IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"16",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biomedical Engineering, Trends in Electronics, Communications and Software",title:"Biomedical Engineering, Trends in Electronics",subtitle:"Communications and Software",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Rapid technological developments in the last century have brought the field of biomedical engineering into a totally new realm. Breakthroughs in material science, imaging, electronics and more recently the information age have improved our understanding of the human body. As a result, the field of biomedical engineering is thriving with new innovations that aim to improve the quality and cost of medical care. This book is the first in a series of three that will present recent trends in biomedical engineering, with a particular focus on electronic and communication applications. More specifically: wireless monitoring, sensors, medical imaging and the management of medical information.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-475-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4534-9",doi:"10.5772/549",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"biomedical-engineering-trends-in-electronics-communications-and-software",numberOfPages:750,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"d76a5792507e65ca56715b9661e8a66e",bookSignature:"Anthony N. Laskovski",publishedDate:"January 8th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/16.jpg",numberOfDownloads:122172,numberOfWosCitations:130,numberOfCrossrefCitations:81,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:6,numberOfDimensionsCitations:164,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:6,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:375,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 7th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 5th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 9th 2010",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 9th 2010",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 8th 2010",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"2205",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",middleName:"Nikola",surname:"Laskovski",slug:"anthony-laskovski",fullName:"Anthony Laskovski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/2205/images/1554_n.jpg",biography:"Anthony N. Laskovski completed his Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical) Degree at the University of Newcastle, Australia in 2006 on a UNISS industrial scholarship with the power distributer Energy Australia.\nHis research interests include RF electronics and implantable electronic devices for biomedical applications, with a particular focus on wireless power transmitters, inductive coils and implantable telemetry architecture. His publications include various conference and journal papers and book chapters.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"692",title:"Biotechnology",slug:"engineering-biomedical-engineering-biotechnology"}],chapters:[{id:"12898",title:"Biosignal Monitoring Using Wireless Sensor Networks",doi:"10.5772/12946",slug:"biosignal-monitoring-using-wireless-sensor-networks",totalDownloads:4327,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Carlos Andres Lozano, Camilo Eduardo Tellez and Oscar Javier Rodriguez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/12898",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/12898",authors:[{id:"13529",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Lozano Garzon",slug:"carlos-lozano-garzon",fullName:"Carlos Lozano Garzon"},{id:"13530",title:"Prof.",name:"Oscar Javier",surname:"Rodriguez Riveros",slug:"oscar-javier-rodriguez-riveros",fullName:"Oscar Javier Rodriguez Riveros"},{id:"13531",title:"Prof.",name:"Camilo Eduardo",surname:"Tellez Villamizar",slug:"camilo-eduardo-tellez-villamizar",fullName:"Camilo Eduardo Tellez Villamizar"}],corrections:null},{id:"12899",title:"Wireless Telemetry for Implantable Biomedical Microsystems",doi:"10.5772/12997",slug:"wireless-telemetry-for-implantable-biomedical-microsystems",totalDownloads:5634,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:21,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Farzad Asgarian and Amir M. 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\r\n\tOil crops are an important class of agronomic crops and very important for the human diet. Oil crops not only provide edible oils but some of them have diverse uses like feeds, fuel, medicine, etc. These also contain many other mineral components in significant amounts and that is why the popularity of oil crops has increased in the last few decades. In the last few years, researchers have developed many new varieties and plant types of oil crops which has contributed to total edible oil production in the world. However, agronomic management, other production practices, and processing greatly vary depending on the plant types and the environment. Therefore, understanding the appropriate production and processing of oil crops is important. So, far researchers have gained considerable achievements in this area.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the various aspects of oil crops – their biology, production technologies, and processing.
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Kamrun Nahar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11627.jpg",keywords:"Plant Physiology, Abiotic Stress, Soil Management, Climate Change, Crop Management, Canola, Soybean, Sesame, Sunflower, Water Relations, Photosynthesis, Oil Content",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 24th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 23rd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University in Dhaka whose publications have received about 9,500 citations (h-index 50 on Scopus). Recipient of the World Academy of Sciences Young Scientist Award and Publons Peer Review Award on 2017, 2018, and 2019.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Professor at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka, and expert in Agricultural Botany and Plant Physiology. Dr. Nahar published 100 articles and chapters related to plant physiology and environmental stresses.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. 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Dr. Nahar has been involved in research with field crops emphasizing stress physiology since 2006. She has completed several research works and is currently working on a research project funded by Sher-eBangla Agricultural University Research System and the Ministry of Science and Technology, Bangladesh. She is also supervising MS students. Dr. Nahar has published more than 100 articles and book chapters related to plant physiology and environmental stresses. Her publications have received about 9,500 citations with an h-index of 51. She is involved in editorial activities and is a reviewer of international journals. She is an active member of about twenty professional societies. 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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
Anxiety, fear and worry are all completely natural human feelings. If these feelings occur and endure for an extended period, it affects both physical and mental health. This leads to clinical anxiety disorders. There are many types of treatment available to treat anxiety disorders. This article outlines more common herbal remedies to treat anxiety disorders.
\n\t\t\t
Anxiety is an aversive emotional state, in which the feeling of fear is disproportionate to the threat (Weinberger, 2001). Anxiety is implicated in a number of psychiatric disorders, such as depression, panic attacks, phobias, generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder (Gross and Hen, 2004). Anxiety disorders are the most common class of neuropsychiatric disorders in USA (Kessler et al., 2005) and many other countries (Alonso and Lepine, 2007). The life time prevalence of panic attacks (a form of anxiety disorder) is around 7-9% in most countries and 1% alone in India with the prevalence of generalized anxiety disorder is very high i.e. 8.5% in the general population (WHO, 2001). Anxiety disorders affect 16.6% of population worldwide (Somers et al., 2006) and numerous efforts have been made to understand the pathophysiology of the disease and treatments.
\n\t\t\t
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR), anxiety is characterized by a feeling of persistent worry that hinders an individual’s ability to relax [Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Washington D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 4 2000]. Anxiety disorders are described and classified in DSM and several anxiety disorders share common clinical symptoms such as widespread anxiety, physiological anxiety symptoms, and behavioral disturbances.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Common anxiety disorders
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.1. Generalized anxiety disorders (GAD)
\n\t\t\t\t
Generalized anxiety disorder is a syndrome of ongoing anxiety and worry about many events or feelings that the patient generally recognizes as extreme and inappropriate (DSM-IV-TR). Individuals manifest both physical and psychological symptoms leading to significant distress or impairment.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.2. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
\n\t\t\t\t
People suffering from OCD tend to have bothersome and intrusive thoughts that generate anxiety (obsession) and perform repetitive actions (compulsion). Obsessions include unwanted thoughts, impulses, or images that cause great anxiety. Compulsions include repetitive behaviors or mental acts that those affected feel driven to perform.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.3. Panic disorder
\n\t\t\t\t
People suffering from panic disorders often have panic attacks, defined as discrete periods of sudden symptom onset usually peaking in 10 minutes and can occur with most anxiety disorders.
Anxiety and other psychiatric conditions are one of the most frequent conditions seen by clinicians and often require long-term treatment with medications. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) and benzodiazepines are important class of drugs used to treat generalized anxiety disorders (Davidson, 2001; Davidson, 2009) and depression (Bhagya et al., 2008; Bhagya et al., 2011). With the increasing cost of anti-anxiety medications and their increased side effects like suicidal ideation, decreased alertness, sexual dysfunction and dependency (Hu et al., 2004; Gunnell et al., 2005; O\'brien, 2005; Lader et al., 2009), drugs of natural origin are promising alternatives to treat neuropsychiatric disorders (Kienzle-Horn, 2002; Carlini, 2003).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3. Common herbal remedies for anxiety
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Ayurveda, the Indian traditional system of medicine uses herbs and their preparations to treat various neuropsychiatric disorders. Numerous herbs have been used for centuries in folk and other traditional medicine to calm the mind and positively enhance mood. Herbal medicine which plays an important role in developing countries, are once again becoming popular throughout developing and developed countries. Study by Sparreboom et al. (2004) revealed that use of herbal medicine is increasing enormously in the Western world. In spite of the large number of animal studies evaluating the potential anxiolytic effects of plant extracts, very few controlled studies have been conducted in a clinical setup. The efficacy and safety of utilizing these natural drugs to treat anxiety, has only just begun to be exactly tested in clinical trials within the last 10 to 15 years (Saeed et al., 2007; Garcia-Garcia et al., 2008; Kinrys et al., 2009). For instance, both Kava-kava (Piper methysticum) and St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) showed beneficial effectiveness in double blind, randomized placebo controlled trials to treat anxiety and depression (Ernst, 2002). Also, extracts of valerian, hops, lemon balm and passion flower preparations have been employed for the prevention and treatment of psychiatric disorders such as anxiety, sleep disorders, convulsions, cognitive impairment and depression (Beaubrun and Gray, 2000). The commonly used herbal remedies for treating anxiety disorders are described below.
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3.1. Passion flower
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\n\t\t\t\t\tPassiflora incarnata is a folk remedy for anxiety. The anxiolytic effects of passionflower are well documented in rodents (Dhawan et al., 2001; Dhawan et al., 2002). In randomized double-blind study, passion flower extract was effective in 18 generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) out-patients as compared to oxazepam. Also, impairment in the job performance was increased in oxazepam group as compared to Passiflora extract treated group (Akhondzadeh et al., 2001). In another double-blind placebo-controlled study, preoperative oral Passiflora incarnata reduces anxiety in ambulatory surgery patients (Movafegh et al., 2008).
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3.2. Kava kava (Piper methysticum)
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There is substantial evidence that kava has a positive effect on the symptoms of anxiety disorders. Animal studies have demonstrated anti-anxiety activity of kava (Garrett et al., 2003; Bruner and Anderson, 2009). Several randomized double-blind clinical studies in GAD patients showed beneficial effect of kava-kava in reducing anxiety (Watkins et al., 2001; Connor and Davidson, 2002; Boerner et al., 2003; Sarris et al., 2009). Kava-kava was used in numerous controlled clinical studies to treat anxiety disorders, but the subjects included in these studies were heterogeneous i.e., they were diagnosed with agoraphobia, specific phobia, social phobia, adjustment disorder with anxiety (Volz and Kieser, 1997; Malsch and Kieser, 2001; Gastpar and Klimm, 2003; Lehrl, 2004). In the study by Connor & Davidson, kava extract was compared with placebo in GAD patients (2002). In another 8-week randomized, double-blind multi-center clinical trial, the efficacy of Piper methysticum was compared with two anxiolytic drugs opipramol and buspirone in GAD patients (Boerner et al., 2003). Meta-analysis study by Pittler and Ernst reinforced the anxiolytic effect of kava in generalized anxiety patients and indicated a significant reduction in anxiety parameters evaluated by the Hamilton Anxiety (HAMA) scale (Pittler and Ernst, 2000; \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\t).
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3.3. St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum)
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St. John’s wort is a popular supplement for treating depression but is much less popular for treating anxiety disorders. Studies conducted by Flausino et al. and Singewald et al. have shown that chronic administration of Hypericum perforatum induced an antidepressant-like effect in Magnesium-depleted mice in the forced swim test and anxiolytic effect in the elevated T-maze and the light/dark transition test (Flausino, Jr. et al., 2002; Singewald et al., 2004). St. John’s wort administration resulted in anti-anxiety effect in animal models of restraint stress and sleep deprivation (Flausino, Jr. et al., 2002; Singewald et al., 2004; Kumar and Singh, 2007; Kumar et al., 2010). Hypericum perforatum inhibits the reuptake of serotonin, noradrenaline, dopamine (Wonnemann et al., 2000) and modulates neuronal excitability via glutamatergic and GABAergic mechanisms (Langosch et al., 2002).
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Studies specifically testing the effects of St. John’s wort on patients with anxiety are extremely limited. The evidence of positive effects of St. John’s wort on anxiety disorders is weak. No placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind trials have shown St. John’s wort to be effective in treating generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), or phobias. Volz et al. (2002) showed that Hypericum extract to 149 out patients diagnosed with somatization disorder, undifferentiated somatoform disorder, or somatoform autonomic dysfunctions, significantly reduced anxiety scores in HAMA scale. Another open-label uncontrolled observation with 500 subjects showed beneficial effect of St. John’s wort extract in reducing anxiety disorder symptoms in patients diagnosed with depression comorbid with anxiety (Muller et al., 2003). However, stronger evidence is needed before St. John’s wort should be considered as a treatment option for patients with diagnosable anxiety disorders.
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3.4. Valeriana officinalis\n\t\t\t\t
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Valerian is one of the most popularly used herbal medicines for insomnia (Donath et al., 2000) and is also used to treat anxiety. Hydroalcoholic and aqueous extracts of valerian roots have shown affinity for the GABA-A receptor in the brains of rats (Benke et al., 2009). In humans, valerian has been successful in the treatment of insomnia and tension (Schmidt-Voigt, 1986; Vorbach, 1996; Leathwood, 1985; Donath et al., 2000; Stevinson and Ernst, 2000; Ziegler, 2002). Andreatini et al. (2002) compared the extract of Valeriana officinalis L. (81mg of valepotriates as active ingredients) with placebo and diazepam (6.5 mg) in patients with GAD (DSM-III-R, 12 patients per group). Only the diazepam and valepotriates groups showed a significant reduction in the psychic factor of HAMA scale and the preliminary data obtained in the present study suggest that the valepotriates may have a potential anxiolytic effect on the psychic symptoms of anxiety. The limitations of this study are small sample size and a low dose of diazepam, such studies should be replicated with improved methodological design.
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3.5. Ginkgo biloba\n\t\t\t\t
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Extract of Ginkgo biloba (EGb 761) significantly reduced the detrimental effect of learned helplessness in a subsequent conditioned avoidance task. In the elevated plus maze, senescent mice treated with EGb 761 spent more time in open arms than those treated with vehicle control (Ward et al., 2002). Woelke et al. (2007) compared a standardized extract of Ginkgo biloba L. (EGb 761) in doses of 480mg and 240mg with placebo for four weeks, involving patients with GAD and adjustment disorder with anxious mood (DSM-III-R). The two doses of EGb 761 showed a greater reduction in HAMA scores compared to placebo, as well as a statistically significant reduction in somatic symptoms compared to baseline (which was not observed in the placebo group).
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3.6. Galphimia glauca\n\t\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\t\tGalphimia glauca Cav. is a plant used in Mexican traditional medicine as a "nerve tranquilizer". Previous studies have demonstrated anxiolytic effect of methanolic extract from this plant species. Herrera-Arellano et al. (2007) conducted a controlled study comparing the extract Galphimia glauca Cav. with lorazepam in patients with GAD with 72 and 80 patients per group, respectively. Both groups of patients showed a significant reduction in scores of HAMA, without any difference between treatments.
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3.7. Matricaria recutita (chamomile)
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Chamomile is one of the most popular single ingredient of herbal teas, or tisanes. Chamomile tea, brewed from dried flower heads is used traditionally for several medicinal purposes like gastrointestinal tract ailments. Other uses include allergic rhinitis, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), restlessness, insomnia, dysmenorrhea, mastitis and varicose ulcers. Chamomile contains flavonoids, which exert benzodiazepine-like activity (Avallone et al., 2000) and also has a phosphodiesterase inhibitory action, which leads to increased cAMP levels (Kuppusamy and Das, 1992). A recent study evaluated the efficacy of a standardized extract of Matricaria recutita (L), compared with placebo for eight weeks in patients with mild to moderate GAD (DSM-IV). There was a statistically significant reduction in the scores of HAMA in the group treated with extract compared to placebo-treated group (Amsterdam et al., 2009).
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3.8. Astragalus membranaceus\n\t\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\t\tAstragalus membranaceus (AM) is a useful Korean herb that has been clinically prescribed for stress-related illness. AM significantly restores learning and memory deficits in chronically stressed rats. In the elevated plus maze, AM treatment significantly increases the time spent in the open arms compared to control group. It also enhanced choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) expression in stressed rats (Park et al., 2009). No clinical data is available for its anxiolytic effect. But one clinical study demonstrated the protective effect of astragalous on oxidative stress status in maintenance of hemodialysis patients (Qu et al., 2008).
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4. Indian traditional herbs
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4.1. Centella asiatica (Mandookaparni or Gotu Kola)
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\n\t\t\t\t\tCentella asiatica is reputed for its beneficial effects in various neurological disorders. Gotu Kola has been used for centuries in Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicine to alleviate symptoms of depression and anxiety. Recent studies in the rat have shown that long-term pretreatment with Gotu Kola decreases locomotor activity, enhance elevated-plus maze performance and attenuate acoustic startle response (Chen et al., 2006; Wijeweera et al., 2006). In a double-blind, placebo-controlled study, the anxiolytic activity of Centella asiatica in healthy subjects was undertaken and compared to placebo, Gotu Kola significantly reduced peak acoustic startle response amplitude 30 and 60 minutes after treatment (Bradwejn et al., 2000). In another clinical study, 70% hydro-ethanolic extract of Centella asiatica was given to 33 participants for two months and Hamilton\'s Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS) was used to screen the subjects. The results show that, Mandookaparni significantly attenuated anxiety related disorders (Jana et al., 2010). These preliminary findings suggest that Centella asiatica has anxiolytic activity in humans and it remains to be seen whether this herb has therapeutic efficacy in the treatment of anxiety syndromes in large population.
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4.2. Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi)\n\t\t\t\t
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In Indian traditional medicine, several herbs have been used as nerve tonics. The most popular of these herbs is brahmi, a well known memory booster. This herb is used by Ayurvedic medical practitioners for almost 3000 years. The traditional use of brahmi as an anti-anxiety remedy in Ayurvedic medicine is supported by both animal and clinical studies. Brahmi is used in Indian tradition medicine in treatment of number of brain disorders namely anxiety and poor memory (Singh and Dhawan, 1997). Pharmacologically, Bacopa monnieri comprises of five major saponins: bacoside A3, bacopaside II, bacopasaponin C isomer, bacopasaponin C and bacopaside I (Phrompittayarat et al., 2007). Bacopa monniera extract or its constituent bacosides showed anxiolytic activity in animals (Bhattacharya and Ghosal, 1998: Shankar and Singh, 2000; Singh et al., 1979: Singh and Singh, 1980) and Singh et al. (1996) suggest an involvement of the GABA-ergic activity in brahmi’s action on central nervous system. Brahmi not only enhances memory, it also shows an anti-stress effect. Pretreatment with Bacosides resulted in decrease Hsp expression in the hippocampus; it restored P450 enzyme activity and increased superoxide dismutase activity in the stressed rats. Brahmi modulates the activities of Hsp70, P450 and SOD and thereby protects the brain from deleterious effect of stress (Kar Chowdhury et al., 2002). In another study, pretreatment with brahmi restored both acute and chronic immobilization stress-induced changes in ulcer index, adrenal gland weight, creatine kinase, and aspartate aminotransferase (Rai et al., 2003). Treatment with Bacopa monnieri extract 40 mg/kg/day effectively reversed behavioral deficits of PCAPP mice in open field tests compared with non-transgenic controls (Holcomb et al., 2006).
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Previous clinical study demonstrated that administration of brahmi syrup to 35 patients diagnosed with anxiety neurosis resulted in significant decrease in anxiety symptoms and level of anxiety (Asthana et al., 1996). In a recent randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled clinical trial, effect of standardized Bacopa monniera extract in healthy elderly patients on anxiety, depression and recall memory was evaluated. Bacopa participants had enhanced delayed word recall memory scores in Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT) compared to placebo. Affective measures like depression scores, anxiety scores, and heart rate decreased in due course for the Bacopa group but increased for the placebo group (Calabrese et al., 2008). In a study by Stough et al., the chronic effects of brahmi extract were examined on memory function in forty six healthy human subjects aged between 18 to 60 years. The study was a double-blind placebo-controlled independent group design in which subjects were randomly allocated to one of the two treatment conditions, i.e., brahmi extract (300 mg) or placebo. Neuropsychological tests were conducted pre-baseline and at 5 and 12 weeks post-drug administration. Brahmi extract significantly improved speed of visual information processing measured by the Inspection Time, learning rate and memory consolidation measured by Auditory Verbal Learning Test, and state anxiety examined using Strait-Trait Anxiety Inventory. The results of the clinical trial suggested that brahmi extract improved higher order cognitive processes that are critically dependent on the input of information from our environment such as learning and memory (Stough et al., 2001). Another study to measure the effect of brahmi extract on human memory was conducted by Roodenrys et al. (2002). Seventy six adults aged between 40 and 65 years volunteered for the double-blind randomized, placebo control study in which various memory functions were tested and levels of anxiety measured in three testing sessions: one prior to the trial, one after three months on the trial, and one six weeks after the completion of the trial. The results showed a significant effect of brahmi on the test for the retention of new information. In the follow-up tests it was found that the rate of learning was unaffected, suggesting that brahmi decreases the rate of forgetting of newly acquired information.
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4.3. Withania somnifera (ashwagandha)\n\t\t\t\t
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This has been an important herb in use within Ayurvedic and indigenous medical systems for over 3000 years. Both preclinical and clinical studies demonstrate the use of ashwagandha for anxiety, inflammation, Parkinson’s disease, cognitive and neurological disorders. It is also used therapeutically as an adaptogen in nervous exhaustion, insomnia, debility due to stress (Mishra et al., 2000; Withania, Monograph 2004). Preclinically, the extract of Withania somnifera (WS) root exhibited anxiolytic activity in the elevated plus-maze, social interaction and feeding latency in an unfamiliar environment (Bhattacharya et al., 2000). Chronic stress-induced hyperglycemia, cognitive deficits, immunosupression and depression was attenuated by ashwagandha. The results indicate that ashwagandha has significant antistress adaptogenic activity, confirming the clinical use of the plant in Ayurveda (Bhattacharya and Muruganandam, 2003). A recent study has demonstrated the anxiolytic potential of a compound natural health product which had Withania as the main herb in an open label human trial (Seely and Singh, 2007). Also, studies have demonstrated that WS possesses GABA-mimetic properties (Kulkarni and Verma, 1993a; Mehta et al., 1991). Since GABA agonism has been linked to anxiolysis (Stahl, 1998), the extracts of WS may have beneficial effect in anxiety and related disorders. A double blind placebo control study in patients with ICD-10 anxiety disorders, 6 weeks treatment with ethanolic extract of W. somnifera showed anxiolytic activity over placebo. The extract was well tolerated and did not cause more adverse effects than placebo. So, it was concluded that the ethanolic extract of WS has useful anxiolytic potential (Andrade et al., 2000).
Mentat (BR-16A) is an herbal medication contains 20 different ingredients. The main herbs present in the mentat are Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri), Mandookparni (Centella asiatica). Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera), Jatamansi (Nardostachys jatamansi), Shankhapuspi (Evolvulus alsinoides), Tagar (Valeriana wallichi). Vach (Acorus calamus), Guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia), Malkangni (Celastrus paniculatus), Kuth (Saussurea lappa) Amla (Embelica officinalis), Terminalia chebula and Terminalia belerica. Some of these plants namely, B. monnieri, C. asiatica, W. somnifera, N. jatamansi, E. alsinoides, V. wallichi, A. calamus, T. cordifolia and C. paniculatus, have been classified in Ayurveda as Medharasayanas and claimed to improve memory and intellect (Sharma, 1978). Polyherbal formulations are generally used in Ayurveda, based on the concept that such combinations provide synergistic therapeutic effect. Mice show a natural aversion to open and high spaces and therefore, spend more time in enclosed arms. Mice receiving chronic treatment with BR-16A-Mentat (100 mg/kg) followed by ethanol failed to show any withdrawal-induced anxiety. There was a significant decrease in the time spent in closed arms. The duration and the number of entries in open arms increased significantly as compared with the ethanol withdrawn group (Kulkarni and Verma, 1993b). Also, the anti-stress effect of mentat was evident against social isolation-induced stress in mice (Kumar and Kulkarni, 2006).
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\n\t\t\t\tAgrawal et al. (1990a,b) reported that BR-16A improves memory parameters and decreases anxiety parameters in normal volunteers. Also, mentat (BR-16) brought about marked improvement in memory in all age groups and caused decrease in anxiety level and neuroticism index (Agrawal et al., 1991). Mentat in the form of syrup was given to patients of anxiety neurosis and depression in a placebo controlled study. Both anxiety and depressive patients showed memory impairment and also increased fatiguability. 3 month treatment with Mentat improved memory and decreased fatiguability in these patients (Sharma et al., 1990). Psychological problems like stress, anxiety and depression play an important role in the prognosis, quality of life as well as the survival rate of cancer patients. Treatment with mentat in cancer patients reduced stress, anxiety and depressive symptoms (Durgesh Kumar, 2000).
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Another polyherbal formulation Geriforte showed significant anxiolytic effect in clinical studies. Geriforte contains Chyavanprash concentrate and the extracts of Asparagus adscendens, Withania somnifera, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Centella asiatica, Mucuna pruriens, Shilajeet, Asparagus racemosus, Terminalia arjuna, Makardhwaj and Piper longum, besides some others. An earlier open study demonstrated the beneficial effects of Geriforte in anxiety patients as per DSM III R criteria. There was significant reduction in the total Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HARS) score at the end of four weeks (Boral et al., 1989; Shah et al., 1990). Another double-blind, placebo-controlled study authors have observed improvement in HARS scores in patients of mixed anxiety-depression following 4 weeks of Geriforte treatment in comparison with placebo (Shah et al., 1993; Upadhyaya et al., 1990). Preclinical studies show that Geriforte stimulates antioxidant defense system in both mice and rats (Vandana et al., 1998). Various studies have demonstrated the efficacy of Geriforte as an anti-stress adaptogen. The prolongation of survival time and prevention of stress-induced changes in adrenals, prevention of stress-induced ulcers and milk-induced leucocytosis, indicate the anti-stress properties of Geriforte (Singh et al., 1978).
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Another common polyherbal formulation Euphytose, which is a combination of six extracts: Crataegus, Ballota, Passiflora and Valeriana, which have mild sedative effects, and Cola and Paullinia, which mainly act as mild stimulants. Euphytose reduced HAMA scores in outpatients with adjustment disorder with anxious mood in multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled study (Bourin et al., 1997).
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Recent preclinical studies have shown anxiolytic activity of several herbal drugs. Securidaca longepedunculata is a savannah shrub commonly used by traditional medicine practitioners in Nigeria. The aqueous root extract of Securidaca longepedunculata showed anxiolytic activity in the elevated plus maze (EPM) by significantly increasing time spent in the open arms as compared to control (Adeyemi et al., 2010). Another herbal medicine yokukansan improved age related anxiety in the open filed and EPM (Mizoguchi et al., 2010). Petiveria alliacea L has been traditionally used in South America and Brazil for anxiety and whole plant extract of Petiveria alliacea caused anxiolytic-like effects in mice subjected to the EPM (Blainski et al., 2010). Cirsium rivulare (Jacq.) All. (Asteraceae) is an herbaceous perennial plant traditionally used in Polish folk medicine to treat anxiety. In a recent study, methanolic extracts from flowers and leaves of Cirsium rivulare produced anxiolytic activity in the EPM. Extract from flowers in addition to its anxiolytic effects, improves memory of the appetitively and aversively motivated tasks (Walesiuk et al., 2010). In Brazil, Erythrina mulungu and Erythrina velutina (Fabaceae) are widely used as a tranquilizer and/or sedative, and their extract exerts an anxiolytic-like effect profile in animal models. In herbal medicine, a leaf or bark decoction or tincture from mulungu is considered to calm agitation and other disorders of the nervous system, including insomnia and depression. Chronic Erythrina mulungu exerted anxiolytic effect in the elevated T maze inhibitory avoidance and in the light/dark transition model (Onusic et al., 2003). Erythrina velutina administration increased the percentage of open arm entries in the elevated plus maze (Raupp et al., 2008). No clinical data is available to substantiate anxiolytic effect of these herbs.
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Our own studies have demonstrated the role of different herbs and herbal formulations namely Euphorbia hirta, Celastrus paniculatus Willd and Sumind in amelioration of anxiety, depression, cognitive deficits and associated neurodegeneration in these disorders (Anuradha et al., 2008; 2010; Nanjappa et al., 2007). Recent studies have shown that treatments with the crude extract of Astragalus membranaceus reduced repeated stress induced anxiety and memory loss (Park et al., 2009). In similar lines, our previous work demonstrated that Euphorbia hirta (Eh) reverses chronic immobilization stress-induced anxiety behavior in elevated plus maze and open field test. Extracts of Eh Linn have been found to possess central analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory properties in addition to its central antidepressant, sedative and anxiolytic effects (Lanhers et al., 1990; Lanhers et al., 1991; Johnson et al., 1999). The anxiolytic activity of this drug has been established in mice subjected to two-compartment, staircase and light/dark choice situation tests (Lanhers et al., 1990). Euphorbia hirta produces its anxiolytic effect in an animal model of chronic stress through GABAA receptor-benzodiazepine receptor-Cl− channel complex. Eh also appears to mediate its anxiolytic action through this complex since all of the three antagonists, flumazenil, bicuculline and picrotoxin inhibited Eh-induced increase in open arm exploration and also recovered the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in discrete regions of the brain (Anuradha et al., 2008; 2010).
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\n\t\t\t\tCelastrus paniculatus Willd has been known for centuries as “the elixir of life”. Ayurveda describes drug the Jyotishmati (Celastrus paniculata) as early as 1500BC in Charaka samhita (the most ancient and authoritative text book of ayurveda) for diseases of the brain and as buddhiprada (enhancing intellect), smritiprada (enhancing memory). Jyotishmati translates as Jyoti and mati (enlightens intellect). Celastrus paniculatus (CP), a plant belonging to Celastraceae was in use from time immemorial to treat brain related disorders and to enhance learning and memory. CP treated rats exhibited a significantly increased learning curve compared with vehicle treated animals in the avoidance paradigm (Karanth et al., 1980). In another study, rats treated daily with 850 mg/kg of CP oil for 15 days exhibited a significant improvement in their retention time in a two-way passive avoidance task. CP also produced a significant decrease in the content of norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin and certain of their respective metabolites in the brain (Nalini et al., 1995). Previous findings indicate that the aqueous extract of CP seed has cognitive-enhancing properties and an antioxidant effect might be involved (Kumar and Gupta, 2002). CP enhanced learning and memory in naïve rats when tested in a partially baited radial arm maze task by altering acetyl cholinesterase activity in the hippocampus and frontal cortex (Lekha et al., 2010a). Acute and chronic immobilisation-induced oxidative stress was restored back to normal after CP oil treatment (Lekha et al., 2010b). Recently we have demonstrated that chronic stress-induced learning impairment in radial arm maze task was restored by chronic CP oil treatment. The behavioural recovery was associated with restoration of both hippocampal long-term potentiation and cholinergic activity. This opens up the possibility of developing novel agents from nature to enhance synaptic plasticity as a means of treating a variety of psychiatric diseases, including depression (Unpublished data). An in vitro study has demonstrated neuroprotective effect of CP water extract in forebrain primary neuronal cell cultures. Pre-treatment of neuronal cells with CP-water extract significantly attenuated glutamate-induced neuronal death. Also, CP significantly and reversibly inhibited whole-cell NMDA currents (Godkar et al., 2004).
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6. Conclusion
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Despite a large number of animal studies evaluating the potential anxiolytic effects of herbal drugs, very few controlled clinical studies have been conducted. These studies have methodological problems like small number of subjects, lack of placebo and control groups, and inclusion of heterogeneous subjects and short treatment duration, which hinders consistent conclusion about these herbal preparations. Some herbs like kava-kava, gingko showed promising results with substantial clinical significance when compared with benzodiazepines, buspirone and antidepressants. Although evidence of effectiveness of herbs and their preparations in treating neuropsychiatric disorders is increasing, translating these results to treat patients effectively is slowed down by the limited knowledge regarding chemical composition of the products, lack of standardization of these preparations and the paucity of well controlled studies. Preliminary evidence suggests that herbal medicines may have a role in the treatment of anxiety disorders and warrants further research. However, we would like to clearly warn that most of the remedies are not approved for clinical use and herbal remedies are not solely alternatives of clinical treatment regimens. Also some of the herbal remedies may interact with other medicines leading to drug-drug interactions, which may cause severe side effects and in some cases it may be fatal. Accordingly, it is advised to use herbal drugs under strict supervision of qualified ayurvedic physicians with periodic follow-ups.
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Acknowledgments
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We acknowledge the financial support from the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi, India through a Senior Research Associate fellowship to BV, Research grants from Department of Biotechnology (DBT) and Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India to BSS, Fondation pour la recherche médicale (FRM) fellowship to BNS.
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\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/19371.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/19371.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19371",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19371",totalDownloads:18556,totalViews:2297,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,totalAltmetricsMentions:1,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:75,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"November 26th 2010",dateReviewed:"April 8th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 12th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/19371",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/19371",book:{id:"511",slug:"different-views-of-anxiety-disorders"},signatures:"Bhagya Venkanna Rao, Bettadapura N. Srikumar and Byrathnahalli S. Shankaranarayana Rao",authors:[{id:"52282",title:"Prof.",name:"Byrathnahalli S.",middleName:null,surname:"Shankaranarayana Rao",fullName:"Byrathnahalli S. Shankaranarayana Rao",slug:"byrathnahalli-s.-shankaranarayana-rao",email:"bssrao@nimhans.kar.nic.in",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Common anxiety disorders",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Generalized anxiety disorders (GAD)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Panic disorder",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Common herbal remedies for anxiety",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1. Passion flower",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2. Kava kava (Piper methysticum)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.3. St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.4. Valeriana officinalis\n\t\t\t\t",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.5. Ginkgo biloba\n\t\t\t\t",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.6. Galphimia glauca\n\t\t\t\t",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.7. Matricaria recutita (chamomile)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.8. Astragalus membranaceus\n\t\t\t\t",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"4. Indian traditional herbs ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.1. Centella asiatica (Mandookaparni or Gotu Kola)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.2. Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi)\n\t\t\t\t",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.3. Withania somnifera (ashwagandha)\n\t\t\t\t",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"5. Polyherbal formulations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAdamec\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. 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Department of Neurophysiology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences, Deemed University, Bengaluru, India
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Bettadapura N. Srikumar",address:null,affiliation:'
Laboratoire "Physiologie Cellulaire de la Synapse", UMR 5091 CNRS, Université Bordeaux 2, Institut François Magendie, Bordeaux Cedex, France
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Byrathnahalli S. Shankaranarayana Rao",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Neurophysiology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences, Deemed University, Bengaluru, India
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"511",type:"book",title:"Different Views of Anxiety Disorders",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Different Views of Anxiety Disorders",slug:"different-views-of-anxiety-disorders",publishedDate:"September 12th 2011",bookSignature:"Salih Selek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/511.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC-SA 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-560-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6477-7",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:44,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"33081",title:"Dr.",name:"Salih",middleName:null,surname:"Selek",slug:"salih-selek",fullName:"Salih Selek"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1061"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"19995",type:"chapter",title:"Anxiety and Its Nosographic and Psychopathologic Place in German Psychiatry: A Historical Perspective",slug:"anxiety-and-its-nosographic-and-psychopathologic-place-in-german-psychiatry-a-historical-perspective",totalDownloads:1854,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Marc Géraud",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"32382",title:"Dr.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Geraud",fullName:"Marc Geraud",slug:"marc-geraud"}]},{id:"19358",type:"chapter",title:"Social Anxiety Disorder",slug:"social-anxiety-disorder",totalDownloads:3959,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Nesrin Dilbaz, Aslı Enez and Serçin Yalçın Çavus",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"34715",title:"Prof.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Dilbaz",fullName:"Nesrin Dilbaz",slug:"nesrin-dilbaz"},{id:"34728",title:"Dr.",name:"Aslı",middleName:null,surname:"Enez Darcin",fullName:"Aslı Enez Darcin",slug:"asli-enez-darcin"},{id:"34729",title:"Dr.",name:"Serçin",middleName:null,surname:"Yalcın Cavus",fullName:"Serçin Yalcın Cavus",slug:"sercin-yalcin-cavus"}]},{id:"19359",type:"chapter",title:"Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders or Not: Differential Diagnosis of Repetitive Behaviors Among Individuals with Intellectual and Developmental Disorders",slug:"obsessive-compulsive-disorders-or-not-differential-diagnosis-of-repetitive-behaviors-among-individua",totalDownloads:4537,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Jarrett Barnhill",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"33657",title:"Dr.",name:"Jarrett",middleName:null,surname:"Barnhill",fullName:"Jarrett Barnhill",slug:"jarrett-barnhill"}]},{id:"19996",type:"chapter",title:"Reasoning in Anxiety, OCD and Related Disorders: Can Formal Reasoning Theories Inform Us About Psychopathology?",slug:"reasoning-in-anxiety-ocd-and-related-disorders-can-formal-reasoning-theories-inform-us-about-psychop",totalDownloads:3910,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Kieron P. 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1. Introduction
1.1 Quaternary in the world
The Quaternary is characterized worldwide by important climate oscillations, with extremes represented by glacial and interglacial periods resulting from temperature variations that caused marked changes in sea level (e.g., [1]). In coastal areas, transgressive-regressive events have generated a sequence of erosion forms (coastal terraces and paleocliffs) and beach deposits that, for different reasons, have been protected from degradation processes and are therefore an important testimony of climate changes that have occurred in most recent geologic time [2].
1.2 Glacial and interglacial cycles
In 1941, Milankovitch developed a planetary theory that attributes Quaternary glacial and interglacial cycles to modifications of orbital parameters such as eccentricity (100 Ka), obliquity (41Ka), and precession of the equinoxes (19 Ka).
Since the beginning of the Pleistocene, climatic oscillations would have followed periodic cycles of about 40 Ky that seem to conform the variation cycle of the earth axis. The amplitude of the cycles tended to increase 1.5 My ago, and from 600 Ka the glacial cycles have occurred at intervals of between 80 and 120 Ky (e.g., [3, 4]). This duration of the recent cycles is similar to the period of variation of the eccentricity of the earth orbit, of 100 Ky.
1.3 Marine isotopic stages (MIS)
The different glacial and interglacial events occurred during the Quaternary were differentiated through the marine isotope stages (MIS). These MIS represent alternate cold and warm periods established on the basis of δ180 of benthic foraminifers, obtained from cores of the sea bottom [5]. Emialiani [6] divided the last million years in successive isotopic stages on the basis of the δ180/δ160 relationship. Each isotopic stage represents a glacial period (designated with an odd number) or interglacial (designated with an even number), and reveal the advance and retreat of the ice during the last glaciations.
1.3.1 Interglacials in the world
Globally, the MIS 11 encompasses from 424 to 374 ka. It was a long warm period that reached a global mean sea level of 6 to 13 m above the present one between 410 and 400 ka [2]. Some authors (e.g., [7, 8, 9]) consider the MIS 11 as an analogous of the Holocene both in climatic conditions and orbital forcing. According to Ashton et al. [10] the climatic conditions in marine isotopic and ice sheet records include at least two large warm episodes with an intermediate cooling phase. The warm conditions of this interglacial were reflected in different marine and terrestrial communities (e.g., [9, 11, 12]).
MIS 9 encompasses from ca. 330 up to 310 ka and sea level was 3 ± 3 m below the present one [13]. In the Northern Hemisphere, at Henderson Island (24°22’S/128°20’W), the highest sea level recorded in MIS 9 is between 334 ± 4 and 324 ± 3 ka in agreement with the maximum sun insulation of 333 ka [14]. In the western Mediterranean (Spain) the sea surface temperature (SST) and the salinity recorded in this interglacial were similar to those of MIS 7 and MIS 5e [15], whereas other authors (e.g., [16]) suggested that according to paleontological evidence, this interglacial was warmer than MIS 7 and the Holocene, and similar to MIS 5e.
MIS 7 encompasses from ca. 245 up to 190 ka [17] with three temperature maximums [18]. Isotopic data of some deep sea cores suggest that the sea level would not have reached the level of the present cero [19, 20], although other authors suggest values around −18 m [17]. SST of this interglacial was higher than the present one [21, 22, 23]. In the European coasts, the marine deposits of MIS 7 record the appearance of the “Senegalese” marine fauna from the African coast, confirming this stage as warm in the Northern Hemisphere (e.g., [24, 25, 26]). Similar conditions are observed in the Southern Hemisphere: the SST of the southern Argentine Patagonia (42°–43°S) is proposed to be similar or slightly warmer than today on the basis of the record of warm water mollusks (e.g., [27, 28]).
MIS 5 in the substage e, is one of the most studied episodes, and best represented worldwide. It encompasses from ca. 130 ± 2 to 119 ± 2 ka [29] and the SST was approximately 2°C higher than the present one (e.g., [30, 31]). Comparing with other interglacials, MIS 5e has the best records of SST [18]. Evidence of warm water benthic mollusks, and changes in their geographic distribution was found in MIS 5e (e.g., [5, 26, 27, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48]).
MIS 1 encompasses the last 11.7 ka [49], when the last glaciation is considered to be ended [50]. There is an increase of the SST and humidity worldwide (e.g., [4, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56]) with some records in the Southern Hemisphere (e.g., [37, 49, 50, 57, 58, 59]). This phenomenon is reflected worldwide in the biotic communities with changes in composition, abundance, diversity and distribution (e.g., [60, 61, 62]).
In the Argentine Patagonian region, the stages MIS 11 to MIS 1 are represented, as well as ingressions older then MIS 11, but with poor records and fossil content [32].
2. Area of study
2.1 Quaternary marine deposits from the northern argentine Patagonia
Along the Argentine coast, broad extensions of the littoral of the Buenos Aires Province (BAP) and north Patagonia were affected by accumulation and erosion processes produced by sea level oscillations during Quaternary transgressions (e.g., [63, 64]).
Northern Patagonia has been divided into two regions according to their province. The first groups three areas of the south of the BAP (A-C) and record the presence of the interglacials ≥ MIS 9, MIS 5e and MIS 1 [5, 65, 66], and the other one belongs to region D, and records the presence of the interglacials ≥ MIS 9, MIS 7, MIS 5e, and MIS 1 (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
(A) Map of study, and (B) four areas in the northern Patagonia in Argentina.
In region A, from Peninsula Verde to Otero Island, the transgressive deposits have been assigned to the Sangamon (? Late Pleistocene), which are represented in the area of the Colorado River delta by paleocliffs associated with coast lines up to 10 m height [67]. These marine deposits are assigned to the oldest interglacials because of their geomorphological, altimetric and cementation similarity [68]. Among them, there are scarce, thin, and isolated deposits on the continent which are assigned to ≥ MIS 9 [68, 69]. The terminal area of the delta is formed by the marine deposits of the MIS 1 ingression, which are beach ridges or intertidal environments [68].
In region B, which extends from the Otero Island to near the Jabalí Island, Weiler [70] correlated the Pleistocene and Holocene marine deposits of the central area with three transgressive events of the Late Pleistocene and Holocene, and related them to environments of barriers and coastal lagoons of the transgression of the Sangamon interglacial (with a minimum age of 43 Ka), the interstadial transgression of the middle Wisconsin (38.5 to 25 Ka), and the postglacial transgression of the MIS 1 (middle Holocene, between 5 and 5.2 Ka). More recently, Schnack et al. [71] related the oldest deposits of the area described by Weiler [43] with the Interglacial MIS 5e, considering the radiocarbon datings as minimum ages.
In region C, from the Jabalí Island up to Villa 7 de Marzo, Fucks et al. [68] reinterpreted the stratigraphic sequences, assigning a minimum of four transgressive cycles. Beach ridges, as well as beach strand plains and tidal plains, with maximum altitudes of 6 m a.s.l. and very clear morphologies are present from the coast to the present day continent, particularly in Isla Jabalí. Above them, at altitudes of 8 to 10 m a.s.l. that increase gradually to over 30 m a.s.l., clear ridges could be probably related to MIS 5e. These could have been originated in two ≥ 9 transgressive events.
In region D, north of San Matías Gulf from near the El Cóndor beach up to Las Grutas beach, there are records of the interglacials MIS 7, MIS 5e and MIS 1 plus a fourth one, 60 m height, that probably corresponds to an interglacial ≥ MIS 9. According to Fucks et al. [72] the deposits of interglacials MIS 7 and MIS 5e correspond to Baliza San Matias and San Antonio formations, respectively, and those of Holocene age have no designation.
The main geomorphological features are littoral ridges formed by high energy conditions, although, deposits corresponding to intertidal environments, coastal lagoons, spit sand cliffs forms have been described mainly for the Holocene transgressive event as well (e.g.,[5, 68, 72, 73, 74, 75]).
All these deposits contain marine mollusks, particularly gastropods and bivalves (Figure 2) (Table 1) [5, 35, 36, 37, 65, 82].
Figure 2.
(A) Profile of Holocene deposit with Tagelus plebeius in life position (region a, MIS 1); (B) Holocene littoral ridge in canal Villalonga (region B, MIS 1); (C) Pleistocene outcrops near Cardenal Cagliero locality (region C, MIS 9) and (D) Holocene cliff near San Antonio Este Harbor (region D, MIS 1).
3.1 Methodology for marine mollusks associated with littoral deposits
A total of 84 localities were studied in two areas, 31 Pleistocene, 29 Holocene, and 24 modern ones. In these localities 7385 valves and shells of mollusks were collected. Each coastal deposit to be studied is identified on topographic maps. At each level of the site, a volumetric sample of 1 dm3. In contrast, at modern beach sites the sample is taken in a quadrant 1 m x 1 m along transects perpendicular to the coast line.
Each fraction of biogenic content recovered from the sieves (2.80, 1.40 and 0.080 mm) was identified, measured with digital caliper, and labeled. Species were identified through catalogs and specific literature.
Valves and shells found in the marine deposits are considered as assemblages representing the accumulation of non-contemporary individuals in a single set, and occurs because the time of generation of these individuals is faster than the burial rates. In this context, it has to be taken into account the changes produced during the transition of the animal remains from the biosphere to the lithospere, which is studied through a discipline called taphonomy (etymologically derived from the Greek taphos, tomb, and nom, law). Taphonomy was defined by Efremov [83] as the science that studies the laws of burial, and accepted that taphonomic processes lead to the loss of information and are the cause of gaps in the fossil record. Currently this concept has been reversed since numerous studies (e.g., [84, 85, 86, 87]) support the idea that the faunal associations of both current and fossil valves provide relevant information on living communities, or paleocommunities, being able in both cases to reconstruct the environments or paleoenvironments from the analysis of the faunal associations and thus interpret environmental and climatic changes.
The studied mollusks form transported faunal associations, which, according to different authors, preserve compositional fidelity concerning taxonomy and relative abundance of the communities that inhabited each environment within the considered period, and represent the accumulations of non-contemporary individuals as a whole.
4. Results
4.1 Marine malacology of northern Patagonia
The four areas identified in northern Patagonian according to their geomorphology (A-D), in which 84 sites were studied, yielded 78 species (42 bivalves and 36 gastropods). Eleven of them are micromollusks: Heleobia australis, Olivella tehuelcha, Parvanachis isabellei, Turbonilla argentina, Turbonilla paralaminata, Chrysallida multituberculata (gastropods) and Nucula nucleus, Ennucula grayi, Carditamera plata, Corbula patagonica, and Corbula lyoni (bivalves) (Tables 2 and 3).
Ecological requeriments and distribution of gastropods.
The references of species are found on MolluscanBase eds(2021).
Ep, epifaunal; I, infaunal; Ce, cemented; Ec, ectoparasite; H, hard; S, soft; M, mixed; C, carnivorous; D, detritivorous; He, herbivore; Sf, suspension feeder; O, oligohaline (3–8‰); M, mesohaline (8–18‰); P, polyhaline (18–30‰); E, euhaline (>30–35‰).
4.2 Malacological analysis
Seventy species were identified in areas A-C (37 bivalves and 33 gastropods), and 45 species in region D (19 bivalves and 24 gastropods), with a similarity of 51.3% in bivalve species and 48.5% in gastropods.
In areas A-C, all the studied sites assigned to the interglacial ≥ MIS 9, are paleobeaches and littoral ridges; i.e., high energy environments in which the marine fauna is euryhaline (salinity > 30–35 gr/l) and of sandy substrate. Warm water species prevailed in bivalve associations (50–67%) compared to the other interglacials recorded in the area. However, no bivalve or gastropod of warm lineage that constitutes itself a paleoindicator was found.
Interglacial MIS 5e is represented in all the studied sites mostly by littoral ridges in which most associations are euryhaline, of sandy substrate and subordinate rocky substrate. Most species are epifaunal except in region A, prevailing filter feeders and carnivores. The proportion of warm water species in this interglacial is lower than in the previous one (44–50%) being outstanding the record of the warm lineage bivalve Crassostrea rhizophorae, excellent paleoindicator. In region D, this proportion is only 27% of the bivalves.
Interglacial MIS 1 was recorded in the whole study area, with two types of deposits in areas A-C: littoral ridges (high energy environments) and tidal plains (low energy environments). In the first ones, the malacofaunal associations are mostly euryhaline, of sandy substrates. In the second ones instead, the associations vary in salinity from oligohaline to mesohaline-polyhaline (salinity between 3 and 30 gr/l), of fine sand substrate, mostly epifaunal and filter feeders prevailing infaunal and carnivores in region A. This latter would be related to the modern geomorphological features of low energy environments (wide tidal plains, tidal channels and non-functional fluvial courses), that resulted in the formation of islands which can be seen in all the southern coast of the Buenos Aires Province. This interglacial MIS 1 is recognized in area D in littoral ridges, being the malacofaunal associations mostly euryhaline, of sandy substrate with rocky subordinate. In the associations of MIS 1 there is 45 to 50% of warm water species in areas A-C, unlike areas D in which this proportion is only 18% of the total bivalves.
In modern beaches of the south of BAP, but not in the northern sector of Bahía Anegada there are sandy beaches together with mud-sandy ones, and malacofaunal associations correspond to marine parameters of high energy, euryhaline of sandy substrate with scattered rocky substrate, mainly in area C. Instead, the modern beaches of area D are larger often exceeding hundreds of meters wide. There are two types of beaches regarding the granulometry: a low intertidal sector of fine to medium sand with high distal sectors of gravels, organogenic in composition, and a low intertidal sector and high distal one of fine-medium sand. Both are associated with high energy environments where the malacological associations are mostly euryhaline, of sandy substrate, with less proportion of fauna of scattered rocky substrate. There is one exception, the modern beach of Villa 7 de Marzo which has a particular feature, fine sand substrate with abundance of two bivalves Plicatula gibbosa and Ostrea puelchana, and the gastropod Crepidula, which could be due to the influence of the Negro River. This is also observed in the southern area of this river, in El Cóndor Beach, which has a similar environment and the same mollusks. The modern malacofaunal associations bear 33 to 50% of warm water species in regions A-C, and 31% in area D.
In area D, all the analyzed sites of MIS 7 correspond to paleobeaches. They are currently represented by coastal platforms, of high energy, with mostly euryhaline malacofaunal associations of sandy substrate and subordinated rocky substrate. Respect to the indicators of sea water temperature, these associations are formed only by 20% of warm water bivalves, although it is recorded the gastropod Tegula atra, probably indicator of warm water.
In MIS 5e there is a slightly higher proportion of associations of warm waters (27%) with respect to the previous interglacial, being conspicuous the presence of Anomalocardia brasiliana and Tegula atra, the first one an excellent paleoindicator, and quite probably also the second one.
In MIS 1 the associations of warm water are in lesser proportion than those of MIS 5e (18%), being outstanding the record of Mesodesma mactroides. The bivalves Aulacomya atra, Retrotapes exalbidus, Ameghinomya antique and the gastropods Fisurella radiosa radiosa and Crepidula dilatata are recorded in the beaches of Río Negro Province. These species have not been described in the modern marine malacofauna of areas A-C (Figures 3–6).
Figure 3.
Paleoecological features of all regions (A–D) in interglacial MIS 5e.
Figure 4.
Paleoecological features of all regions (A–D) in interglacial MIS 1.
Figure 5.
Paleoecological features of all regions (A–D) in modern beaches.
Figure 6.
Paleoecological features of region D in interglacial MIS 7.
4.3 Warm water bivalves and gastropods
4.3.1 Interglacials ≥ MIS 9 and MIS 7
These two interglacials recorded in area D were not recorded in the northeast of BAP. In areas A-C, a total of nine species of mollusks were recorded in the Interglacial ≥ MIS 9, and among them, there is 50–67% of warm water species of bivalves, being this the oldest record of marine mollusks for the BAP. In MIS 7 analyzed in area D, a total of 11 species was recorded with 20% of warm water bivalves. Most recorded species in both interglacials still inhabit the modern coasts of Argentina, except for the gastropod Tegula atra, absent since the MIS 1.
Both interglacials (≥MIS 9 and MIS 7) revealed the presence of warm water mollusks which are not recorded in the marine deposits of the northeast of BAP where these deposits have not been preserved [124]. The record of these interglacials in the BAP is a novelty in the analysis of gastropods and bivalves. Whereas Aguirre et al. [27, 28] reported that in the coasts of southern Patagonia, in areas such as Bahía Vera-Camarones (44.2° to 45°S) and Bahía Bustamente-Caleta Olivia (44.9°–45.3°S, Chubut Province, Argentina), the environmental conditions (substrate, depth, and energy conditions) during the late Pleistocene (MIS 7 and MIS 5e) suggest SST similar to those of the modern littoral and even slightly higher than present, recording faunas of warm to temperate waters.
4.3.2 Interglacial MIS 5e
In the marine deposits of this interglacial in area D, 44 molluskan species (25 bivalves and 19 gastropods) were recorded. These deposits are represented by littoral ridges and tidal plains along the south of the BAP coast, and by littoral ridges along area D, with scarce content of calcium carbonate, favoring the record of mollusks. In area C the associations of MIS 5e and MIS 1 have respectively 34 and 33 species. This similarity was also found in area D, in which 22 species were recognized for MIS 5e and 23 for MIS 1. Unlike area D, the mollusks of MIS 5e of the northeast of the BAP are characterized by less abundance and diversity of species related to those of the Holocene MIS 1 [32]. This could be due to a less representation of the Interglacial MIS 5e, and because most valves and shells of Pleistocene deposits are dissolved and/or crystallized, preventing the species identification.
Between 50 and 44% of warm water species of bivalves recorded in the Interglacial MIS 5e of area D, are represented in areas A-C, whereas this relationship is only 27% of the species from area D. Warm water mollusks were recognized in the study area, among the most prominent species of this interglacial, in areas A-C, is the bivalve Crassostrea rhizophorae (Figure 7A). This is a warm lineage species that inhabits currently the Caribbean, Venezuela, Surinam, and Brazil up to Uruguay, but is not recorded in the present Argentine coast. However, it is recorded as fossil in the northeast and south of the BAP in the MIS 5e (e.g., [33, 125]).
Figure 7.
The warm species of Pleistocene. (A) Crassostrea rhizophorae (Guilding) (MLP: 34.012, MIS 5e, region B), (B) Anomalocardia brasiliana (Gmelin) (CEGH-UNC: 25.609. MIS 5e, region D) and (C) Tegula atra (lesson) (CEGH-UNC: 25.615, MIS 5e, region D).
Another warm lineage species found in area D, is the bivalve Anomalocardia brasiliana, recorded in the area north of the Negro River (Figure 7B). This is the most austral record of the species in the Argentine coast. This species is distributed currently from the French Antilles (18°N) up to the coasts of Brazil (33°S), being an infaunal surface species able to support wide salinity ranges (e.g., [126, 127]). As fossil, it was found in Uruguay, both in the MIS 5e of the Nueva Palmira Formation [43] and in the Holocene of the Villa Soriano Formation [128]. In Argentina, this species is reported for marine deposits within the Pampiano Formation of Lomas de Zamora (34°46′S, northeast of BAP; [129]), as well as in the localities of Magdalena, Punta Piedras (BAP) and south of Entre Ríos Province [124]. This species was found in the Pleistocene deposits of Bahía Blanca (south of BAP) together with Crassostrea rhizophorae [33].
Tegula atra is distributed in intertidal and subtidal shallow rocky substrates, up to 6 m depth (Figure 7C) [130]. It is among the most abundant species of the Pleistocene of area D, and is well preserved in deposits of MIS 7 and MIS 5e [5] but it is not recorded in deposits of MIS 1. Whereas in the Pacific coast, Tegula atra is recorded in the late Pleistocene and Holocene deposits of the northern and southern coast of Peru (e.g., [131, 132]). In Chile, it is recorded in late Pleistocene deposits of Caleta Coloso (23°45′S/70°28′W), north and south of Antofagasta (23°37’ S) [45], as well as in archeological sites such as the late Pleistocene-middle Holocene of Quebrada de Lazareto (south of Chile) [133], middle and late Holocene of the IV Region, Los Vilos (e.g., [134]) and Holocene deposits of the Magellan Straight [135]. Tegula atra is currently distributed in the Pacific coasts from Pacasmayo (7°24′S, Peru) up to the Magellan Straight (53°S) [136], but there is no evidence of living specimens in the south Atlantic coasts.
4.3.3 Interglacial MIS 1
A total of 58 species (31 bivalves and 27 gastropods) was recorded in the marine malacofauna of the Interglacial MIS 1 of northern Patagonia (areas A-D), which differs from the northeast of BAP where Aguirre [89] reported a total of 62 species (25 bivalves and 37 gastropods). Concerning the molluscan composition, in the northeast of BAP, gastropods are more abundant than bivalves both in number of species and of individuals. As a comparison, among the regions studied, area A recorded 51 species (29 bivalves and 22 gastropods), and area B 49 species (25 bivalves and 24 gastropods), being in both regions, bivalves more numerous than gastropods. Whereas in area C, 34 species (17 bivalves and 17 gastropods) were recorded, unlike area D where 42 species (20 bivalves and 22 gastropods) were recorded, being in this latter the number of gastropods slightly higher than bivalves.
The marine deposits of MIS 1 in areas A-C are formed by tidal plains and littoral ridges. Tidal plains yielded mainly Tagelus plebeius among bivalves and Heleobia australis among gastropods. These species support variable salinity, being recorded in oligohaline–mesohaline–polyhaline associations (salinity between 3 and 30 gr/l), typical of low energy environments, most of them with low diversity indexes. In the littoral ridges, the diversity indexes are mostly higher than those of tidal plains. They yielded among bivalves Pitar rostratus, Amiantis purpurata, Ostreola equestris, and among gastropods Buccinanops cochlidium and Heleobia australis, typical of high energy environments.
The marine deposits and their malacofauna in the northeast and south (areas A-C) of the BAP are similar in the two types of deposits of the Interglacial MIS 1. The tidal plains are represented in regions A-C and are related to the development of the Colorado River and Bahía Anegada. The most common species are Heleobia australis, Tagelus plebeius (in life position) and Corbula patagonica, being similar to the marine malacofauna of the northeast of the BAP of the Canal 18 Member of the Las Escobas Formation (Holocene, MIS 1) and the estuarine facies of the Mar Chiquita Formation (Figure 8).
Figure 8.
Warm water vs. cold water during the quaternary in all regions (A–D).
5. Final comments
In the last 400.000 years there were variations in the molluskan paleocommunities of north Patagonia (southern BAP and north of Río Negro Province). The marine malacofauna of this area is composed by two associations, the first one is formed by Holocene sites with abundance of Heleobia australis and Corbula patagonica, and the other, mainly by Pleistocene sites and modern beaches with Amiantis purpurata as the most abundant, together with Buccinanops globulosus, Bostrycapulus odites and Tegula patagonica. The record of Crassostrea rhizophorae, Anomalocardia brasiliana and Tegula atra, in north Patagonia suggests that the interglacials MIS 7, MIS 5e and MIS 1 were slightly warmer than today. These latter species, except for Tegula atra live today in lower latitudes. However, the associations determined for the analyzed interglacials did not change concerning the faunal composition as a whole, and, except for the latitudinal changes of the three species mentioned above, and the record of temperate to cold water associations since the Interglacial MIS 1 in north Río Negro Province (ecotone), the composition remained similar, showing only changes in abundance of species.
\n',keywords:"quaternary, mollusks, paleoenvironments, paleoecology, north Patagonia",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79656.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79656.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79656",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79656",totalDownloads:144,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 22nd 2021",dateReviewed:"July 3rd 2021",datePrePublished:"December 13th 2021",datePublished:"January 12th 2022",dateFinished:"December 13th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Deposits of different Quaternary marine transgressions are largely exposed in the Argentine north Patagonian littoral (39°15′S–41°02′S), south of the Buenos Aires and north of Río Negro provinces. The malacological associations of 84 sites were studied. Among them, 31 belong to Pleistocene deposits of the interglacials ≥ MIS 9, MIS 7, MIS 5e, 29 to Holocene deposits of the interglacial MIS 1, and 24 sites of modern beaches. These sites yielded 7385 fossils among valves and shells, of 78 species (42 bivalves and 36 gastropods), including 11 micromolluskan species. The record of the bivalves Crassostrea rhizophorae in the south of the Buenos Aires Province, and Anomalocardia brasiliana (both currently inhabiting lower latitudes), and very likely the gastropod Tegula atra (inhabiting today the Pacific Ocean) in the north of Río Negro Province, suggests that interglacials MIS 7, MIS 5e and MIS 1 were warmer than today. However, the associations determined for the studied interglacials have not changed in their composition, but in abundance of species, except for the latitudinal shifts of the three mentioned species, and the presence of cold to temperate water taxa since the MIS 1 in the ecotonal area of the north of Río Negro Province. Changes in the associations of northern Patagonia during the Quaternary derived from global changes (sea surface temperature, salinity, etc.), and the existence of habitat heterogeneity in each of the areas, that enabled the co-existence of different bivalve and gastropod species of the local benthic marine malacofauna.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79656",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79656",signatures:"M.P. Charó",book:{id:"10738",type:"book",title:"Update on Malacology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Update on Malacology",slug:"update-on-malacology",publishedDate:"January 12th 2022",bookSignature:"Sajal Ray and Soumalya Mukherjee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10738.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-744-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-743-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-745-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"259750",title:"Dr.",name:"M.P.",middleName:null,surname:"Charó",fullName:"M.P. Charó",slug:"m.p.-charo",email:"charomelisa@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Quaternary in the world",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Glacial and interglacial cycles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3 Marine isotopic stages (MIS)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"1.3.1 Interglacials in the world",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6",title:"2. Area of study",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.1 Quaternary marine deposits from the northern argentine Patagonia",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Materials and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.1 Methodology for marine mollusks associated with littoral deposits",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.1 Marine malacology of northern Patagonia",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.2 Malacological analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.3 Warm water bivalves and gastropods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.3.1 Interglacials ≥ MIS 9 and MIS 7",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.3.2 Interglacial MIS 5e",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.3.3 Interglacial MIS 1",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17",title:"5. Final comments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Rutherford, S. and D’Hondt, S., 2000. Early onset and tropical forcing of 100.000-year Pleistocene glacial cycles. Nature, 408, 72-75'},{id:"B2",body:'Reyes, A. V.; Carlson, A. E., Beard, B. L., Hatfield, R. G., Stoner, J. S., Winsor, K., Elke, B. and Ullman, D. J. 2014. South Greenland ice-sheet collapse during Marine Isotope Stage 11. Nature, 510: 525-528'},{id:"B3",body:'Raymo, M. E., Lisiecki, L. E., Nisancioglu, K. H. 2006. 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Late Pleistocene transgresive deposits from 33°to 44°S, Argentine Republic. Journal of Coastal Research. Special Issues, N°1, 39’48'},{id:"B68",body:'Fucks, E. E., Charó, M. and Pisano, F., 2012a. Aspectos estratigráficos y geomorfológicos del sector oriental patagónico bonaerense. Revista de la Sociedad Geológica de España, 25 (1-2): 29-44'},{id:"B69",body:'Fucks, E. E. and Schnack, E. 2011. Evolución geomorfológica en el sector norte del golfo San Matías. XVIII Congreso Geológico Argentino, Neuquén, Argentina. Actas: 273-274'},{id:"B70",body:'Weiler, N. E. 1988. Depósitos litorales del Pleistoceno tardío y Holoceno en Bahía Anegada, Provincia de Buenos Aires: Segunda Reunión Argentino de Sedimentología, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Actas, p. 245-249'},{id:"B71",body:'Schnack, E. J.; Isla, F. I., De Francesco, F. O. and Fucks, E. E. 2005. Estratigrafía del Cuaternario Marino Tardío en la Provincia de Buenos Aires. Geología y Recursos Minerales de la Provincia de Buenos Aires. Relatorio del XVI Congreso Geológico Argentino, La Plata, Argentina. Capítulo X, p. 159-182'},{id:"B72",body:'Fucks, E. E., Schnack, E. J. and Charó, M. P., 2012b. Aspectos geológicos y geomorfológicos del sector N del Golfo San Matías, Río Negro, Argentina. Revista de la Sociedad Geológica de España, 25 (1-2): 95-105'},{id:"B73",body:'Angulo, R., Fidalgo, F., Gómez Peral, M. A. and Schnack, E. J. 1981. Geología y geomorfología del bajo de San Antonio y alrededores, provincia de Río Negro. Centro de Investigaciones científicas, Secretaria de planeamiento. Estudios y documentos, 8'},{id:"B74",body:'Weiler, N. E. 1984. Rasgos geomorfológicos evolutivos del sector costero comprendido entre bahía Verde e isla Gaviota, provincia de Buenos Aires. Asociación Geológica Argentina, Revista XXXVIII (3-4): 392-404'},{id:"B75",body:'Weiler, N. E. 2000. Evolución de los depósitos litorales en Bahía Anegada, Provincia de Buenos Aires, durante el Cuaternario tardío. Tesis Doctoral, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, 184 p'},{id:"B76",body:'Alberó, M. C., Angioloni, F. B, Codignotto, J.L., Linares, E., Weiler, N. E. 1980. Primeras edades Carbono-14 de afloramientos de conchillas de la Republica Argentina. Asociación Geológica Argentina. Revista XXXV(3): 363-374'},{id:"B77",body:'Weiler, N.E. 1993. Niveles marinos del Pleistoceno tardío y Holoceno en Bahía Anegada, Provincia de Buenos Aires. Geocronología y correlación. Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina, 48 (3-4): 207-216'},{id:"B78",body:'González, M.A. and Weiler, N. E. 1983. Ciclicidad de niveles marinos holocénicos en Bahía Blanca y en el delta del río Colorado. Simposio Oscilaciones de niveles del mar durante el Último Hemiciclo Deglacial en la Argentina. Revista de la Asociación Geológica, Mar del Plata, Actas 69-90'},{id:"B79",body:'Trebino, L. 1987. Geomorfología y Evolución de las costas en los alrededores del pueblo de San Blas, Provincia de Buenos Aires. Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina, 42 (1-2): 9-22'},{id:"B80",body:'Rutter, N., Schnack, E., Del Río, J., Fasano, J., Isla, F., Radkte, U. 1989. Quaternary litoral zones along the Patagonian coast, Argentina. Quaternary Science Reviews, 8: 213-234'},{id:"B81",body:'Rutter, N., Radkte, U., Schnack, E. 1990. Comparison of ESR and amino acid data in correlating and dating quaternary shorelines along the Patagonian coast, Argentina. Journal of Coastal Research, 6 (2): 391-411'},{id:"B82",body:'Bayer, S. and Gordillo, S., 2013. A new Pleistocene species of Glycymeris (Bivalvia, Glycymerididae) from northern Patagonia, Argentina. Ameghiniana, 50 (2): 265-268'},{id:"B83",body:'Efremov, J. A. 1940. Taphonomy: new branch of paleontology. PanAmerican Geologist, 74: 81-93'},{id:"B84",body:'Kidwell, S. M. 2002. Time-averaged molluscan death assemblages. Palimpsests of richness, snapshots of abundance. Geology, 30: 803-806'},{id:"B85",body:'Kidwell, S. M. 2008. Ecological fidelity of open marine molluscan death assemblages: effects of post-mortem transportation, shelf health, and taphonomic inertia. Lethaia, 41: 199-217'},{id:"B86",body:'Kidwell, S. M. 2013. Time-averaging and fidelity of modern death assemblages: building a taphonomic foundation for conversation palaeobiology. Palaeontology, 56: 487-522'},{id:"B87",body:'Kidwell, S. M. and Tomasovych, A. 2013. Implications of Time-Averaged death assemblages for ecology and Conservation biology. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 44: 539-563'},{id:"B88",body:'Linné, C. 1758. Systema Naturae per regnatria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Edition decima, reformata [10th revised edition],vol. 1: 824'},{id:"B89",body:'Adams, A. 1856. Descriptions of thirty four New species of bivalve Mollusca (Ledo, Nucula and Pythina) from the Cumingian Collection. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 24: 47-53'},{id:"B90",body:'Sowerby G. B., I. 1833. Descriptions of new species of shells from the collection formed by Mr. Cuming on the western coast of South America, and among the islands of the southern Pacific Ocean. Proceedings of the Committee of Science and Correspondence of the Zoological Society of London. 2 (“1832”): 194-202'},{id:"B91",body:'Molina, J. I., 1782. Saggio sulla storia naturale del Chile, del Signor Abate Giovanni Ignazio Molina. Bologna. i-v, 1-306'},{id:"B92",body:'Lamarck J.B. P.A. 1819. Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres, Paris.Tome 6(1): 343 pp'},{id:"B93",body:'Lamarck, J. B. 1801. Système des animaux sans vertèbres, ou tableau général des classes, des ordres et des genres de ces animaux; Présentant leurs caractères essentiels et leur distribution, d’apres la considération de leurs rapports naturels et de leur organisation, et suivant l’arrangement établi dans les galeries du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, parmi leurs dépouilles conservées; Précédé du discours d’ouverture du Cours de Zoologie, donné dans le Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle l’an 8 de la République. Published by the author and Deterville, Paris: viii + 432 pp'},{id:"B94",body:'Say, T., 1830-1834. American Conchology, or descriptions of the shells of North America. Illustrated by coloured figures from original drawings executed from nature. School Press, New Harmony, Part 6 (April 1834); Part 7 (1834?, published after Say’s death; edited by T. A. Conrad)'},{id:"B95",body:'Guilding, I. 1828. Observations on the zoology of the Caribbean Islands. The Zoological Journal. 3: 527-544'},{id:"B96",body:'Thunberg, C.P. 1793. Tekning och Beskrifning på en stor Ostronsort ifrån Japan. Kongliga Vetenskaps Academiens Nya Handlingar. 14(4-6): 140-142'},{id:"B97",body:'Ihering, H.V. 1907. Les Mollusques fossiles du Tertiaire et du Cretace superieur de l’Argentine. Anales del Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires, Serie III, 1-611'},{id:"B98",body:'Signorelli, J. and Scarabino, F. 2010. Mactra guidoi n sp. and Mactra patagonica (Bivalvia: Mactridae) two long misunderstood species from southwestern Atlantic Ocean Malacologia, 52 (1): 31-52'},{id:"B99",body:'Lamarck, J. B. P. A. 1818. Histoire Naturelle des Animaux Sans Vértebrés. Paris Tome 5, 612 pp'},{id:"B100",body:'Reeve, L. A. 1854. Monograph of the genus Mesodesma. In: Conchologia Iconica, or, illustrations of the shells of molluscous animals, vol. 8. L. Reeve & Co., London. Pls 1-4'},{id:"B101",body:'Hanley S.C.T. 1842-1843. Illustrated, enlarged and English edition of Lamarck’s species of shells forming the third edition of the Index Testaceologicus. London: Wood. 224+8+[3]+8 pp., 3 pls. [pp. 1-32. pl. 1-2. late 1842; pp. 11-32 [reissue]'},{id:"B102",body:'Smith, E. A. 1885. Report on the Lamellibranchiata collected by HMS Challenger during the years 1873-76. Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S.Challenger during the years 1873-76, Zoology 13: 1-341, pls 1-25'},{id:"B103",body:'Lightfoot, J. 1786. A Catalogue of the Portland Museum, lately the property of the Dutchess Dowager of Portland, deceased; which will be sold by auction by Mr. Skinner & Co. [book]. London. viii + 194 pp'},{id:"B104",body:'Gmelin, J. F. 1791. Vermes. In: Gmelim J. F. (Ed.) Caroli a Linnaei Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae, Ed. 13. Tome 1 (6). G. E. Beer, Lipsiae [Leipzig]. pp. 3021-3910'},{id:"B105",body:'Dillwyn, L. W. 1817. A descriptive catalogue of Recent shells, arranged according to the synonymy London: John and Arthur Arch, Vol 1: 1-158. Vol 2: 581-1092'},{id:"B106",body:'King P.P. 1832. Description of the Cirrhipeda, Conchifera and Mollusca, in a collection formed by the officers of H.M.S. Adventure and Beagle employed between the years 1826 and 1830 in surveying the southern coasts of South America, including the Straits of Magalhaens and the coast of Tierra del Fuego. Zoological Journal, 5: 332-349'},{id:"B107",body:'Pilsbry, H. A. 1897. New species of mollusks from Uruguay. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 49: 290-298'},{id:"B108",body:'Couthowy, J.P. 1839. Monograph on the family With remarks on two species of Patelloidea, and descriptions of new Species of marine shells, a species of Anculotus and one of Eolis. Boston Journal of Natural History 2 (2): 129-189'},{id:"B109",body:'Martens, E. von. 1900. Neue Fissurella aus Südbrasilien. Nachrichtsblatt der deutschen malakozoologischen Gesellschaft. 32(11/12): 187'},{id:"B110",body:'Smith, E. A. 1880. Descriptions of five new species of shells from Uruguay. Annals and Magazine of Natural History. ser. 5, 6 (34): 319-322'},{id:"B111",body:'Collin, R. 2005. Development, Phylogeny and taxonomy of Bostry-Capulus (Caenogastropoda Calyphacidae), an ancient cryptic radiation. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 144:75-101'},{id:"B112",body:'Simone, L. R., Pastorino, G., Penchaszadeh, P. E. 2000. Crepidula argentina (Gastropoda: Calyptraeidae) a new species from the littoral of Argentina. The nautilus, 114 (4): 127-141'},{id:"B113",body:'Lamarck, J.B. M. de. 1822. Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres. Tome septième. Paris: published by the Author, 711 pp'},{id:"B114",body:'Pallas, P.S. 1774. Spicilegia Zoologica quibus novae. Imprimis et Obscurae Animalium Species. Part 10. Berolini, Lange, 267 pp'},{id:"B115",body:'Donovan, E. E. 1823-1827. The Naturalist’s repository, or monthly miscellany of exotic natural history, etc. [Book series]. In 5 volumes 1 (1823)-5 (1827)'},{id:"B116",body:'Lamarck, J.B. 1811. Suite de la détermination des espèces de Mollusques testacés. Annales du Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle. 16: 300-328'},{id:"B117",body:'Broderip, W.J. 1836. Description of some Species of shells apparently not hitherlo Recorded. Proceedings of the Zoological. Society of London, 4: 43-45'},{id:"B118",body:'Duclos, P. L. 1835-1840. Histoire naturelle générale et particulière de tous les genres de coquilles univalves marines a l’état vivant et fossile publiée par monographie. Genre Olive. Paris: Institut de France. 33 plates: pls 1-12'},{id:"B119",body:'Klappenbach M.A. 1965. Consideraciones sobre el género Olivancillaria d’Orbigny 1840 (Moll.Gastr.) y descripción de dos nuevas especies de aguas Argentinas y Uruguayas. Com.Zool.Mus.His.Nat.Montevideo, 8:104'},{id:"B120",body:'Kiener L.C. 1834-1841. Spécies général et iconographie des coquilles vivantes. Vol. 9. Famille des Purpurifères. Deuxième partie. Genres Buccin (Buccinum), Adanson, pp. 1-112 + table with duplicate page numbers 105-108, pl. 1-31 [pp. 1-64 (1834), 65-104 and 105-108 of table (1835), 105-112 of text (1841); pl. 1-24 (1834)'},{id:"B121",body:'Doello-Jurado, M. 1938. Nuevos datos sobre la fauna marina de la meseta continental de la Argentina y del Uruguay. Phys., 12: 279-292'},{id:"B122",body:'Castellano, Z. 1982. Los Pyramidellidae de la República Argentina (Mall, Entomo taeniata). Comunicaciones del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales ¨Bernardino Rivadavia¨. Hidrobiología 2(7): 61-85'},{id:"B123",body:'Blainville, H.M. D. de 1824. Mollusques, Mollusca (Malacoz.). In: Diccionnarie des Sciences Naturelles (F. Cuvier, ed.) Vol 32: 1-392. Leuralt, Strasbourg et Paris, δ Le Normant, Paris'},{id:"B124",body:'Aguirre, M. L. and Fucks, E. E., 2004. Moluscos y paleoambientes del Cuaternario marino en el sur de Entre Rios y litoral bonaerense. Temas de Biodiversidad del litoral fluvial argentino. Miscelánea, 12: 55-10'},{id:"B125",body:'Tonni, E. P. and Fidalgo, F. 1978. Consideraciones sobre los cambios climáticos durante el Pleistoceno Tardío–Reciente en la provincia de Buenos Aires. Aspectos ecológicos y zoogeográficos relacionados. Revista de Asociación Paleontológica Argentina. Tomo XV (1-2): 235-253'},{id:"B126",body:'Arruda, C. C. B., Beasley, C. R., Vallinoto, M., Marques-Silva, N. S. and Tagliaro, C. H. 2009. Significant genetic differentiation among populations of Anomalocardia brasiliana (Gmelin, 1791): a bivalve with planktonic larval dispersion. Genetic Molecular Biology, 32: 423-430'},{id:"B127",body:'Oliveira, I.; Amorim, A., Lavander, H., Peixoto, S. and Gálvez, A. O. 2011. Spatial and temporal distribution of the shellfish Anomalocardia brasiliana (Gmelin, 1791) on Mangue Seco beach, Pernambuco, Brazil. International Journal of Acuatic Science, 2: 68-79'},{id:"B128",body:'Martínez, S.; Rojas, A., Ubilla, M., Verde, M., Perea, D., Piñeiro, G. 2006. Molluscan assemblages from the marine Holocene of Uruguay: composition, geochronology, and paleoenvironmental signals. Ameghiniana, 43 (2): 385-397'},{id:"B129",body:'Walker, M.; Johnsen, S., Rasmussen, S. O., Popp, T., Steffensen, J.P., Gibbard, P., Hoek, W., Lowe, J., Andrews, J., Björck, S., Cwynar, L.C., Hughen, K., Kershaw, P., Kromer, B., Litt, T., Lowe, D.J., Nakagawa, T., Newnham, R. and Schwander, J. 2009. Formal definition and dating of the GSSP (Global Stratotype Section and Point) for the base of the Holocene using the Greenland NGRIP ice core, and selected auxiliary records. Journal of Quaternary Science, 24(1): 3-17'},{id:"B130",body:'Veliz, D. and Vásquez, J. A. 2000. La Familia Trochidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda) en el norte de Chile: consideraciones ecológicas y taxonómicas. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, 73: 757-769'},{id:"B131",body:'Díaz, A. and Ortlieb, L. 1993. El fenómeno del Niño y los moluscos de la costa peruana. Bulletin de Institut Francais d’Estudes Andines, 22 (1):159-177'},{id:"B132",body:'Ortlieb, L. and Díaz, A. 1991. Distribuciones de moluscos litorales del Perú en el Pleistoceno Superior: primeras interpretaciones paleoceanográficas y paleoclimáticas. IIIa Reunión anual Proyecto PICG, 281, p. 39-56'},{id:"B133",body:'Jackson, D. S., Méndez, M. C., López, M. P. and Sequel, R. Q. 2005. Evaluación de un asentamiento arqueológico en el semiárido de Chile: procesos de formación, fauna extinta y componentes culturales. Intersecciones en Antropología, 6: 139-151'},{id:"B134",body:'Baez, P. R. and Jackson, D. S., 2008. Exploitation of loco, Concholepas concholepas (Gastropoda: Muricidae), during the Holocene of Norte Semiárido, Chile. Early Human Impact on Megamolluscs Publishers of British Archaeological Reports, 79-94 p'},{id:"B135",body:'Cárdenas, J. and Gordillo, S. 2009. Paleoenviromental interpretation of late Quaternary molluscan assemblages from southern South America: A taphonomic comparison between the Strait of Magellan and the Beagle Channel. Andean Geology, 36(1): 81-93'},{id:"B136",body:'Moreno, C. A. 2004. Efectos de El Niño en el reclutamiento de Concholepas concholepas y Tegula atra (Mollusca, Gastropoda) en la costa de Valdivia, Sur de Chile. En Avaria y otros Eds. El Niño-La Niña 1997-2000 Sus efectos en Chile. Comité Oceanográfico Nacional (CONA), p. 179-190'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"M.P. Charó",address:"charomelisa@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Servicio de Hidrografía Naval (CONICET), Argentina
Instituto Superior de Correlación Geológica (INSUGEO/CONICET-UNT), Argentina
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10738",type:"book",title:"Update on Malacology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Update on Malacology",slug:"update-on-malacology",publishedDate:"January 12th 2022",bookSignature:"Sajal Ray and Soumalya Mukherjee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10738.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-744-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-743-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-745-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"324554",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"Dell'Atti",email:"stefano.dellatti@unifg.it",fullName:"Stefano Dell'Atti",slug:"stefano-dell'atti",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"73906",title:"A State of the Art of Corporate Social Responsibility in Financial Institutions",slug:"a-state-of-the-art-of-corporate-social-responsibility-in-financial-institutions",abstract:"Corporate social responsibility originates from the company’s behavioral problems. Corporate governance can be considered an environment of trust, ethics and moral values and in recent years has gained enormous importance. In addition, other factors that have been responsible for the new corporate governance paradigm are a stricter respect for the environment and the demand for greater corporate responsibility towards its shareholders and customers. Ecosystem load capacity is described with resource consumption input–output models. In line with this, the company should not use more than one resource that can be regenerated. Considering an organization as part of a broader social and economic system implies that these effects must be taken into account, not only for the measurement of the costs and value created in the present, but also in a future perspective for the company. In this context banks, which carry out the fundamental role as financial intermediaries, are linked with different stakeholder interests, both in economic and social field. This chapter analyzes the main novelties which has influenced corporate governance of them by reviewing its main phases. The chapter secondly addresses the specific features of board of directors by analyzing a sample of 25 banks defined as Global Systematically Important Institutions in 2018 following the EBA guidelines.",signatures:"Stefano Dell’Atti, Francesca Donofrio and Grazia Onorato",authors:[{id:"324554",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",surname:"Dell'Atti",fullName:"Stefano Dell'Atti",slug:"stefano-dell'atti",email:"stefano.dellatti@unifg.it"},{id:"324555",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca",surname:"Donofrio",fullName:"Francesca Donofrio",slug:"francesca-donofrio",email:"francesca.donofrio@uniba.it"},{id:"324556",title:"Dr.",name:"Grazia",surname:"Onorato",fullName:"Grazia Onorato",slug:"grazia-onorato",email:"grazia.onorato@uniba.it"}],book:{id:"9032",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"226654",title:"Dr.",name:"Miftachul",surname:"Huda",slug:"miftachul-huda",fullName:"Miftachul Huda",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"321584",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Gaio",slug:"cristina-gaio",fullName:"Cristina Gaio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"321647",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Coscia",slug:"cristina-coscia",fullName:"Cristina Coscia",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"321662",title:"Ms.",name:"Ouidad",surname:"Yousfi",slug:"ouidad-yousfi",fullName:"Ouidad Yousfi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"321872",title:"Dr.",name:"Shouvik Kumar",surname:"Guha",slug:"shouvik-kumar-guha",fullName:"Shouvik Kumar Guha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"321903",title:"Prof.",name:"Christa",surname:"Thomsen",slug:"christa-thomsen",fullName:"Christa Thomsen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322418",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eddy",surname:"Winarso",slug:"eddy-winarso",fullName:"Eddy Winarso",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322737",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Frederick",surname:"Bird",slug:"frederick-bird",fullName:"Frederick Bird",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"328223",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",surname:"Henriques",slug:"rita-henriques",fullName:"Rita Henriques",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"330264",title:"Dr.",name:"Anuradha",surname:"Roychowdhury",slug:"anuradha-roychowdhury",fullName:"Anuradha Roychowdhury",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"about-open-access",title:"About Open Access and Open Science",intro:"
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\n
Carlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
Open Access background
\\n\\n
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\n
IntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\n
At IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n
“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\n
Open Access Standards followed by IntechOpen
\\n\\n
OAI-PMH
\\n\\n
As a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\n
License
\\n\\n
Book chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\n
Peer Review Policies
\\n\\n
All scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\n
OA Publishing Fees
\\n\\n
The Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\n
Digital Archiving Policy
\\n\\n
IntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\n
Open Science
\\n\\n
Open Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\n
Open Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\n
Open Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Promoting open and publicly accessible education tools
\\n\\t
Transparency in experimental methodology, observation, and collection of data
\\n\\t
Reproducible research data and re-analysis
\\n\\t
Public availability and re-usability of scientific data
\\n\\t
Public accessibility and transparency of scientific communication
\\n\\t
Transparent peer-review and publishing practices
\\n\\t
Using web-based tools to facilitate scientific collaboration
\\n\\t
Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between disciplines
\\n\\t
Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between scientific communities and industry.
\\n
\\n\\n
We aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\n
IntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\n
At IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n
“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\n
Open Access Standards followed by IntechOpen
\n\n
OAI-PMH
\n\n
As a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\n
License
\n\n
Book chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\n
Peer Review Policies
\n\n
All scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\n
OA Publishing Fees
\n\n
The Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\n
Digital Archiving Policy
\n\n
IntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\n
Open Science
\n\n
Open Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\n
Open Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\n
Open Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\n
\n\t
Promoting open and publicly accessible education tools
\n\t
Transparency in experimental methodology, observation, and collection of data
\n\t
Reproducible research data and re-analysis
\n\t
Public availability and re-usability of scientific data
\n\t
Public accessibility and transparency of scientific communication
\n\t
Transparent peer-review and publishing practices
\n\t
Using web-based tools to facilitate scientific collaboration
\n\t
Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between disciplines
\n\t
Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between scientific communities and industry.
\n
\n\n
We aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\n\n
\n\t
Open Access
\n\t
Open Data
\n\t
Open Metrics and Impact
\n\t
Open Source
\n
\n\n
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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