consumption and risk of gastric cancer [106]. Previous research projects have reported a negative relationship between tomato intake and the risk of gastric cancer. A study conducted in Korea consisting of 1245 subjects (415 cases and 830 matched controls; 810 men and 435 women), highlighted that the consumption of tomatoes and tomato ketchup was inversely associated with GC risk in the overall subjects [107]. In a case-control study in Uruguay, tomato consumption had a strong inverse association with gastric carcinogenesis. The carotenoids, α-carotene, and lycopene were strongly associated with this reduction in stomach cancer development [108].
The incidence of type 2 diabetes (diabetes mellitus) and obesity has increased worldwide during the last century in both developed and developing countries [109]. Obesity is a chronic inflammatory disorder in which an increase in circulating inflammatory mediators is caused by an increase in body fat [19, 110]. Destructive mechanisms associated with obesity increase ROS and hamper the antioxidant status [111]. Individuals having a fasting blood sugar level of 126 mg/dl or higher on 2 separate days, will be diagnosed with type 2 diabetes [112]. The strong link between type 2 diabetes and obesity [113], with 80 percent of type 2 diabetes patients being overweight [112], was named “diabesity.” According to the WHO, overweight and obesity account for 44% of diabetes cases. Therefore, it is necessary to develop therapeutic strategies favoring weight loss and blood glucose control (anti-obesity and antidiabetic treatment) [114].
A randomized controlled clinical trial was conducted on 64 overweight or obese demonstrated that tomato juice reduces oxidative stress in overweight females and may prevent the development of obesity-related diseases. In this study, the antioxidant parameters of study participants that ingested 330 ml/day of tomato juice for 20 days were analyzed at the beginning and after this period verifying an increase in plasma total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and erythrocyte antioxidant enzymes [115]. Ghavipour et al. [110] demonstrated that tomato juice consumption lowers inflammation in overweight and obese females. The predictive biomarkers of inflammation [tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin 8 (IL-8)] were examined in study participants who drank 330 ml of tomato juice every day for 20 days. The serum levels of IL-8 and TNF- α were significantly lower in overweight people that consumed the tomato juice compared to the control group. The scientists concluded that eating more tomatoes may lower the risk of inflammatory disorders, such as CVDs and diabetes [110].
The goal of diabetes management is to maintain plasma glucose concentrations at near-normal levels [112]. According to the WHO, expected values for normal fasting blood glucose levels are between 70 mg/dl (3.9 mmol/l) and 100 mg/dl (5.6 mmol/l) [116]. Chemicals found in fresh or processed tomatoes have been shown to have antihyperglycemic properties that enable the lowering of glucose levels in the blood. In streptozotocin (STZ)-induced hyperglycemic rats, oral administration of tomato extract lycopene (90 mg/kg of body weight) resulted in a lower serum glucose level. The therapeutic amount of lycopene in humans is around 14.5 mg/kg of body weight. Lycopene’s anti-diabetic properties may be linked to its antioxidant activity, which reduces the number of free radicals generated [117]. Another study indicated that fasting blood sugar levels decreased after drinking tomato juice for 3 weeks [112]. The reduction in fasting blood glucose levels was found to be an average of 9.00 mg/dl (7.64%). Supplementation with β-carotene did not affect type 2 diabetes in randomized controlled trials [118, 119]. The impact of lycopene consumption on blood glucose concentration was analyzed, each 1 mg increase in lycopene consumption was associated with a 0·005 mmol/l decrease in fasting blood glucose concentration [120]. The effects of pre-prandial tomato intake on body weight, fat percentage, triglyceride, cholesterol, and blood sugar levels were evaluated in 35 young women aged 18 to 21 years. Participants ate raw, ripe tomatoes (90 g) before lunch each day for 4 weeks. At the end of the study, there were significant reductions in body weight (1.09 ± 0.12 kg), fat % (1.54 ± 0.52%), fasting blood glucose (5.29 ± 0.80 mg/dl), triglycerides (8.31 ± 1.34 mg), and cholesterol (10.17 ± 1.21 mg/dl). Thus, tomato consumption before meals was positively correlated with body weight, fat %, triglycerides, blood sugar, and cholesterol levels in young adult women [121].
Tomato is a food product available all year round and is highly consumed by populations around the world. Tomato carotenoids have demonstrated antioxidant and protective effects against chronic diseases. Among these carotenoids, lycopene, in particular, has shown distinct antioxidant and anticancer properties at cellular levels. Numerous studies highlighted the potential benefits of tomato carotenoids in delaying or preventing the development of chronic degenerative diseases. Nevertheless, further research is required to better elucidate the beneficial health effects of these carotenoids as well as their precise modes of action in the risk reduction of chronic diseases. Considering the reported positive implications of tomatoes and their products in chronic disease prevention, dietary intake of naturally occurring carotenoid-rich tomato and processed tomato products should be highlighted and recommended.
This work was financed by the ongoing project PRIMA H2020 GA2032, FunTomP—Functionalized Tomato Products (https://funtomp.com/), a multidisciplinary project involving 16 countries, that aims to reformulate traditional Mediterranean tomato products into different functional foods using leaf proteins (by-products of sugar beet processing) and olive powder and novel and eco-friendly processing technologies that will minimally affect nutrients, with extra health benefits while keeping a sustainable product and process cycle and by valorizing agricultural waste.
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\\n\\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\\n\\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\\n\\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\\n\\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
\\n\\nDownload Waiver Request Form
\\n\\nFeel free to contact us at funders@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
\\n\\nNote: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
\n\nDownload Waiver Request Form
\n\nFeel free to contact us at funders@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
\n\nNote: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
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Noteworthy, the stroke — related brain tissue metabolic damages involve an essential ATP deplete clash along with a suppression of brain specific nucleotide — associated kinases and ATP synthase, both Mg2+ — dependent complex enzyme “machineries”. This itself makes the latter’s a legitimate target for some advanced pharmaceuticals as long as the drug — induced overstimulation of corresponding enzymatic activity is the case. Thus, magnetic isotope effects (MIE) of the nuclear spin possessing paramagnetic 25Mg2+ ions might modulate the brain creatine kinase, alfa-glycerophosphate kinase and pyruvate kinase catalytic activities in a way of a remarkable ATP hyperproduction required to compensate the hypoxia caused acute metabolic breakdown. To realize the Magnesium-25 pharmacological potential, a low-toxic amphiphilic cationite nanoparticles were introduced lately. 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Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:13}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:8},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:148,paginationItems:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. 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