Main and secondary wind tunnel design parameters
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6866",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Energy Conversion - Current Technologies and Future Trends",title:"Energy Conversion",subtitle:"Current Technologies and Future Trends",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Energy conversion technology has always been a main focus for researchers in order to meet the increasing demand as well as securing a clean, consistent and reliable energy supply. The constantly rising fuel price is another good reason to develop alternative systems such as wind turbines, hydropower, photovoltaic systems and other renewable energy solutions. This book contains a collection of selected research works in the areas of electric energy generation, renewable energy sources, hybrid system, electromechanical energy conversion, electric machines, power electronic converters and inverters, energy storage, smart grid and traditional energy conversion systems. The book intends to provide academic and industry professionals working in the field of energy conversion and related applications with an update in energy conversion technology, particularly from the applied perspective.",isbn:"978-1-78984-905-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-904-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-739-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73378",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"energy-conversion-current-technologies-and-future-trends",numberOfPages:156,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"62eaa46123434eb277ced91a69a3d525",bookSignature:"Ibrahim H. Al-Bahadly",publishedDate:"January 16th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6866.jpg",numberOfDownloads:14448,numberOfWosCitations:25,numberOfCrossrefCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:39,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:85,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 20th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 13th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 12th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 31st 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 29th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"19588",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim H.",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Bahadly",slug:"ibrahim-h.-al-bahadly",fullName:"Ibrahim H. Al-Bahadly",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19588/images/1658_n.jpg",biography:"Ibrahim Al-Bahadly received a B.Sc. (Eng.) degree from Baghdad University of Technology in 1987, followed by M.Sc. and Ph.D. from Nottingham University, in 1990 and 1994, respectively, all in electrical and electronic engineering. From 1994 to 1996, he was a research associate with the electric drives and machines group at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK. Since 1996, he has been with Massey University, where he is currently Associate Professor in electrical and electronic engineering. His research interests include power electronic applications, variable speed machines and drives, renewable energy system, instrumentation and automation. Ibrahim is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Massey University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"770",title:"Renewable Energy",slug:"engineering-energy-engineering-renewable-energy"}],chapters:[{id:"62310",title:"The Solutions of DC-DC Converters for Renewable Energy System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78768",slug:"the-solutions-of-dc-dc-converters-for-renewable-energy-system",totalDownloads:1442,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Photovoltaic and wind systems have been used for a few years to bring a new power supply to many applications, while preserving the environment. This chapter is interested in this work at low and medium power, a few 100 W, for applications to housing and buildings. The works consider a system in which the various sources of renewable energies are connected to each other in a parallel structure which supposes the use of specialized converters accepting at the input voltages of the order of a few tens of volts, and giving out several hundred of volts. The DC-DC converters with magnetic coupling will be analyzed more particularly to show the technological limits. In particular, the influence of the magnetic circuit and the leakage flows will be studied in more detail.",signatures:"Nguyen The Vinh and Vo Thanh Vinh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62310",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62310",authors:[{id:"235787",title:"Dr.",name:"Nguyen",surname:"Vinh",slug:"nguyen-vinh",fullName:"Nguyen Vinh"},{id:"241955",title:"MSc.",name:"Vo",surname:"Vinh",slug:"vo-vinh",fullName:"Vo Vinh"}],corrections:null},{id:"62179",title:"Electrical Rating—Long-Term Performance Potential of Photovoltaic Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78952",slug:"electrical-rating-long-term-performance-potential-of-photovoltaic-systems",totalDownloads:1039,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Owing to diverse photovoltaic technology and dynamic nature of meteorological data, a number of factors affect the performance of photovoltaic systems. The highly efficient concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) system can only respond to beam radiations of solar energy, unlike stationary silicon-based conventional photovoltaic (PV) panels. The availability of solar energy, and share of beam/diffuse radiations, varies from region to region, depending upon weather conditions. However, the rated performance as instantaneous maximum efficiency at STC (standard testing conditions) or NOCT (nominal operating cell temperature) in the laboratory, does not depict the true system performance under changing field conditions. The energy planners are interested in actual field performance, in terms of total delivered energy. Therefore, despite highest efficiency, CPV installations seem to be limited to desert regions, with high beam radiations availability and favorable working conditions. In this chapter, the performance potential and feasibility of CPV system is reported for long term operation in tropical weather conditions, in terms of proposed electrical rating parameter, giving total energy delivered as kWh/m2.year. From 1-year field operation of two in-house built CPV units, electrical rating of 240.2 kWh/m2.year is recorded for CPV operation in Singapore, the first ever reported CPV performance in this region, which is two folds higher than the stationary PV.",signatures:"Muhammad Burhan, Muhammad Wakil Shahzad and Ng Kim\nChoon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62179",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62179",authors:[{id:"174208",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Wakil",surname:"Shahzad",slug:"muhammad-wakil-shahzad",fullName:"Muhammad Wakil Shahzad"},{id:"249811",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Burhan",slug:"muhammad-burhan",fullName:"Muhammad Burhan"},{id:"254696",title:"Prof.",name:"Kim Choon",surname:"Ng",slug:"kim-choon-ng",fullName:"Kim Choon Ng"}],corrections:null},{id:"63159",title:"Solar Cooling Technologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80484",slug:"solar-cooling-technologies",totalDownloads:2148,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes different available technologies to provide the cooling effect by utilizing solar energy for both thermal and photovoltaic ways. Moreover, this chapter highlights the following points: (i) the main attributes for different solar cooling technologies to recognize the main advantages, challenges, disadvantages, and feasibility analysis; (ii) the need for further research to reduce solar cooling chiller manufacture costs and improve its performance; (iii) it provides useful information for decision-makers to select the proper solar cooling technology for specific application. Furthermore, some references, which include investigation results, will be included. A conclusion about the main gained investigation results will summarize the investigation results and the perspectives of such technologies.",signatures:"Salman Ajib and Ali Alahmer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63159",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63159",authors:[{id:"247163",title:"Prof.",name:"Salman",surname:"Ajib",slug:"salman-ajib",fullName:"Salman Ajib"},{id:"267665",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Alahmer",slug:"ali-alahmer",fullName:"Ali Alahmer"}],corrections:null},{id:"62100",title:"State-of-the-Art Technologies on Low-Grade Heat Recovery and Utilization in Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78701",slug:"state-of-the-art-technologies-on-low-grade-heat-recovery-and-utilization-in-industry",totalDownloads:2107,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To improve energy efficiency in industry, low-grade heat recovery technologies have been advanced continuously. This chapter aims to provide a basic understanding of state-of-the-art technologies for low-grade heat recovery and utilization in industry, which are developed based on the concept of thermodynamic cycles. The technologies include adsorption, absorption, liquid desiccant, organic Rankine cycles (ORC), and Kalina cycles. The definition of low-grade heat sources, the working principle, recent advances in research and development (R&D), and commercial applications of the technologies (if any) will be discussed, followed by concluding remarks on advantages and disadvantages, future outlook, barriers, and opportunities.",signatures:"Janie Ling-Chin, Huashan Bao, Zhiwei Ma, Wendy Taylor and\nAnthony Paul Roskilly",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62100",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62100",authors:[{id:"249449",title:"Dr.",name:"Janie",surname:"Ling Chin",slug:"janie-ling-chin",fullName:"Janie Ling Chin"}],corrections:null},{id:"62068",title:"The Role of Material Selection and Microfluidics for Optimized Energy Conversion in Microbial Fuel Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78641",slug:"the-role-of-material-selection-and-microfluidics-for-optimized-energy-conversion-in-microbial-fuel-c",totalDownloads:1123,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter book aims to present some key aspects, which play a crucial role to optimize the energy conversion process occurring in microbial fuel cells (MFCs): fluid dynamics and the materials selected as anodic electrodes. MFCs are (bio)-electrochemical devices that directly convert chemical energy into electrical energy, thanks to the metabolic activity of some bacteria. In the anodic compartment, these bacteria, named exoelectrogens, are able to oxidize the organic matter, directly releasing the electrons to the anode surface. The conversion process can be deeply influenced by how the electrolyte solution, containing the carbon-energy source, moves inside the device. For this reason, fluid dynamic modeling is an important tool to explain the correlation between the fluid flow and power output production, optimizing also the overall MFC performance. Moreover, the morphology of anode electrodes results to be essential to guarantee and enhance the bacteria proliferation on them, improving the energy conversion.",signatures:"Giulia Massaglia and Marzia Quaglio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62068",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62068",authors:[{id:"36458",title:"Dr.",name:"Marzia",surname:"Quaglio",slug:"marzia-quaglio",fullName:"Marzia Quaglio"},{id:"223653",title:"Dr.",name:"Giulia",surname:"Massaglia",slug:"giulia-massaglia",fullName:"Giulia Massaglia"}],corrections:null},{id:"62640",title:"The Bioenergy Potentials of Lignocelluloses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79109",slug:"the-bioenergy-potentials-of-lignocelluloses",totalDownloads:1119,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lignocellulosic biomass is abundant resources accrued from agricultural, municipal and other sources. Their high fermentable carbohydrate contents make them suitable candidates for bioenergy generation. The global increase in the generation of these resources is phenomenal, thus culminating in huge environmental disasters with its attendant global warming and climate change menace. Their improper management has equally been reported to cause several environmental challenges such as water, land and air pollution and the spread of pathogenic organisms which causes diverse diseases within the human and animal population. However, the proper and adequate management/utilization of these materials can improve human’s living standards as well as ensuring environmental protecting via the production of environmental-friendly biofuels. In this regard, research on the use of lignocellulosic biomass as alternative energy feedstock to fossil fuels has gained considerable attention over the last few decades majorly because of their abundance and significant roles in greenhouse gas emissions reduction.",signatures:"Olatunde Samuel Dahunsi and Munachi Enyinnaya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62640",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62640",authors:[{id:"246779",title:"Dr.",name:"Olatunde",surname:"Dahunsi",slug:"olatunde-dahunsi",fullName:"Olatunde Dahunsi"},{id:"259974",title:"Mr.",name:"Munachi",surname:"Enyinnaya",slug:"munachi-enyinnaya",fullName:"Munachi Enyinnaya"}],corrections:null},{id:"62541",title:"Free-Piston Stirling Engine Generators",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79413",slug:"free-piston-stirling-engine-generators",totalDownloads:3157,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Free-Piston Stirling Engines (FPSEs) have recently attracted attention as a promising energy conversion technology because of their desirable characteristics such as high efficiency, high reliability, and easy and quiet operation. FPSE are truly a closed cycle system that works using variations in the internal pressure to drive the power piston that is connected to the reciprocating magnets in a linear alternator for energy conversion. The lack of manual linages and the use of clearance seals in a FPSE increase both the system’s reliability and lifespan, as there is no contact or wear on the seals. These desirable attributes coupled with the fuel independence of FPSE makes them ideal candidates for use in remote power generation applications, particularly where maintenance is a high concern such as in NASA deep space missions, solar power generator, and combined heat and power systems. This chapter presents an introduction to FPSE along with a brief review of the underlying thermodynamics and Stirling cycle analysis. The general engineering analysis and numerical modeling approaches of Stirling engines will be discussed, followed by a section of engine design and efficiency calculations.",signatures:"Songgang Qiu and Laura Solomon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62541",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62541",authors:[{id:"248993",title:"Prof.",name:"Songgang",surname:"Qiu",slug:"songgang-qiu",fullName:"Songgang Qiu"},{id:"249207",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",surname:"Solomon",slug:"laura-solomon",fullName:"Laura Solomon"}],corrections:null},{id:"62390",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Management and Energy Recovery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79235",slug:"municipal-solid-waste-management-and-energy-recovery",totalDownloads:2316,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The contribution of this chapter is to deepen and widen existing knowledge on municipal solid waste (MSW) management by analyzing different energy recovery routes for MSW. The main aspects related to the composition of waste are addressed, as well as the technological routes for thermochemical and biochemical energy usage. Within the thermochemical route, incineration is currently the most utilized technology for energy recovery of waste, with generation of electricity and heat and also a decrease in the volume of the produced waste. Gasification and pyrolysis are alternatives for the production of chemical products from wastes. The biological route is an interesting alternative for the utilization of the organic fraction of MSW, as aerobic or anaerobic processes enable the production of biogas and of a compound that can be utilized as a fertilizer. Depending on the size of the population, composition of waste, and products to be obtained (energy or chemical), more than one technology can be combined for a better energy usage of waste.",signatures:"José Carlos Escobar Palacio, José Joaquim Conceição Soares Santos,\nMaria Luiza Grillo Renó, Juarez Corrêa Furtado Júnior, Monica\nCarvalho, Arnaldo Martín Martínez Reyes and Dimas José Rúa\nOrozco",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62390",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62390",authors:[{id:"251142",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",surname:"Palacio",slug:"jose-palacio",fullName:"Jose Palacio"},{id:"261107",title:"Dr.",name:"José Joaquim",surname:"Conceição Soares Santos",slug:"jose-joaquim-conceicao-soares-santos",fullName:"José Joaquim Conceição Soares Santos"},{id:"261108",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Luiza",surname:"Grillo Renó",slug:"maria-luiza-grillo-reno",fullName:"Maria Luiza Grillo Renó"},{id:"261109",title:"MSc.",name:"Juarez Corrêa",surname:"Furtado Júnior",slug:"juarez-correa-furtado-junior",fullName:"Juarez Corrêa Furtado Júnior"},{id:"261110",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",surname:"Carvalho",slug:"monica-carvalho",fullName:"Monica Carvalho"},{id:"261111",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimas José",surname:"Rúa Orozco",slug:"dimas-jose-rua-orozco",fullName:"Dimas José Rúa Orozco"},{id:"261115",title:"Dr.",name:"Arnaldo Martín",surname:"Martínez Reyes",slug:"arnaldo-martin-martinez-reyes",fullName:"Arnaldo Martín Martínez Reyes"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"115",title:"Wind Turbines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"wind-turbines",bookSignature:"Ibrahim Al-Bahadly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/115.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19588",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim H.",surname:"Al-Bahadly",slug:"ibrahim-h.-al-bahadly",fullName:"Ibrahim H. 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",isbn:"978-1-80356-816-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-815-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-817-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4051570f538bd3315e051267180abe37",bookSignature:"Dr. Yuan-Chuan Chen",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11804.jpg",keywords:"crRNA, tracr RNA, sgRNA, PAM sequence, Encoding, Silencing, Enhancing, Modification, Genetic Engineering, Animal Model, Delivery Tool, CRISPR",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 30th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 10th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 9th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 28th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 27th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"20 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Yuan-Chuan Chen completed his Ph.D. in Comparative Biochemistry at the University of California, Berkeley (UCB), USA. 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He has participated in publishing many co-authored articles in peer-reviewed journals and book chapters in the fields of basic science, biomedicine, and related policy/regulation. He is now an assistant professor in Jenteh Junior College of Medicine, Nursing and Management, Taiwan. He is also an adjunct member in the biopharmaceutical division of Chinese Pharmacopoeia (Taiwan) Revising Committee (9th edition) and has reviewed many materials for Pharmacopoeia revising. His research is focusing on the discovery, production, application, perspectives and challenges of biopharmaceuticals. He is interested in basic research, the development of agricultural/industrial products and human therapeutics using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. Additionally, he is specialized in genomic studies including genomic analysis, gene function, and gene expression and control.",institutionString:"Jenteh Junior College of Medicine, Nursing and Management",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453623",firstName:"Silvia",lastName:"Sabo",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453623/images/20396_n.jpg",email:"silvia@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Since the very first day, wind tunnels have been used to verify aerodynamic theories and facilitate the design of aircrafts and, for a very long time, this has remained their main application. Nowadays, the aerodynamic research has expanded into other fields such as automotive industry, architecture, environment, education, etc., making low speed wind tunnel tests more important. Although the usefulness of CFD methods has improved over time, thousands of hours of wind tunnel tests (WTT) are still essential for the development of a new aircraft, wind turbine or any other design that involves complex interactions with the flow. Consequently, due to the growing interest of other branches of industry and science in low speed aerodynamics, and due to the persistent incapability of achieving accurate solutions with numerical codes, low speed wind tunnels (LSWT) are essential and irreplaceable during research and design.
A crucial characteristic of wind tunnels is the flow quality inside the test chamber and the overall performances. Three main criteria that are commonly used to define them are: maximum achievable speed, flow uniformity and turbulence level. Therefore, the design aim of a wind tunnel, in general, is to get a controlled flow in the test chamber, achieving the necessary flow performance and quality parameters.
In case of the aeronautical LSWTs, the requirements of those parameters are extremely strict, often substantially increasing the cost of facilities. But low turbulence and high uniformity in the flow are only necessary when, for example, laminar boundary layers have to be investigated. Another example of their use is aircraft engines combustion testing; this in turns requires a costly system that would purify the air in the tunnel to maintain the same air quality. Another increasingly important part of aircraft design is their noise footprint and usually the only way to test this phenomenon is in a wind tunnel.
In the automotive applications, it is obvious that the aerodynamic drag of the car is of paramount importance. Nevertheless, with the currently high level of control of this parameter and also due to imposed speed limitations, most of the efforts are directed to reduce the aerodynamic noise. The ground effect simulation is also very important, resulting in very sophisticated facilities to allow testing of both the ground effect simulation and noise production in the test section.
In architecture, due to the fact that buildings are placed on the ground and are usually of relatively low height, they are well within the atmospheric boundary layer. Therefore, the simulation of the equivalent boundary layer, in terms of average speed and turbulence level, becomes a challenging problem.
The design of the wind tunnels depends mainly on their final purpose. Apart from vertical wind tunnels and others used for specific tests (e.g. pressurised or cryogenic wind tunnels), most of the LSWTs can be categorised into two basic groups: open and closed circuit. They can be further divided into open and closed test section type.
For most applications, mainly for medium and large size wind tunnels, the typical configuration is the closed circuit and closed test chamber. Although, due to the conservation of kinetic energy of the airflow, these wind tunnels achieve the highest economic operation efficiency, they prove more difficult to design resulting from their general complexity. Hence, we will pay more attention to them in this chapter.
Apart from some early built wind tunnels for educational purposes at the UPM, since 1995 a number of LSWTs have been designed following the methodology which will be presented here. It focuses on the reduction of construction and operation costs, for a given performance and quality requirements.
The design procedure was first used for a theoretical design of a LSWT for the Spanish Consejo Superior de Deportes, which was to have a test section of 3,0 x 2,5 x 10,0 m3 with a maximum operating speed of 40 m/s. Based on this design, a 1:8 scale model was built at UPM. This scaled wind tunnel has been used for research and educational purposes.
The second time it was during the design of a LSWT for the Instituto Tecnológico y de Energías Renovables de Tenerife (ITER). That wind tunnel is in use since February 2001, operating in two configurations: medium flow quality at maximum operating speed of 57 m/s, and high flow quality at maximum operating speed of 48 m/s. For more information visit www.iter.es.
Another example of this design procedure is a LSWT for the Universidad Tecnológica de Perú, which is now routinely used for teaching purposes. This wind tunnel is now in operation for about one and a half year.
At the moment the same procedure is being utilised to design a LSWT for the Beijing Institute of Technology (BIT). This wind tunnel will be used for educational and research purposes. It will have a high quality flow, up to 50 m/s, in a test section of 1,4 x 1,0 x 2,0 m3. It will be used for typical aerodynamic tests and airfoil cascade tests (utilising the first corner of the wind tunnel circuit).
The design method to be presented in this chapter is based upon classical internal ducts design and analysis method, e.g.
The general layout of the proposed wind tunnel is shown in Figure 1. The airflow circulates in the direction indicated in the test chamber (counter clockwise in the figure). Upstream of the test chamber we find the other two main components of the wind tunnel: the contraction zone and the settling chamber. The other crucial component is of course the power plant. The remainder of the components just serve the purpose of closing the circuit while minimising the pressure loss. Nevertheless, diffuser 1 and corner 1 also have an important influence on the flow quality and they are responsible for more than 50% of the total pressure loss.
The design criteria are strongly linked with the specifications and requirements and those must be in accordance with the wind tunnel applications. The building and operation costs of a wind tunnel are highly related to the specifications and these are just a consequence of the expected applications.
In the case of the so called Industrial Aerodynamics or educational applications, the requirements related to flow quality may be relaxed, but for research and aeronautical applications the flow quality becomes very important, resulting in more expensive construction and higher operational costs.
General layout of a closed circuit low speed wind tunnel. Figure labels indicate the part name, according to standards.
The main specifications for a wind tunnel are the dimensions of the test section and the desired maximum operating speed. Together with this the flow quality, in terms of turbulence level and flow uniformity, must be specified in accordance with the applications. At this point it should also be defined whether all the components of the wind tunnel are going to be placed on the floor in a horizontal arrangement or in a vertical one, with only half of the circuit on the floor and the other half on top of it.
Flow quality, which is one of the main characteristics, is a result of the whole final design, and can only be verified during calibration tests. However, according to previous empirical knowledge, some rules can be followed to select adequate values of the variables that affect the associated quality parameters. The recommended values will be discussed in the sections corresponding to the Contraction, Settling Chamber, Diffusor 1 and Corner 1, which are the wind tunnel parts that have the greatest impact on the flow quality.
Once these specifications are given, it is very important to obtain on one side the overall wind tunnel dimensions to check their compatibility with the available room, and on the other side a preliminary estimation of the overall cost. The cost is mainly associated to the external shape of the wind tunnel and the power plant requirements.
For the benefit of new wind tunnel designers, a tool has been devised and implemented in an Excel spreadsheet (visit web page http://www.aero.upm.es/LSLCWT). Using this tool the designer will immediately get information about each part of the wind tunnel, the overall dimensions, the global and individual pressure loss coefficients, and the required power. This will be done according to the recommended input parameters and specification based on the intended use of the wind tunnel.
In the following sections the design of each part will be thoroughly discussed and analysed in detail to get the best design addressing the general and particular requirements. Before dealing with each component, some general comments are given for the most important parts. In the case of the contraction zone, its design is crucial for achieving the required flow quality in the test section. In this sense, its contraction ratio, length and contour definition determine the level of uniformity in the velocity profile, as well as the necessary turbulence attenuation. It is crucial to avoid flow separation close to the walls of the contraction zone. At the stage of design, the most adequate method to verify that design meets those criteria is computational fluid dynamics (CFD).
Other important parts of the wind tunnel design worth mentioning here are the corners which incorporate turning vanes. Their aim is to reduce pressure loss and, in the case of the corner 1, possibly improve flow quality in the test section. The parameters to be considered in their design are the spacing between vanes (whether the space ought to be constant or not) and the possibility of expanding the flow (increasing the cross-section).
To complete the design process, the measurement equipment needs to be defined together with the complimentary calibration tests. Special attention needs to be devoted to the specification and selection of the balance for forces measurement, a device that is used to measure aerodynamic forces and moments on the model subjected to airflow in the test section. Since the drag force on test subjects can be very small and significant noise may be coming from the vibration of the tunnel components, such as the model stand, the true drag value may become obscured. The choice of an appropriate force balance is therefore crucial in obtaining reliable and accurate measurements.
The selection depends mainly on the nature of the tests. Wind tunnel balances can be categorized into internal and external ones. The former offers mobility since it is usually only temporarily mounted to the test section and may be used in different test sections. However, the latter has more potential in terms of data accuracy and reliability since it is tailored to a specific wind tunnel and its test section. Due to this reason, external force balances should be studied in greater depth.
The test chamber size must be defined according to the wind tunnel main specifications, which also include the operating speed and desired flow quality. Test chamber size and operating speed determine the maximum size of the models and the maximum achievable Reynolds number.
The cross-section shape depends on the applications. In the case of civil or industrial applications, in most of the cases, a square cross-section is recommended. In this case, the test specimens are usually bluff bodies and their equivalent frontal area should not be higher than 10% of the test chamber cross-sectional area in order to avoid the need of making non-linear blockage corrections. Accurate methods for blockage corrections are presented in Maskell (1963).
Nevertheless, a rectangular shape is also recommended for aeronautical applications. In the case of three-dimensional tests, a typical width to height ratio is 4:3; however, for two-dimensional tests a 2:5 ratio is advised in order for the boundary layer thickness in the test section to be much smaller than the model span.
Taking into account that it is sometimes necessary to place additional equipment, e.g. measuring instruments, supports, etc., inside the test chamber, it is convenient to maintain the operation pressure inside it equal to the local environment pressure. To fulfil this condition, it is recommended to have a small opening, approximately 1,0% of the total length of the test chamber, at the entrance of the diffuser 1.
From the point of view of the pressure loss calculation, the test chamber will be considered as a constant section duct with standard finishing surfaces. Nevertheless, in some cases, the test chamber may have slightly divergent walls, in order to compensate for the boundary layer growth. This modification may avoid the need for tail flotation correction for aircraft model tests, although it would be strictly valid only for the design Reynolds number.
Layout of a constant section wind tunnel test chamber.
Figure 2 shows a design of a typical constant section test chamber. With the typical dimensions and velocities inside a wind tunnel, the flow in the test section, including the boundary layer, will be turbulent, because it is continuous along the whole wind tunnel. According to Idel´Cik (1969), the pressure loss coefficient, related to the dynamic pressure in the test section, which is considered as the reference dynamic pressure for all the calculations, is given by the expression:
where
where
The contraction or “nozzle” is the most critical part in the design of a wind tunnel; it has the highest impact on the test chamber flow quality. Its aim is to accelerate the flow from the settling chamber to the test chamber, further reducing flow turbulence and non-uniformities in the test chamber. The flow acceleration and non-uniformity attenuations mainly depend on the so-called contraction ratio,
General layout of a three-dimensional wind tunnel contraction.
Although, due to the flow quality improvement, the contraction ratio,
Quoting P. Bradshaw and R. Metha (1979), “The effect of a contraction on unsteady velocity variations and turbulence is more complicated: the reduction of x-component (axial) fluctuations is greater than that of transverse fluctuations. A simple analysis due to Prandtl predicts that the ratio of root-mean-square (rms) axial velocity fluctuation to mean velocity will be reduced by a factor 1/
In the case of wind tunnels for civil or industrial applications, a contractions ratio between 4,0 and 6,0 may be sufficient. With a good design of the shape, the flow turbulence and non-uniformities levels can reach the order of 2,0%, which is acceptable for many applications. Nevertheless, with one screen placed in the settling chamber those levels can be reduced up to 0,5%, which is a very reasonable value even for some aeronautical purposes.
For more demanding aeronautical, when the flow quality must be better than 0,1% in non-uniformities of the average speed and longitudinal turbulence level, and better than 0,3% in vertical and lateral turbulence level, a contraction ratio between 8,0 and 9,0 is more desirable. This ratio also allows installing 2 or 3 screens in the settling chamber to ensure the target flow quality without high pressure losses through them.
The shape of the contraction is the second characteristic to be defined. Taking into account that the contraction is rather smooth, one may think that a one-dimensional approach to the flow analysis would be adequate to determine the pressure gradient along it. Although this is right for the average values, the pressure distribution on the contraction walls has some regions with adverse pressure gradient, which may produce local boundary layer separation. When it happens, the turbulence level increases drastically, resulting in poor flow quality in the test chamber.
According to P. Bradshaw and R. Metha (1979), “The old-style contraction shape with a small radius of curvature at the wide end and a large radius at the narrow end to provide a gentle entry to the test section is not the optimum. There is a danger of boundary-layer separation at the wide end, or perturbation of the flow through the last screen. Good practice is to make the ratio of the radius of curvature to the flow width about the same at each end. However, a too large radius of curvature at the upstream end leads to slow acceleration and therefore increased rate of growth of boundary-layer thickness, so the boundary layer - if laminar as it should be in a small tunnel - may suffer from Taylor-Goertler "centrifugal\'\' instability when the radius of curvature decreases”.
According to our experience, when both of the contraction semi-angles,
Fitting polynomials for contraction shape.
As indicated in Figure 4, the conditions required to define the polynomial starting at the wide end are: the coordinates (
Imposing the condition that the connection point is in the 50%, the coordinates of that point are [
According to Idel´Cik (1969), the pressure loss coefficient related to the dynamic pressure in the narrow section, is given by the expression:
where
The Reynolds number is based on the hydraulic diameter of the narrow section.
Once the flow exits the fourth corner (see Figure 1), the uniformization process starts in the settling chamber. In the case of low-quality flow requirements, it is a simple constant section duct, which connects the exit of the corner 4 with the entrance of the contraction.
Nevertheless, when a high quality flow is required, some devices can be installed to increase the flow uniformity and to reduce the turbulence level at the entrance of the contraction (see Figure 5). The most commonly used devices are screens and honeycombs. Both devices achieve this goal by producing a relatively high total pressure loss; however, keeping in mind that the local dynamic pressure equals to 1/
General layout of a settling chamber with a honeycomb layer.
Honeycomb is very efficient at reducing the lateral turbulence, as the flow pass through long and narrow pipes. Nevertheless, it introduces axial turbulence of the size equal to its diameter, which restrains the thickness of the honeycomb. The length must be at least 6 times bigger than the diameter. The pressure loss coefficient, with respect to the local dynamic pressure, is about 0,50 for a 3 mm diameter and 30 mm length honeycomb at typical settling chamber velocities and corresponding Reynolds numbers.
Although screens do not significantly influence the lateral turbulence, they are very efficient at reducing the longitudinal turbulence. In this case, the problem is that in the contraction chamber the lateral turbulence is less attenuated than the longitudinal one. As mentioned above, one screen can reduce very drastically the longitudinal turbulence level; however, using a series of 2 or 3 screens can attenuate turbulence level in two directions up to the value of 0,15%. The pressure loss coefficient, with respect to the local dynamic pressure, of an 80%-porous screen made of 0,5 mm diameter wires is about 0,40.
If a better flow quality is desired, a combination of honeycomb and screens is the most recommended solution. This configuration requires the honeycomb to be located upstream of 1 or 2 screens. In this case, the pressure loss coefficient, with respect to the local dynamic pressure, is going to be about 1,5. If the contraction ratio is 9, the impact on the total pressure loss coefficient would be about 0,02, which may represents a 10% of the total pressure loss coefficient. This implies a reduction of 5% in the maximum operating speed, for a given installed power.
The values of the pressure loss coefficients given in this section are only approximated and serve as a guideline for quick design decisions. More careful calculations are recommended for the final performance analysis following Idel´Cik’s (1969) methods.
The main function of diffusers is to recover static pressure in order to increase the wind tunnel efficiency and, of course, to close the circuit. For that reason, and some other discussed later, it is important to maintain the flow attachment for pressure recovery efficiency. Figure 6 shows the layout of a rectangular section diffuser.
Rectangular section diffuser.
Diffuser 1 pays an important role in the test chamber flow quality. In case of flow detachment, the pressure pulsation is transmitted upstream into the test chamber, resulting in pressure and velocity non-uniformities. In addition, diffuser 1 acts as a buffer in the transmission of the pressure disturbances generated in the corner 1.
It has been proved that in order to avoid flow detachment, the maximum semi-opening angle in the diffuser has to be smaller than 3,5°. On the other hand, it is important to reduce as much as possible the dynamic pressure at the entrance of the corner 1, in order to minimise the possible pressure loss. Consequently, it is strongly recommended not to exceed the semi-opening angle limit and to design the diffuser to be as long as possible.
Diffuser 2 is a transitional duct, where the dynamic pressure is still rather large. Subsequently, the design criterion imposing a maximum value of the semi-opening angle must also be applied. The length of this diffuser cannot be chosen freely, because later it becomes restrained by the geometry of corners 3 and 4 and diffuser 5.
Diffuser 3 guides the flow to the power plant which is strongly affected by flow separation. In order to avoid it, the criterion imposing a maximum value of the semi-opening angle is maintained here as well. The cross-sectional shape may change along this diffuser because it must connect the exit of corner 2, whose shape usually resembles that of the test chamber, with the entrance of the power plant, whose shape will be discussed later.
The same can be said about diffuser 4 because pressure oscillations travel upstream and therefore may affect the power plant. Analogically to the previous case, it provides a connection between the exit of the power plant section and the corner 3, which has a cross-section shape resembling the one of the test chamber.
Diffuser 5 connects the corners 3 and 4. It is going to be very short, due to a low value of the dynamic pressure, which will allow reducing the overall wind tunnel size. This will happen mainly when the contraction ratio is high and the diffusion angle may be higher than 3,5°. It can also be used to start the adaptation between the cross-section shapes of the tests section and the power plant.
An accurate calculation of the pressure loss coefficient can be done with Idel´Cik´s (1969) method. A simplified procedure, derived from the method mentioned above, is presented here to facilitate a quick estimation of such coefficient.
The pressure loss coefficient, with respect to the dynamic pressure in the narrow side of the diffuser, is given by:
Closed circuit wind tunnels require having four corners, which are responsible for more than 50% of the total pressure loss. The most critical contribution comes from the corner 1 because it introduces about 34% of the total pressure loss. To reduce the pressure loss and to improve the flow quality at the exit, corner vanes must be added. Figure 7 shows a typical wind tunnel corner, including the geometrical parameters and the positioning of corner vanes.
The width and the height at the entrance,
The corner radius is another design parameter and it is normally proportional to the width at the corner entrance. The radius will be identical for the corner vanes. Although increasing the corner radius reduces the pressure loss due to the pressure distribution on corner vanes, it increases both the losses due to friction and the overall wind tunnel dimensions. According to previous experience, it is recommended to use 0,25
Scheme of a wind tunnel corner, including vanes, flaps and nomenclature.
The corner vanes spacing is another important design parameter. When the number of vanes increases, the loss due to pressure decreases, but the friction increases. Equal spacing is easier to define and sufficient for all corners apart from corner 1. In this case, in order to minimise pressure loss, the spacing should be gradually increased from the inner vanes to the outer ones.
The vanes can be defined as simple curved plates, but they can also be designed as cascade airfoils, which would lead to further pressure loss reduction. In the case of low speed wind tunnels the curved plates give reasonably good results. However, corner 1 may require to further stabilise the flow and reduce the pressure loss. Flap extensions with a length equal to the vane chord, as shown in Figure 7, is a strongly recommended solution to this problem.
Other parameters, such as the arc length of the vanes or their orientation, are beyond the scope of this chapter. For more thorough approach the reader should refer to Idel´Cik (1969), Chapter 6. As mentioned above, the pressure loss reduction in the corners is very important. Therefore, an optimum design of these elements, at least in the case of corner 1 and 2, has a significant impact on the wind tunnel performance.
In order to allow a preliminary estimation of the pressure loss in the corners we will follow the method presented in Diagram 6.33 from Idel´Cik (1969) mentioned above. In this approach, we take an average number of vanes,
The main aim of the power plant is to maintain the flow running inside the wind tunnel at a constant speed, compensating for all the losses and dissipation. The parameters that specify it are the pressure increment,
where
In order to reduce the cost of this part by roughly one order of magnitude, we propose to use a multi-ventilator matrix, as presented in Figure 8, instead of a more standard single ventilator power plant configuration. The arrangement of this matrix will be discussed later.
Layout of a multi-fan power plant.
According to our experience, for a closed circuit wind tunnel eventually including settling chamber screens or/and a honeycomb, the total pressure loss coefficient is in the range of 0,16 to 0,24. Consequently, in the case of 1,0 m2 test section area and 80 m/s maximum operating speed, assuming an average value of
In this case we could use a 2,0m diameter fan specially designed for this purpose or 4 commercial fans of 1,0 m diameter, producing the same pressure increment, but with a volumetric flow of 20 m3/s each. The latter option would reduce the total cost because the fans are a standard product.
The parameters that need to be defined in order to start the overall design are:
Test chamber dimensions: width,
Contraction ratio,
Maximum operating speed,
According to the impact on the wind tunnel dimensions and flow quality, Table 1 shows a classification of the design variables divided into two categories: main and secondary design parameters.
\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t
Maximum operating speed, | \n\t\t\tContraction semi angle, | \n\t\t
Test chamber width, | \n\t\t\tSettling chamber non-dimensional length, | \n\t\t
Test chamber height, | \n\t\t\tDiffuser semi angle, | \n\t\t
Test chamber length, | \n\t\t\tDiffuser 1 non-dimensional length, | \n\t\t
Contraction ratio, | \n\t\t\tCorner 1 expansion ratio, | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Corner 1 non-dimensional radius, | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Corner 4 non-dimensional radius, | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Diffuser 5 non-dimensional length, | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Corner 3 non-dimensional radius, | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Dimension of the fan matrix | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Unitary fan diameter, | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Power plant non dimensional length, | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Corner 2 expansion ratio, | \n\t\t
Main and secondary wind tunnel design parameters
Now, following the guidelines given above, such as the convergence angle and the contour line shape of the contraction zone, the test and contraction chamber can be fully defined. In the case when both opening angles,
Continuing in the upstream direction, the next part to be designed is the settling chamber. The only variable to be fixed is the length, because the section is identical to the wide section of the contraction. In the case when high quality flow is required, the minimum recommended non-dimensional length based on the hydraulic diameter,
To obtain all the data for the geometric definition of the corner 4 satisfying all the recommendations given above we only need to fix the non-dimensional radius,
Going downstream of the test chamber, we arrive at the diffuser 1. Assuming that both semi-opening angles are 3,5°, its non-dimensional length,
With regard to the corner 1, once its section at the entrance is fixed (it is constrained by the exit of diffuser 1), we must define the non-dimensional radius,
Therefore, we can already formulate the overall wind tunnel length,
This quick calculation allows the designer to check whether the available length is sufficient to fit the wind tunnel.
Taking into account all the recommended values for the secondary design parameters, a guess value for the wind tunnel overall length, with a contraction ratio
In the case when
The designer must be aware that any modification introduced to the secondary design parameters modifies only slightly the factor that multiplies
As we have already defined the wind tunnel length using the criterion of adequate flow quality, we can now devote our attention to designing the rest of the circuit, the so-called return circuit. The goal is not to increase its length, intending also to minimize the overall width and keeping the pressure loss as low as possible.
Keeping this in mind, the next step in the design is to make a first guess about the power plant dimensions. Following our design recommendations, a typical value for the total pressure loss coefficient of a low contraction ratio wind tunnel, excluding screens and honeycombs in the settling chamber, is 0,20, with respect to the dynamic pressure in the test chamber. This value is approximately 0,16 for a large contraction ratio wind tunnels. If screens and honeycombs were necessary, those figures could increase by about 20%.
As the power plant is placed more or less in the middle of the return duct, the area of the section will be similar to the mid-section of the contraction. Therefore, taking into account the volumetric flow, the total pressure loss, and the available fans, the decision about the type of fan and the number of them can be taken. Using this approach, the power plant would be defined, at least in the preliminary stage.
We will return now to the example we started before for the power plant section. To improve the understanding of the subject, we are going to present a case study. If the test chamber section was square and
In the case of a 4:3 ratio rectangular test chamber cross-section, the mid-section of the contraction would be 1,869x1,401 m2 and for this reason we could suggest the use of 6 standard fans of 0,630 m diameter, organized in a 3x2 matrix, occupying a section of 1,890x1,260 m2. Figure 10 shows the wire scheme of this new design. We can check that the diffuser 3 semi-angle is below 3,5° as well.
Non-dimensional scheme of a wind tunnel with square section test chamber and low contraction ratio, N≈5.
It is clear that the new design is slightly longer and wider, but it is because of the influence of the test chamber´s width, as shown above.
Notice that in both cases corner 3 has the same shape as corner 4. Similarly, the entrance section of diffuser 4 is the same as of the power plant section, and using a diffuser semi-angle of 3,5°, this item is also well defined.
At this stage we have completely defined the wind tunnel centre line, so that we can calculate the length,
The distance between the exit of the corner 1 and the centre of the corner 2, DC1_CC2, can be calculated through the expression (see Figure 11):
Non-dimensional scheme of a wind tunnel with rectangular section test chamber and low contraction ratio, N≈5.
On the other hand:
Manipulating and combining those equations, we obtain:
Scheme with the definition of the variable involving the design of diffuser 2 and 3, and corner 2.
With this value, by substituting it into the previous expressions, we have all the parameters to design diffusers 2 and 3, and corner 2. Finally, it is necessary to check that the opening angles of diffuser 3 are below the limit. In case when the vertical opening angle,
The following case study is a wind tunnel with high contraction ratio,
The design of the diffusers 2 and 3, and the corner 2 will be done following the same method as for the previous cases.
Non-dimensional scheme of a wind tunnel with square section test chamber and high contraction ratio, N≈9. Two different standard power plant options are presented.
One of the most important points mentioned in this chapter refers to the wind tunnel cost, intending to offer low cost design solutions. Up to now we have mentioned such modifications to the power plant, proposing a multi-fan solution instead of the traditional special purpose single fan.
The second and most important point is the wind tunnel’s construction. The most common wind tunnels, including those with square or rectangular test sections, have rounded return circuits, like in the case of the NLR-LSWT. However, the return circuit of DNW wind tunnel is constructed with octagonal sections. Although the second solution is cheaper, in both cases different parts of the circuit needed to be built in factories far away from the wind tunnel location, resulting in very complicated transportation operation.
Non-dimensional scheme of a wind tunnel with rectangular section test chamber and large contraction ratio, N≈9.
To reduce the costs, all the walls can be constructed with flat panels, which can be made on site from wood, metal or even concrete, like in the case of ITER’s wind tunnel. Figure 14 shows two wind tunnels built with wood panels and aluminium standard profile structure.
Both wind tunnels shown in Figure 14 are open circuit. The one on the left is located in the Technological Centre of the UPM in Getafe (Madrid) and its test chamber section is 1,20 x 1,00 m2. Its main application is mainly research. The right one is located in the Airplane Laboratory of the Aeronautic School of the UPM. Its test chamber section is 0,80 x 1,20 m2, and it is normally used for teaching purposes, although some research projects and students competitions were done there as well. Despite the fact that these tunnels are open circuit, the construction solutions can be also applied to closed circuit ones.
Research and education purpose wind tunnels built with wood panel and standard metallic profiles, with multi-fan power plant.
According to our experience, the manpower cost to build a wind tunnel like those defined in figures 9 to 13 could be 3 man-months for the design and 16 man-months for the construction. With these data, the cost of the complete circuit, excluding power plant, would be about 70.000,00 €. In our opinion, the cost figure is very good, considering the fact that the complete building time possibly may not exceed even 9 months.
We have more reliable data with regard to the ITER wind tunnel, built in 2000-01. The whole cost of the wind tunnel, including power plant, work shop and control room, was 150.000,00 €.
This wind tunnel was almost completely built with concrete. Figure 15 shows different stages of the construction, starting from laying the foundations to the almost final view. The small photos show the contraction, with the template used for wall finishing, and the power plant.
A method for quick design of low speed and low cost wind tunnels, either for aeronautical and/or civil applications, has been presented.
The possibility of deciding between both applications means that the method allows achieving flow quality level as good as desired.
The method also allows to the designer to get a quick and rough estimation of the overall wind tunnel size, once the main design parameters are given.
Photographic sequence of the construction of the ITER Low Speed Wind Tunnel. The top left picture shows the foundations, the top right the contraction, the bottom left the power plant and the bottom right a view from the outside almost at the end of the construction.
The guidelines to choose the secondary design parameters are given as well.
To address the low cost of design and construction, the use of a multi fan power plant and rectangular duct sections is proposed as well.
ai, bi, ci, di\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tFamily of polynomial coefficients of the contraction contour shape | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
CFD | \n\t\t\tComputational Fluid Dynamics | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
DC1_CC2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tDistance between the exit of the corner 1 and the centre of the corner 2 | \n\t\t\tm | \n\t\t
DF\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tUnitary fan diameter | \n\t\t\tm | \n\t\t
DH\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tStudied duct section hydraulic diameter | \n\t\t\tm | \n\t\t
ei\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCorner ‘i’ expansion ratio | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
F0\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tArea of the diffuser’s narrow section | \n\t\t\tm2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
F1\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tArea of the diffuser’s wide section | \n\t\t\tm2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Hent\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tSection height of the duct´s entrance | \n\t\t\tm | \n\t\t
Hexit\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tSection height of the duct´s exit | \n\t\t\tm | \n\t\t
L | \n\t\t\tStudied duct length | \n\t\t\tm | \n\t\t
Li\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tDuct ‘i’ length | \n\t\t\tm | \n\t\t
li\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tDuct ‘i’ non-dimensional length | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
LSWT | \n\t\t\tLow Speed Wind Tunnel | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
LWT\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tOverall wind tunnel length | \n\t\t\tm | \n\t\t
N | \n\t\t\tContraction ratio | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
n | \n\t\t\tAverage number of corner vanes | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
nW, nH\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tDimensions of the fan matrix | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
P | \n\t\t\tPower of the power plant | \n\t\t\tW | \n\t\t
Q | \n\t\t\tVolumetric flow | \n\t\t\tm3/s | \n\t\t
r | \n\t\t\tCorner radius | \n\t\t\tm | \n\t\t
Re | \n\t\t\tReynolds number based on the hydraulic diameter | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
ri\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCorner ‘i’ non-dimensional radius | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
S | \n\t\t\tDiagonal dimension of the corner | \n\t\t\tm | \n\t\t
t1\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tChord of the corner vane | \n\t\t\tm | \n\t\t
V | \n\t\t\tOperating speed at the test chamber | \n\t\t\tm/s | \n\t\t
VTC\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMaximum operating speed at the test chamber | \n\t\t\tm/s | \n\t\t
WCL, LCL\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tWind tunnel centre line width and length | \n\t\t\tm | \n\t\t
Went\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tSection width of the duct´s entrance | \n\t\t\tm | \n\t\t
Wexit\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tSection width of the duct´s exit | \n\t\t\tm | \n\t\t
Wij, Hij\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tDuct j width and height of the i section (wide-end, W; narrow-end, N; constant, ) | \n\t\t\tm | \n\t\t
WTT | \n\t\t\tWind Tunnel Tests | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
( | \n\t\t\tNarrow-end coordinates of the contraction contour shape | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
( | \n\t\t\tWide-end coordinates of the contraction contour shape | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tVertical contraction/opening semi-angle of the duct ‘i’ | \n\t\t\tdeg | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tHorizontal contraction/opening semi-angle of the duct ‘i’ | \n\t\t\tdeg | \n\t\t
Δp | \n\t\t\tPressure increment at the power plant section | \n\t\t\tPa | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tTotal pressure loss coefficient | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tFriction pressure loss coefficient | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tSingular pressure loss coefficient of a corner | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tFan efficiency | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tFriction coefficient per non-dimensional length of the studied duct | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tOperating air density | \n\t\t\tkg/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
The Japanese Islands are mainly composed of the Eurasian (EUR) and the North American (NA) plates, and a number of small islands are on the Philippine Sea (PHS) and the Pacific (PAC) plates (Figure 1). The PHS and PAC oceanic plates are subducting beneath the EUR and the NA plates. A number of earthquakes occurred both at the plate interfaces and within the plates.
\nName of plates and location.
After the Kobe earthquake in January 1995, the Japanese government enacted the Special Measure Law on Earthquake Disaster Prevention in July 1995. This was to promote a comprehensive national policy on earthquake disaster prevention. Based on this goal, the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience (NIED) contracted the deployment of the nationwide high-sensitivity seismograph network (Hi-net) [1] since NIED had already accumulated the experience for the Tokyo metropolitan deep borehole array and operated the Kanto-Tokai seismic network since 1979. NIED operates the Hi-net with approximately 800 stations since 2000 [2] and the full range seismograph network (F-net) [3] with approximately 70 stations composed of broadband seismographs since 1994 [4]. The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), the national universities, and other institutes operate other seismic networks with a total of approximately 600 stations for the detection of microseismicity. NIED operates ocean-bottom seismic stations beneath the Sagami Bay, while the JMA operates offshore the Tokai and Boso regions. The Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo, operates the network offshore Sanriku, and the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) operates offshore Kushiro and Muroto networks. JAMSTEC started the construction of the Dense Oceanfloor Network System for Earthquakes and Tsunamis (DONET) [5] off Kii and Muroto Peninsulas near the Nankai Trough in 2010, and they started operation networks offshore Kii (in 2014) and Muroto (in 2016) Peninsulas. NIED deployed the Seafloor Observation Network for Earthquakes and Tsunamis along the Japan Trench (S-net) [6] after the 2011 offshore Tohoku Earthquake (the Tohoku-oki event), which began operating in 2016 [7, 8]. DONET was transferred to NIED from April 2016. NIED started the operation of Monitoring of Waves on Land and Seafloor (MOWLAS) composed of Hi-net, F-net, S-net, DONET, strong-motion seismograph networks (K-NET and KiK-net) [9], and Volcano Observation Network (V-net) [10].
\nNIED S-net and DONET teams manually pick the arrival time data at the oceanic seismic stations after NIED Hi-net team has determined the hypocenters using the land stations. We confirm the difference of shallow hypocenters between the determination by only NIED Hi-net and that by NIED Hi-net and NIED S-net. Stars in Figure 2 show the hypocenters at depths shallower than 20 km beneath the PAC plate determined by NIED Hi-net from September 11, 2017, to the end of 2018. The shallow hypocenters near the main island tend to remain shallow; however, hypocenters more than 200 km off the coast shifted significantly deeper to 40–80 km depth when including the S-net arrival time data (Figure 2). Deep events determined by NIED Hi-net on the east side of a longitude of 144°E are also shifted shallower. This suggests that it is important to include the S-net data for reliable hypocenter locations of offshore events.
\nComparison of hypocenters determined by the NIED (a) Hi-net and (b) Hi-net and S-net. Stars denote hypocenters determined at depths shallower than 20 km by only Hi-net in (a) and redetermined by Hi-net and S-net in (b).
Three-dimensional (3D) seismic velocity structure beneath the whole Japanese Islands has been studied using the vast data of seismic stations within the Japanese Islands maintained by NIED, JMA, national universities, and the other national and local governmental institutes (e.g., [11, 12, 13, 14]). These studies used data obtained mainly at land-based seismic stations with a very few seismic stations on the sea floor such as Sagami Bay, off Kushiro, Sanriku, Boso, and Tokai regions. Reference [14] investigated the structure beneath the PAC plate at depths of 30–50 km using events that occurred under the Pacific Ocean (PO) with focal depths determined by NIED F-net. However, that study was not able to clarify the shallow structure beneath the PO at depths of 0–20 km because of the lack of seismic stations on the seafloor of the PO. The seismic ray takeoff angles proceed downward from the events to the seismic stations on land, and they do not pass through the shallow zone beneath the ocean since the distance from the hypocenter to the seismic stations is usually over 150 km. We investigated the 3D seismic velocity structure of and around Japanese Islands including the Sea of Japan and PO by the seismic tomographic method. We added the arrival time data detected in the S-net, the DONET, and the Hi-net datasets, operated by NIED, as well as other datasets, operated by multiple organizations, after 2016 in addition to the data used in [14]. Then we applied the seismic tomography to these datasets.
\nThe target region, 20–48°N and 120–148°E, covers the whole Japanese Islands from Hokkaido to Okinawa and the seismic stations both Hi-net on land and S-net and DONET beneath the ocean. In addition to the arrival time data used by [14], 1,782,425 P- and 1,528,733 S-wave arrival times from 32,952 earthquakes recorded at approximately 2000 stations including NIED S-net and DONET from April 2016 to June 2018 were selected. A total of 7,853,757 P-wave arrival data and 4,604,780 S-wave arrival data from 112,631 events are available after merging the new datasets (Figure 3).
\nDistribution of hypocenters and seismic stations used for seismic tomography.
We used the seismic tomographic method [15, 16] with spatial velocity correlation and station corrections to the original code by [11]. Grid nodes were placed with half of the spatial resolution. We performed smoothing in order to stabilize the solution for the inverse problem with the LSQR algorithm [17] since arbitrary damping matrix with combination of diagonal and smoothing matrices could be assumed.
\nWe placed 3D grid nodes to construct the velocity (slowness) structure with the grid spacing shown in Table 1 and adopted the 1D structure used in the routine determination of hypocenters at the Hi-net and S-net [18] as the initial velocity model (Figure 4). No velocity discontinuities such as Moho discontinuities or the plate boundary between the EUR and PAC or PHS plates were assumed in this study. This is because there were enough data to estimate the steep velocity gradient to represent plate boundaries so that velocity discontinues in the model were not necessary [13, 16, 19]. The total number of unknowns, 4,417,505, for P-wave slowness is the same as those for S-wave slowness. We solved the P- and S-wave slowness at each grid node from more than 10 associated rays.
\nDepth | \nGrid interval | \nResolution/checkerboard pattern | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
Horizontal | \nVertical (km) | \nHorizontal | \nVertical (km) | \n|
0–10 | \n0.1° | \n2.5 | \n0.2° | \n5 | \n
10–40 | \n5 | \n10 | \n||
40–60 | \n10 | \n20 | \n||
60–180 | \n15 | \n30 | \n||
180–300 | \n20 | \n40 | \n||
300− | \n25 | \n50 | \n
Grid interval and resolution size.
Seismic velocity structures of the initial model and the average of the final 3D model.
First, we inverted the P- and S-wave seismic velocities using the initial hypocenter location. Second, both hypocenters and 3D seismic velocity structure were inverted simultaneously. We included the arrival times from the events beneath the ocean before 2015 in addition to the data used by [14]. Focal depths of offshore events were determined by NIED F-net or [20] since offshore events determined by only NIED Hi-net are not reliable. For these offshore events, only epicenters are inverted by the 3D seismic velocity structure, while hypocenter depths are fixed. We do not fix any condition for the events after 2016 detected by NIED S-net and DONET and the events within 50 km of the onshore seismic networks before 2015 during the inversion.
\nResiduals are improved to within 0.5 s for P-wave and 0.6 s for S-wave in the travel time inversion. In the final iteration, we used 6,356,481 P-wave arrival data and 3,534,482 S-wave arrival data to solve for the P-wave slowness at 1,135,165 grid nodes and the S-wave slowness at 1,103,525 grid nodes. The inversion reduces RMS of the P-wave travel time residual from 0.561 to 0.192 s and that of the S-wave data from 0.812 to 0.239 s after 11 iterations.
\nWe conducted a checkerboard resolution test to evaluate the reliability of our solution [21]. We assumed a ± 5% checkerboard pattern and calculated synthetic travel times with random noise of 0 mean and standard deviations of 0.13 and 0.24 s for P- and S-waves, respectively. The standard deviations for random noise were derived from the average of the estimated uncertainty of the manually picked arrival times. The weight of data is inversely proportional to each width of picking error. The damping factors for the P-wave inversion are twice those for the S-wave inversion, since the average standard deviation of P-wave picking errors is almost half of that of S-wave.
\nFigure 5 shows the results of checkerboard resolution test. We calculate the recovery rate and stability with surrounding grid nodes in order to confirm well-resolved area [15]. The resolutions of Vp and Vs at depths of 5–30 km beneath main four islands are good. At depths of 40–60 km, resolutions are not good along the Sea of Japan coast because there are few deep earthquakes that can be used for inversion.
\nMap views of checkerboard resolution test for Vp and Vs. green line surrounds the well-resolved area.
NIED S-net data increase the resolution at depths of 10–60 km from Honshu to the Japan Trench (Figure 5). Reference [14] used the offshore events such as aftershocks of the Tohoku-oki earthquake. The presence of a seismic station above the events is extremely important for the estimation of velocity structure as well as the determination of hypocenters. The resolutions at depths of 0 and 5 km are still not good in spite of the use of S-net data because the incident angle to the S-net stations are mainly steep and ray paths do not run horizontally because of the lack of shallow earthquakes. Resolutions near the triple junction of Japan Trench and Sagami Trough where three plates, PAC, PHS, and EUR, meet are good at depths of 20–30 km. This is an advantage of using NIED S-net.
\nBeneath the DONET area, the resolution at depths of 10–60 km is good for Vp, and those at depths of 5–40 km are good for Vs. The resolved zone extends to the Nankai Trough since there is sufficient seismicity in this area.
\nWe calculated the average 1D model from the final 3D velocity structure (Figure 4). We also showed the perturbation from these average velocities (Figure 6).
\nMap views of Vp and Vs perturbation and Vp/Vs. Colored area is the resolved area. Broken white lines at depths of 10 and 20 km denote the median tectonic line.
At a depth of 5 km, low-Vp and low-Vs regions are located along the PAC coast beneath southeastern Hokkaido, northeastern Honshu, most of Kanto, Sagami Bay, southern Kinki, and southern Shikoku regions. A low-Vs region extends beneath the entire Shikoku and southern Chugoku regions. A low-Vp/Vs region runs along the Ou backbone range in northeastern Japan and central Japan. Other regions have high Vp/Vs.
\nAt a depth of 10 km, low-Vp regions extend beneath the active volcanoes in the northeastern and central Honshu and Kyushu regions. Low-Vs regions are almost the same as those at a depth of 5 km. High-Vp/Vs regions are distributed at central Hokkaido and coastal area in northeastern Japan. Low-Vp/Vs covers the other regions.
\nAt a depth of 20 km, low-Vp regions lie beneath volcanoes in Hokkaido, central Honshu, and Kyushu. Low-Vs regions extend beneath the volcanoes and back-arc side of Honshu. Both low-Vp and low-Vs regions extend from central Kinki to Kyushu region across central Shikoku. This low-V zone remains the same as at a depth of 5 km. High-Vp/Vs regions cover the Ou backbone range and back-arc side of northeastern Honshu.
\nAt a depth of 30 km, low-Vp extends beneath the northeastern Honshu, central and southwestern Honshu, and northern Kyushu regions. Low-Vs regions extend beneath most of Honshu, Kyushu, and northern Shikoku regions. High-Vp/Vs regions cover almost all Japanese Islands except the central Hokkaido.
\nAt a depth of 40 km, low-Vp regions exist beneath the volcanoes in southeastern Hokkaido and northeastern and central Honshu regions. The low-Vp regions beneath the volcanoes in the northeastern Japan extend to back-arc side. Low-Vs regions are clarified beneath the volcanoes in southeastern Hokkaido and central Honshu regions. Low-Vs regions beneath the northeastern Honshu can be found east of the volcanic front as are low-Vp regions. Low-Vp/Vs regions cover the central mountains across Hokkaido and northeastern and central Honshu.
\nAt a depth of 60 km, low-Vp and low-Vs regions extend beneath the volcanoes in Honshu and central Honshu. High-Vp and Vs regions extend beneath the Kinki, Shikoku, and eastern Kyushu regions where the PHS plates subduct. High-Vp/Vs regions are distributed across western Hokkaido, central Honshu, and central Shikoku regions.
\nAt a depth of 90 km, low-Vp and low-Vs regions exist beneath the volcanoes beneath Hokkaido and Honshu. High-Vp and Vs regions extend to the east of northeastern Japan where the PAC plate subducts. High-Vp/Vs regions cover northern and southwestern Hokkaido, central Honshu, and central Kyushu regions.
\nAt a depth of 10 km, a low-Vp and low-Vs zone extends along the coast of the PO in the northeastern Honshu. A high-Vp and high-Vs zone exists between the longitudes of 142 and 143°. East of longitude of 143° (Figure 6A and B), low-Vp, and low-Vs zone shows again. Vp/Vs is generally low except in some small regions.
\nAt a depth of 20 km, a high-Vp and high-Vs zone extends along the coast of the PO in the northeastern Honshu, in contrast to the structure at a depth of 10 km. Low-V zones extend to the east of the high-Vp zone; however, some high-Vp zones exist among the low-Vp zones (Figure 6C). High-Vs zones are mixed with minor low-Vs zone off the east of northeastern Honshu, extending to a longitude of 143.5° (Figure 6D). This pattern can be seen with Vp at a depth of 10 km. Vp/Vs is also broadly low, and this pattern of Vp/Vs can be seen when the depth is 10 km except in some regions.
\nAt a depth of 30 km, low-Vp zone extends off the east of northeastern Honshu between longitudes of 142 and 143.5 and to the region off the southeast of Hokkaido. High-Vp zone can be seen along the Japan Trench. Two patches of low-Vs zones exist in the east of northeastern Honshu at latitude of 37–40° and longitude of 142–143° and at latitude of 35–36° and longitude of 141–142°. High-Vp/Vs region is bounded by the low-Vp/Vs region, a north–south “stripe” pattern.
\nAt a depth of 40 km, low-Vp and low-Vs zones extend between longitude of 142–143° and latitudes of 37–41°. These low-Vp and low-Vs zones extend to the west of the Hidaka Mountains. High-Vp and high-Vs zones can be seen on the east of the low-V zone and reach the east of the Japan Trench. Vp/Vs in this area is moderate except for some low-Vp/Vs regions with north–south trend.
\nAt a depth of 60 km, low-Vp and low-Vs zones extend just off the coast of the PAC in the northeastern Honshu. High-Vp and high-Vs zones extend broadly on the east of the narrow low-V zone. Vp/Vs in this area is high.
\nAt depths of 20 and 30 km, low-Vp zones extend around the hypocenters of the large events with magnitude 6.9 and 7.4 that occurred on September 5, 2004. Low-Vs zones partly exist within the low-Vp zone. We cannot resolve the continuous structure from Honshu at depths of 5–10 km since the number of events for seismic tomography beneath the DONET stations is small. This is because the DONET picked data are basically added after the Hi-net manual picking. The seismic tomography will be recalculated when the microearthquake data triggered at DONET stations become available.
\nThe station corrections for the final model are shown in Figure 7. Red stations denote positive O-C travel times. It means that the modeled velocity is too high due to thick sediment or low-V materials since the calculated travel time is too small. It also depends on the depth of borehole of Hi-net stations. The seismometers of the Hi-net stations are typically deployed at depths of around 100–200 m, and low-Vp sediment materials are estimated beneath the backbone range and back-arc side of Japan. Large station corrections are estimated along the Sea of Japan coast in northeastern Honshu since there are thick sediments, while borehole stations are relatively shallow. For Vs, there are many blue-colored stations meaning that the velocity model is too slow. Large station corrections are also estimated on the Sea of Japan side of northeastern Honshu.
\nStation corrections for (a) Vp and (b) Vs.
For S-net stations, blue stations can be seen near the coast and the Japan Trench. Red stations are shown between them for both Vp and Vs. It suggests that the seismic velocity model is too slow near the coast and the Japan Trench and too fast between them.
\nFor DONET stations, red stations are shown near the coast and blue stations reside off the coast. It means that the modeled seismic velocity is too high near the coast.
\nFigure 8 shows the histogram of the epicentral movement during the iterations. Epicenters determined by NIED F-net and [20] are shifted over 50 km after the inversion. Epicenters determined by NIED Hi-net or by NIED Hi-net, S-net, and DONET are mainly less than 10 km in spite of 11 iterations of inversion.
\nHistogram of the earthquake epicentral movements during the inversion. The initial epicenters are determined by (a) NIED Hi-net; (b) NIED Hi-net, S-net, and DONET; (c) NIED F-net; and (d) Ref. [
Ref. [14] also clarified the seismic velocity structure beneath the PO at depths of 30–50 km; however, that study could not resolve the shallow structure at depths of 0–20 km since the ray paths, such as head waves, from the oceanic event to the land seismic stations pass through the deep zone. The ray paths from the events to NIED S-net stations run through the shallow part of the PO. In this study, we can clarify the structure at depths of 10–60 km and even east of the Japan Trench at depths of 20–30 km (Figures 5 and 6). This is a major improvement enabled by including NIED S-net data
\nOne important feature is the probable Mesozoic rift structure trending NS from the coast of Tohoku to the west of Hidaka Collision Zone. The recent 2018 Hokkaido Eastern Iburi earthquake (M6.7) (Iburi earthquake) occurred at a depth of around 32 km, which is much deeper than the usual inland crustal earthquake. Unfortunately, the structure beneath the PO between the Honshu and Hokkaido islands at a depth of 20 km is not clear; however, a low-Vp zone at a depth of 30 km in north–south direction between 142 and 143° (Figure 9) is resolved. Low-Vp zones also exist west of the Hidaka Mountains and between the Honshu and Hokkaido at the northern extension of this low-V zone, although the high-Vp zone parallel to the Japan Trench along the coast of Honshu and Hokkaido invades the low-Vp zone. The high-Vp zone is consistent with the large positive Bouguer gravity anomaly [22] and large positive aeromagnetic anomaly zones [23]. It implies that high-V mantle mafic material is located in the shallow zone. The depth of the Moho is also shallow near the coast of northern Honshu [24]. The Iburi earthquake may be related to the reactivation of the rift related to the structure in the upper mantle to the lower crust, where it is marked by high-Vp.
\nMap views of (a) Moho depth, (b) aeromagnetism, (c) Bouguer gravity anomaly, Vp perturbation at depths of (d) 20 km and (e) 30 km beneath northern Japan.
We clarified the seismic velocity structure beneath the Sea of Japan at depths of 10–20 km from offshore Hokkaido to Wakasa Bay (Figure 6). The Vp beneath the Okushiri and Sado Islands is low at a depth of 10 km; however, Vp beneath the Sea of Japan is high at depths of 10–35 km. Vp along the coast of Sea of Japan in western Japan gives moderate value. The lithospheric velocity structure in this region is strongly affected by the Mid-Tertiary breakup and formation of the Sea of Japan. Through the reactivation of the younger compressed tectonic terrain, tsunamigenic source faults have been developed. The lithospheric structure provides essential information to infer the structure of faults.
\nRef. [25] imaged the bending-shaped low-Vp oceanic crust of PAC plate subducting from the Japan Trench at latitudes of 38–38.5° offshore Miyagi where the rupture of large interplate earthquakes propagated. In this study, low-Vp material is imaged at depths of 40–50 km bounded by the high-Vp materials with a number of earthquakes surrounded with red ellipse in Figure 10. It indicates the subducting oceanic crust of the PAC plate
\nVertical cross section beneath the Pacific Ocean off Miyagi in WNW-ESE direction. Black circle shows the relocated hypocenters used for seismic tomography in this study.
The isovelocity contour of Vp = 7.0 km/s lies around depths of 25–40 km. Active-source seismic experiments off Sanriku region imaged the same contour lying at depths of 20–35 km [25] on the west side of Japan Trench, at depths of 15–30 km at the Japan Trench [26], and at depths of 15–25 km in NS direction between Honshu and Japan Trench [27]. The seismic velocity model of this study is relatively slower than those models derived from seismic experiments. The difference may depend on the initial velocity model of the oceanic region being set as the same as the land area in this study. The Moho depth becomes shallower with the EUR crust toward the Japan Trench. The oceanic crust of the PAC plate has also thinner crust than the EUR island arc crust.
\nFigure 11 shows the Vp perturbation just above the upper boundary of the PAC plate within the overriding EUR plate. The plane with the upper side at surface has a dip angle of 15°. Reference [28] also showed the Vp perturbation [29] above the upper boundary of the subducting PAC slab and three low-V zone offshore Sanriku, Miyagi, and Ibaraki. In our results, we obtain velocity structure in fine scale; however, we do not estimate the shallow structure along the Japan Trench. We obtain the broad low-Vp and low-Vp/Vs zone within the overriding EUR plate between the Japan Trench and Honshu. A high-Vp and slightly high-Vp/Vs zone exists on the west side of the low-Vp and low-Vp/Vs zone. There are some small high-V zones within the low-V zone near the hypocenter of the Tohoku-oki event.
\nVp perturbation on the plane just above the upper boundary of the PAC plate within the overriding EUR plate. The plane has strike with S17degW from the point with a longitude of 144.5 and a latitude of 41.0 with dip angle of 12 deg. The depth of the upper edge of the plane is 10 km.
Figure 12 also shows the Vp perturbation and Vp/Vs on the coseismic plane of the Tohoku-oki event [30]. We do not obtain the shallow structure along the Japan Trench although the extremely large slip of the Tohoku-oki event is estimated near the Japan Trench. The western edge of the large slip zone is consistent with the high-Vp zone; however, the surrounding region has low-Vp and low-Vp/Vs. Low-Vp/Vs material is difficult to deform so that it can generate large elastic waves if it fails. Low-Vp/Vs on the coseismic slip region may be one of the reasons for the extreme size of the Tohoku-oki event.
\n(a) Vp perturbation and (b) Vp/Vs on the coseismic slip plane [
We conducted the seismic tomography for entire Japanese Islands including oceanic area. This is the first tomographic study to use the data from NIED S-net. The hypocenters of oceanic events are greatly improved using the S-net data. We also obtain the detailed seismic velocity structure beneath the PO at depths of 10–60 km. Low-Vp and low-Vs zones are revealed between 142 and 143° at a depth of 30 km and in western Hokkaido where the Eastern Iburi Earthquake in 2018 occurred. The lithospheric velocity structure on the coast of Sea of Japan on Honshu is strongly affected by the Mid-Tertiary breakup and formation of the Sea of Japan. Tsunamigenic source faults have been developed through the reactivation of the younger compression. Subducting low-V oceanic crust is imaged within the mantle of overriding EUR and subducting oceanic PAC plate. The coseismic slip plane of the Tohoku-oki event has low-Vp/Vs; however, the shallow structure along the Japan Trench will be improved in the future with increased data. Previous seismic reflection and refraction studies found the oceanic crust at the uppermost part of the PAC plate with Vp of approximately 6–7 km/s; however, the seismic tomography with NIED S-net clarified the 6–7 km/s Vp zone at depths of 25–40 km. The result may depend on the initial velocity model beneath the PO, which was the same initial model as the land area in this study. Applying the initial velocity model derived from the refraction or reflection seismology would improve the results beneath the ocean in the future.
\nWe used the seismic data provided by the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience, the Japan Meteorological Agency, Hokkaido University, Hirosaki University, Tohoku University, the University of Tokyo, Nagoya University, Kyoto University, Kochi University, Kyushu University, Kagoshima University, the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, the Geographical Survey Institute, Tokyo Metropolis, Shizuoka Prefecture, Hot Springs Research Institute of Kanagawa Prefecture, Yokohama City, and Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology. This study was supported by the project on the Operation of Seismograph Networks for NIED. We thank academic editor Masaki Kanao for checking and commenting on our manuscript. We also thank David Shelly and Tomoko E. Yano for their helpful comments and improvement of our manuscript. Some of the figures were drawn using Generic Mapping Tools software [31] and the software for viewing 3D velocity structures beneath whole Japan Islands [32]. This work was financially supported in part by Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) and by the Council for Science, Technology and Innovation (CSTI) through the Cross-ministerial Strategic Innovation Promotion Program (SIP), entitled “Enhancement of societal resiliency against natural disasters” (Funding agency: Japan Science Technology Agency).
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\n\nNote: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
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There are various sources of these antioxidants like endogenous antioxidant present in the body and exogenous food source. In recent decades, alternate of synthetic food antioxidants by natural ones has fostered interest on vegetable sources and the screening of inexpensive raw materials particularly from the agriculture for identifying new antioxidants. Polyphenols are the significant plant compounds with antioxidant activity, though not the only ones. Some but not only restricted to biological properties such as anticarcinogenicity, antimutagenicity, antiallergenicity, and antiaging activity have been reported for natural and synthetic antioxidants. Among the sources of natural antioxidants, the most important are those coming from routinely consuming vegetables and fruits; however, antioxidant from other plant and agriculture waste should not be ignored.",book:{id:"6678",slug:"antioxidants-in-foods-and-its-applications",title:"Antioxidants in Foods and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Antioxidants in Foods and Its Applications"},signatures:"Haseeb Anwar, Ghulam Hussain and Imtiaz Mustafa",authors:[{id:"240684",title:"Dr.",name:"Haseeb",middleName:null,surname:"Anwar",slug:"haseeb-anwar",fullName:"Haseeb Anwar"},{id:"244522",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"ghulam-hussain",fullName:"Ghulam Hussain"},{id:"244523",title:"Ms.",name:"Jaweria",middleName:null,surname:"Nisar",slug:"jaweria-nisar",fullName:"Jaweria Nisar"},{id:"244524",title:"Mr.",name:"Imtiaz",middleName:null,surname:"Mustafa",slug:"imtiaz-mustafa",fullName:"Imtiaz Mustafa"}]},{id:"19751",doi:"10.5772/18808",title:"From Soybean Phytosterols to Steroid Hormones",slug:"from-soybean-phytosterols-to-steroid-hormones",totalDownloads:11618,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:38,abstract:null,book:{id:"496",slug:"soybean-and-health",title:"Soybean and Health",fullTitle:"Soybean and Health"},signatures:"Feng-Qing Wang, Kang Yao and Dong-Zhi Wei",authors:[{id:"32646",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng-Qing",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"feng-qing-wang",fullName:"Feng-Qing Wang"},{id:"32662",title:"MSc.",name:"Kang",middleName:null,surname:"Yao",slug:"kang-yao",fullName:"Kang Yao"},{id:"32663",title:"Prof.",name:"Dong-Zhi",middleName:null,surname:"Wei",slug:"dong-zhi-wei",fullName:"Dong-Zhi Wei"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64570",title:"Banana Pseudo-Stem Fiber: Preparation, Characteristics, and Applications",slug:"banana-pseudo-stem-fiber-preparation-characteristics-and-applications",totalDownloads:9429,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Banana is one of the most well-known and useful plants in the world. Almost all the parts of this plant, that are, fruit, leaves, flower bud, trunk, and pseudo-stem, can be utilized. This chapter deals with the fiber extracted from the pseudo-stem of the banana plant. It discusses the production of banana pseudo-stem fiber, which includes plantation and harvesting; extraction of banana pseudo-stem fiber; retting; and degumming of the fiber. It also deals with the characteristics of the banana pseudo-stem fiber, such as morphological, physical and mechanical, durability, degradability, thermal, chemical, and antibacterial properties. Several potential applications of this fiber are also mentioned, such as the use of this fiber to fabricate rope, place mats, paper cardboard, string thread, tea bags, high-quality textile materials, absorbent, polymer/fiber composites, etc.",book:{id:"7544",slug:"banana-nutrition-function-and-processing-kinetics",title:"Banana Nutrition",fullTitle:"Banana Nutrition - Function and Processing Kinetics"},signatures:"Asmanto Subagyo and Achmad Chafidz",authors:[{id:"257742",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Achmad",middleName:null,surname:"Chafidz",slug:"achmad-chafidz",fullName:"Achmad Chafidz"},{id:"268400",title:"Mr.",name:"Asmanto",middleName:null,surname:"Subagyo",slug:"asmanto-subagyo",fullName:"Asmanto Subagyo"}]},{id:"61245",title:"Nutritional Composition of Meat",slug:"nutritional-composition-of-meat",totalDownloads:4483,totalCrossrefCites:32,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:"Meat ranks among one of the most significant, nutritious and favored food item available to masses, which aids in fulfilling most of their body requirements. It has played a vital role in human evolution and is an imperative constituent of a well-balanced diet. It is a good source of proteins, zinc, iron, selenium, and phosphorus followed by vitamin A and B-complex vitamins. Average value of meat protein is about 23% that varies from higher to lower value according to the type of meat source. Meat fat and its fatty acid profile is point to worry, with respect to its consumption, but its moderate usage is always advised by doctors and nutritionists, in order to lead a healthy life. Fat content of animal carcasses ranges between 8 and 20%. Quality traits of meat along with its nutritional composition become dependent upon animal breed type, feeding source (grains, pasture and grass), genetics of animal and post mortem techniques. This chapter will mainly focus on the variant aspects of nutritional constituents of meat including proteins and essential amino acids, fats and fatty acid profile, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals along with their health benefits to human health.",book:{id:"6669",slug:"meat-science-and-nutrition",title:"Meat Science and Nutrition",fullTitle:"Meat Science and Nutrition"},signatures:"Rabia Shabir Ahmad, Ali Imran and Muhammad Bilal Hussain",authors:[{id:"235082",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Imran",slug:"ali-imran",fullName:"Ali Imran"},{id:"239057",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabia Shabir",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rabia-shabir-ahmad",fullName:"Rabia Shabir Ahmad"},{id:"243634",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad Bilal",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"muhammad-bilal-hussain",fullName:"Muhammad Bilal Hussain"}]},{id:"67214",title:"Microbial Contamination in Milk Quality and Health Risk of the Consumers of Raw Milk and Dairy Products",slug:"microbial-contamination-in-milk-quality-and-health-risk-of-the-consumers-of-raw-milk-and-dairy-produ",totalDownloads:3581,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:"The dairy products industry is going toward safe milk and its products in the food market. Milk quality and food safety concern in the consumers’ health and nutrition in public health surveillance prevent food-borne diseases, food poisoning, and zoonosis risk by raw milk and fresh dairy products. The aim of this work is focused on milk microbial contamination and its impacts on milk production and dairy industry with their implications in milk product quality, food-borne diseases from raw milk, and unpasteurized milk by food-borne pathogen microbial contamination and milk and dairy product spoilage. The microbial milk contamination source comes from herd hygiene and health status, mastitis prevalence, production environment, and milking parlor and milk conserving practices in dairy farm. Moreover, these facts are implicated in milk quality and milk spoilage and unsafe dairy products. The milk production system and the dairy plant operations keep track in pasteurized milk and fresh dairy products reviewing the traceability in field situational diagnosis report.",book:{id:"7943",slug:"nutrition-in-health-and-disease-our-challenges-now-and-forthcoming-time",title:"Nutrition in Health and Disease",fullTitle:"Nutrition in Health and Disease - Our Challenges Now and Forthcoming Time"},signatures:"Valente Velázquez-Ordoñez, Benjamín Valladares-Carranza, Esvieta Tenorio-Borroto, Martín Talavera-Rojas, Jorge Antonio Varela-Guerrero, Jorge Acosta-Dibarrat, Florencia Puigvert, Lucia Grille, Álvaro González Revello and Lucia Pareja",authors:[{id:"15423",title:"Qco.",name:"Lucia",middleName:null,surname:"Pareja",slug:"lucia-pareja",fullName:"Lucia Pareja"},{id:"199849",title:"Dr.",name:"Velazquez",middleName:"Ordoñez",surname:"Valente",slug:"velazquez-valente",fullName:"Velazquez Valente"},{id:"280178",title:"Dr.",name:"Esvieta",middleName:null,surname:"Tenorio-Borroto",slug:"esvieta-tenorio-borroto",fullName:"Esvieta Tenorio-Borroto"},{id:"280179",title:"Dr.",name:"Benjamín",middleName:null,surname:"Valladares-Carranza",slug:"benjamin-valladares-carranza",fullName:"Benjamín Valladares-Carranza"},{id:"280184",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Acosta-Dibarrat",slug:"jorge-acosta-dibarrat",fullName:"Jorge Acosta-Dibarrat"},{id:"285302",title:"Dr.",name:"Martín",middleName:null,surname:"Talavera Rojas",slug:"martin-talavera-rojas",fullName:"Martín Talavera Rojas"},{id:"285303",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia",middleName:null,surname:"Grille",slug:"lucia-grille",fullName:"Lucia Grille"},{id:"291633",title:"Dr.",name:"Alvaro",middleName:null,surname:"González Revello",slug:"alvaro-gonzalez-revello",fullName:"Alvaro González Revello"},{id:"301478",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jorge Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Varela-Guerrero",slug:"jorge-antonio-varela-guerrero",fullName:"Jorge Antonio Varela-Guerrero"},{id:"301479",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Florencia",middleName:null,surname:"Puigvert",slug:"florencia-puigvert",fullName:"Florencia Puigvert"}]},{id:"60461",title:"Biological Activities of the Doum Palm (Hyphaene thebaica L.) Extract and Its Bioactive Components",slug:"biological-activities-of-the-doum-palm-hyphaene-thebaica-l-extract-and-its-bioactive-components",totalDownloads:4246,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"The doum palm (Hyphaene thebaica) is a type palm tree which has a wood texture and has edible oval fruits and the origin native to upper Egypt. The trunk of this small palm is dichotomous. It is one of the most important useful plants in the world. All parts of doum palm have a useful role such as fiber and leaflets which used to weave baskets and doum nuts which have antioxidants and secondary metabolites such as tannins, phenols, saponin, steroids, glycosides, flavonoid, terpenes and terpinoids. Also, roots, stems and leaves are used in medicine, ropes and baskets. Studies on anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer and pharmacological potential of Hyphaene thebaica extracts and its major phytoconstituents like the phenolic, essential oil and flavonoid compounds are extensively discussed in this review.",book:{id:"6678",slug:"antioxidants-in-foods-and-its-applications",title:"Antioxidants in Foods and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Antioxidants in Foods and Its Applications"},signatures:"Hossam S. El-Beltagi, Heba I. Mohamed, Hany N. Yousef and Eman\nM. Fawzi",authors:[{id:"138817",title:"Dr.",name:"Heba",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamed",slug:"heba-mohamed",fullName:"Heba Mohamed"},{id:"240003",title:"Prof.",name:"Hossam",middleName:"Saad",surname:"El-Beltagi",slug:"hossam-el-beltagi",fullName:"Hossam El-Beltagi"},{id:"251695",title:"Prof.",name:"Eman",middleName:null,surname:"Fawzi",slug:"eman-fawzi",fullName:"Eman Fawzi"},{id:"251950",title:"Dr.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"Yousef",slug:"hany-yousef",fullName:"Hany Yousef"}]},{id:"71665",title:"Global Prevalence of Malnutrition: Evidence from Literature",slug:"global-prevalence-of-malnutrition-evidence-from-literature",totalDownloads:2054,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Malnutrition is a widespread problem, affecting the global population at some life stage. This public health epidemic targets everyone, but the most vulnerable groups are poverty-stricken people, young children, adolescents, older people, those who are with illness and have a compromised immune system, as well as lactating and pregnant women. Malnutrition includes both undernutrition (wasting, stunting, underweight, and mineral- and vitamin-related malnutrition) and overnutrition (overweight, obesity, and diet-related noncommunicable diseases). In combating malnutrition, healthcare costs increase, productivity is reduced, and economic growth is staggered, thus perpetuating the cycle of ill health and poverty. The best-targeted age for addressing malnutrition is the first 1000 days of life as this window period is ideal for intervention implementation and tracking for the improvement of child growth and development. There is an unprecedented opportunity to address the various forms of malnutrition, especially the 2016–2025 Decade of Action on Nutrition set by the United Nation. This aims to achieve the relevant targets of the Sustainable Development Goals that aim to end hunger and improve nutrition, as well as promote well-being and ensure healthy lives.",book:{id:"8030",slug:"malnutrition",title:"Malnutrition",fullTitle:"Malnutrition"},signatures:"Natisha Dukhi",authors:[{id:"311182",title:"Dr.",name:"Natisha",middleName:null,surname:"Dukhi",slug:"natisha-dukhi",fullName:"Natisha Dukhi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"323",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. Portugal",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82457",title:"Canine Hearing Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105515",signatures:"Peter M. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"