The impact of the financial crisis on the investment decisions in the risk management development (Source: adapted from Accenture, 2009).
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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She holds a Biology degree, a Specialization in Epidemiology, a Master of Science in Molecular Biology and she is a PhD in Agro-Science. She has served as a professor to undergraduate and graduate students. He has lectured at scientific events in Colombia and other countries of the world. ID Scopus and ORCID. 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As a result an appropriate terminology of the risk, sustained by modern and efficient methods and management instruments was developed. Guides, methodologies and standards have been drawn up with the purpose of formalizing the risk management implementation and also the process, the organizational structure and the objectives of risk management.
\n\t\t\tThe guides and standards not only provide information on the process to be adopted in risk management, but also contain advice on how that process should be implemented successfully.
\n\t\t\tThe standards have as purpose the formalisation of the risk management process in order to improve their effectiveness, but they don\'t guarantee it. Once an organisation decides to adopt a standard for risk management, it also has to deal with some practical considerations in order to implement it successfully. These include, but are not limited to, the following: elaborating a plan for risk management implementation, designing an organizational structure for risk management with a greater level of specificity, making risk management part of the enterprise culture, determining all risks categories of the organization, establishing a group of criteria and indicators that measure risk management effectiveness.
\n\t\tThe risk management function has evolved to become a central area of business practice having the objective to identify, analyse and control causes and effects of uncertainty and risks in a company (EIU, 2007).
\n\t\t\tAt present, organizations have come to recognize the importance of managing
The risk literature as well as the press popularised some concepts such as “strategic risk management”, “holistic risk management”, “enterprise risk management” and “integrated risk management” in order to designate a holistic approach of the risk management implementation in an organization. This approach moves away from the “silo” concept in which the different risks are distinctly administrated and sustains the idea that the risk management could create values in the organization.
\n\t\t\tFinancial institutions use the notion “Integrated Risk Management” as a technique whereby all the risks of an open system, such as an organization, are taken into account and, furthermore, an attempt is made to optimize them as part of an all-encompassing approach (Müller, 1999).
\n\t\t\tWe consider that Integrated Risk Management (IRM) is an explicit and systematic approach to managing all the risks from an organization-wide perspective. IRM supposes that the risk management system should be integrated in the organisation’s management system. This one should use working instruments, communication channels, and specific procedures adapted and correlated with the rest of the component elements of the organization’s management system.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tHillson (2006) mentions that IRM is a framework for organisational success because it addresses risks across a variety of levels in the organisation, including strategy and tactics, and covering both opportunity and threat.
\n\t\t\tOrganizations have long practised various parts of what has come to be called integrated risk management. Identifying and prioritizing risks, treating risks by transfer, through insurance or other financial products, has also been common practice, as has contingency planning and crisis management. What has changed, beginning with 1999-2000, is treating the vast variety of risks in a holistic manner and elevating risk management to a senior management responsibility. Even if practices have not progressed uniformly within different industries and different organizations, the general evolution toward integrated risk management can be characterized by a number of
First of all, there is a greater recognition of the increasing number, the variety, and the interaction of risks facing organizations. Hazard risks have been actively managed for a long time. Financial risks have grown in importance over the past number of years, especially in the last two years. New risks emerge with the changing business environment (e.g., foreign exchange risk with growing globalization, reputation risk with growing electronic commerce, information risks with the advance of technology). More recently, the awareness of operational and strategic risks has increased due to many cases of organizations destroyed by failure of control mechanisms or by insufficient understanding of the dynamics of their business. The accelerating pace of business, globalization, the financial crisis, all contribute to the growing number and complexity of risks and to the greater responsibility for managing risks on an enterprise-wide scale.
\n\t\t\tAnother driving force is the growing tendency to quantify risks. Advances in technology and expertise have made quantification easier, even for the infrequent, unpredictable risks that historically have been difficult to quantify.
\n\t\t\tOrganizations have become quite prepared to share practices and efficiency gains with others with whom they are not direct competitors. This is another important driving force for integrated risk management. Common risk management practices and tools are shared across a wide variety of organizations and across the world. Information sharing has been aided by technology but perhaps more importantly, because these practices are transferable across organizations.
\n\t\t\tAnother force is representing by the attitude of organizations toward risk. The defensive posture towards risks is associated nowadays with the recognition of the opportunistic side and the value-creating potential of risk. While avoidance or minimization remains legitimate strategies for dealing with certain risks, by some organizations at certain times, there is also the opportunity to share, keep, and actively pursue other risks because of confidence in the organization’s special ability to exploit those risks.
\n\t\t\tImplementation of integrated risk management can produce a number of benefits to the organisation which are not available from the classical risk management system.
\n\t\t\tIn February 2007, the Economist Intelligence Unit interviewed 218 managers in the entire world about their approach regarding the risk management and about the main provocations and opportunities in this domain. The interviewed people come from different industries and geographical regions like Asia, Australia, North America and Vest Europe. Approximately 50% from these ones represent companies with an annual income of more than 500 Million USD; all interviewed people have influence or responsibilities in matter of strategic decisions in the risk management domain in their companies and approximately 65% are top managers or executives.
\n\t\t\tAsked to identify the most important internal and external drivers to strengthen risk management in their organisation, respondent of the EIU survey mentioned on the first place the greater commitment from the board to risk issues and, respectively, the increased focus from regulators. Greater complexity of the value chain, recent risk event (such as profit warning, fraud or product recall) and adoption of enterprise risk management model are the others important internal drivers.
\n\t\t\tAs regards the key objectives and benefits of risk management the respondents scored one factor above all others: protecting and enhancing reputation. This finding illustrates an important shift in the nature and scope of risk management. A decade ago, it is probable that the most popular answer to this question would have been avoiding financial losses, but today this option appears in a modest fourth place.
\n\t\t\tInstead, there appears to be a growing consensus that risk management is now expected not just to be a tool to protect the company from loss, but also to play a role in constructing and presenting the right corporate image to clients, partners and others (EIU, 2007).
\n\t\t\tA number of barriers can also be identified to the implementation of successful risk management frameworks. Despite acknowledging that investment in the risk management function has increased in recent years, respondents cite a lack of time and resources as being the biggest barrier they face. This may well be related to the next responses, which are the difficulty of identifying and assessing emerging risks and lines of responsibility for managing risk not sufficiently clear.
\n\t\t\tThe organizations which intend to implement an integrated risk management system have to treat the implementation as a project itself that need clearly defined objectives, success criteria, time echelons and adequate resources, as well as monitoring and control during the implementation period. Before everything, there should exist a strong motivation for the implementation, based on the expected performance evaluation of the risk management system.
\n\t\tThe evaluation of the risk management performance, respectively the measure in which it can be proven that the benefits of system use justifies the implementation costs is hard to be proven. As considered by McGrew and Billota (2000), the performance evaluation is made difficult by some factors. One important factor is that the acts of intervention during a risk management program may alter the outcome in ways we cannot separate and therefore cannot cost out. A second factor is response bias, respectively the tendency of individuals consistently to underestimate or overestimate risk, resulting in interventions that may be ineffective or excessively wasteful. But, before establishing the factors that influence the integrated risk management performance, it is necessary to clarify the terms in which it is recommended to evaluate this performance.
\n\t\t\tA lot of authors think that the goal of risk management is to support company development in order to achieve its objectives in the most effective way.
\n\t\t\tStarting from this approach it is necessary to explain the notion of risk management „effectiveness”. This is related to the efficiency and efficacy terms, but has a greater range of meanings.
\n\t\t\tEfficacy, effectiveness and efficiency reveal different aspects of the effect of an intervention. This nomenclature was originally developed in medicine by Cochrane (1972).
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
A third related measure can also be defined, namely
The relationship between efficiency, effectiveness and efficacy is more clearly, if we compare desired and actual outcomes (results) against objectives (Hillson & Murray-Webster, 2005). Efficiency supposes that an efficient outcome is obtained, but without fully meeting the required objectives. Effectiveness represents the situation when application of resources creates a definite result, but the result does not match the requirement. Efficacy appears when the actual outcome largely fulfils the desired objectives.
\n\t\t\tIt is clear that risk management performance should be determined in terms of effectiveness (and efficacy) rather than efficiency, since the main purpose of risk management is to maximize achievement of objectives. Another argument is represented by the difficulties met when quantifying the effects of the risk management process in the organizations, compared with the efforts, generally easy to be measured.
\n\t\t\tAs it resulted from the EIU study (EIU 2007), the lack of financial and time resources and the lack of support from the managers are important barriers in implementing an integrated system of risk management.
\n\t\t\tHence, the actual financial crisis had as an effect the preoccupations growth for realising investments in the risk management implementation within the organizations. Thus, in the study “Managing Risk for High Performance in Extraordinary Times” published in 2009 by the Accenture company, 31% of the interviewed persons said that the investments growth in the risk management development is being debated and 23% said that they will grow in the following 6 months (Table 1).
\n\t\t\tAnswer | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tPercent of respondents | \n\t\t\t\t\t
No real impact | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t13% | \n\t\t\t\t\t
General budget constraints and cost cutting programs may reduce the level of investments in risk management | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t15% | \n\t\t\t\t\t
The increase of the level of investment is currently in discussion | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t31% | \n\t\t\t\t\t
The level of investment to develop risk management capabilities will be increased in the next six months | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t23% | \n\t\t\t\t\t
The level of investment has already been increased | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17% | \n\t\t\t\t\t
The impact of the financial crisis on the investment decisions in the risk management development (Source: adapted from Accenture, 2009).
Regarding the potential benefits of the risk management investments, 48% from the interviewed ones appreciate that the investments growth in the risk management raises the profitability and sustainability, 37% consider that the capital assigning will improve, 27% that the crisis can be anticipated by means of the development of the early warning capacity (Accenture, 2009). The Accenture study is based on responses from more than 250 executives involved with their organization’s risk management capability from entire world.
\n\t\t\tOne the other side, the ability to demonstrate the return on investment on the risk management effort is more than ever important as shows the survey conducted in 2008 by the Federation of European Risk Management Associations (FERMA) in collaboration with AXA Corporate Solutions and Ernst &Young across the 555 respondents representing companies from Europe. The survey revealed a continuing progress in managing the risk in the majority of European companies.
\n\t\t\tAs a conclusion, the recent studies showed that the practitioners recognise the necessity of a risk management and its contribution to the increase of profitability. Also, it is worthy to mention that the investments in improving risk management increased and continue to increase, as the specialists indentified the difficulties standing in the way of a successful risk management and are looking for means to effectively integrate it in their organizations.
\n\t\t\tThe results of the recent surveys (Ferma, 2008, Ernst & Young, 2009) have shown the organizations need an instrument which ensures conformity and to which they refer when internal checking is done.
\n\t\t\tThe keys to making this work include an aligned scope, coordinated infrastructure and people, consistent methods and practices.
\n\t\t\tIn this context, the importance assigned to the standards that establish the general framework for implementing an integrated system of risk management is expected to grow.
\n\t\tThe international community has developed a great number of documents in some way related to the standardization of risk management. These standards cover the general guidance for risk management, the terminology, requirements and tools.
\n\t\t\tThe International Organization for Standardization (ISO), together with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is the leading organizations in the development of international standards (Avanesov, 2009). Some national standardization bodies and non-governmental organizations have also contributed to the development and use of standardized approaches to risk management. The acknowledged standards for general guidance in risk management are presented in Table 2.
\n\t\t\tProducer | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tName | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tScope | \n\t\t\t\t\t
ISO/IEC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tISO 31000:2009 Risk management - Principles and guidelines | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tISO 31000:2009 provides principles and generic guidelines on risk management and can be used by any public, private or community enterprise, association, group or individual. This standard is not specific to any industry or sector and is not intended for use as a certification criterion. ISO 31000:2009 has been received as a replacement to the existing standard on risk management, AS/NZS 4360: 2004 (in the form of AS/NZS ISO 31000:2009). | \n\t\t\t\t\t
ISO/IEC Guide 73:2002 Risk Management - Vocabulary - Guidelines for use in standards | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tISO/IEC Guide 73:2002 Risk Management provides standards writings with generic definitions of risk management terms. Its purpose is to contribute towards mutual understanding amongst the members of ISO and IEC rather than provide guidance on risk management practice. It was revised in 2009 together with ISO 31000:2009 Risk management. | \n\t\t\t\t\t|
ISO/IEC Guide 51:1999 Safety aspects - Guidelines for their inclusion in standards | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tISO/IEC Guide 51:1999 refers to any safety aspect related to people, property or the environment, or a combination of one or more of these. The specific approach of this guide provides the risks analysis of complete life cycle of a product or service. | \n\t\t\t\t\t|
IRM/ AIRIMIC/ ALARM , London, UK | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tRisk Management Standard: 2002 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tThis Risk Management Standard is the result of work by a team drawn from the major risk management organisations in the UK (IRM, AIRMIC and ALARM) based on the views and opinions of a wide range of other professional bodies with interests in risk management, during a period of consultation. The standard proposes a process by which risk management can be carried out s , and it is not intended for use as a certification criterion. | \n\t\t\t\t\t
AS/NZS | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAS/NZS 4360:2004 Risk management | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAS/NZS 4360 (1995 first edition, 1999 second edition, 2004 third edition) is a generic guide for risk management so that it applies to all forms of organizations. The standard specifies the elements of the risk management process and describes how to develop, establish and sustain systematic risk management in an organization. AS/NZS 4360:2004 r epresent s the base for ISO 31000:2009. | \n\t\t\t\t\t
JSA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tJIS Q 2001:2001 Guidelines for development and implementation of risk management system | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tThis Japanese Industrial Standard provides principles and elements for the establishment of a risk management system. These principles and elements are applicable to any types of organizations, and to any kinds of risks. This Standard is not intended for use as a certification criterion. | \n\t\t\t\t\t
CAN/CSA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCSA Q850:1997 Risk Management Guidelines for Decision Makers | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCSA Guideline CAN/CSA-Q850 is intended to assist decision-makers in effectively managing all types of risk issues, including injury or damage to health, property, the environment, or something else of value. | \n\t\t\t\t\t
BSI | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tPD 6668:2000, Managing Risk for Corporate Governance | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tPD 6668:2000T elaborated by British Standards Institute provides the risk factor of corporate governance requirements and how an organization can implement effective risk management system. | \n\t\t\t\t\t
BS 31100:2008 Code of practice for risk management | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAs a code of practice, this British Standard takes the form of guidance and recommendations. BS 31100:2008 has been drafted to be consistent with the general guidance on risk management given by ISO 31000 (in preparation at that moment) | \n\t\t\t\t\t|
BS 6079-3 Project Management - Part3: Guide to the management of business related project risk | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tThis standard gives guidance on the identification and control of business related risks encountered when undertaking projects. It is applicable to a wide spectrum of project organizations operating in the industrial, commercial and public or voluntary sectors. It is written for project sponsors and project managers, either or both of whom are almost always responsible to higher levels of authority for one or more projects of various types and sizes. This standard offers generic guidance only and it is not suitable for certification or contractual purposes. It is not intended as a substitute for specific standards that address risk assessment in distinct applications, such as health and safety, or areas of technological risk. | \n\t\t\t\t\t|
ON | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tON Rule series on "Risk management for organisations and systems" | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tON Rule series on r isk management represent an ensemble of complexes guides with different objectives. T his guides refers to the terms and basics (ONR 49000), risk management (ONR 49001), guidelines for embedding in the management system (ONR 49002-1) , methodologies for risk assessment ( ONR 49002-2), crisis and business continuity management (ONR 490002-3) and the requirements for qualification of the risk manager (ONR 49003) . The present ONR essentially is in line with ISO 31000 "Risk management - Principles and guidelines" . | \n\t\t\t\t\t
The most important national and international standards for risk management.
Standards from table 2 are not exclusively focused on the management of certain categories of risks, but offers the most complete and complex approach of business risks because of their general character. The choice is also motivated by the possibility of applying them inside organizations both in public and private sector, in business or project management and by the world wide dissemination degree of contained information.
\n\t\t\tNext to the standards mentioned in table 2, which directly refer to the risk management, the organizations have at their disposal a great number of standards in relation with the risk management for different aspects of their activity. Among these we can find the ISO 9000 series for the quality management (especially, the most recent one, ISO 9004:2009
In the last years, the organizations confront a high number of risks and standards arisen from different spheres (safety, IT, market, etc.) and from internal or external business environment which harden their management process (see fig. 1).
\n\t\t\tDifferent risks and standards facing an organisation (Source: adapted from
\n\t\t\t\tNikonov & Kogan (2009) consider that although the organizations administrate different risk categories, the structure of the risk management is the same everywhere and a unique standard can contribute to decreasing the risk of “too many risk standards”.
\n\t\t\tIn order to eliminate the redundancy generated by the great number of standards, representatives of European risk management associations have disputed the need for an ISO standard since the idea was proposed over 10 years ago. Instead, they have promoted the idea of guidelines which are, in ISO terminology, less acute than standards. In the meantime, varieties of standards or standard-like documents (guide, framework, etc.) have been developed to address specific risk management areas and received wide acceptance.
\n\t\t\tIn Europe, under the name of
The terminology which
Risk Management Standard is not dedicated only to corporations and public organizations, but it can be used in any type of activity, on long or short term. It endorses the idea that benefits and opportunities don’t have to be seen only in the context of the activity itself, but also in relation with the multitude and the variety of the involved stakeholders. It is more and more known the fact that risk management is both interested in positive and negative aspects of the risk. The standard takes in consideration the risk in two perspectives - opportunities and threats.
\n\t\t\tThis standard has not the mission to offer prescribed solutions or to establish a certifying process. By using it, organizations will possess an instrument with which they can measure the degree in which the risk management framework is implemented and functions.
\n\t\t\tIn the approach of IRM/ AIRMIC/ ALARM risk management is seen as a central part of the strategic management in each organization. It represents the process regarding the means with which organizations relate risks associated with their own activities with the objective of obtaining benefits from each individual activity, but also from all the activities in the portfolio.
\n\t\t\tConcentration on an efficient risk management refers, according to this standard, to identifying and treating these risks. Its objectives are those of adding supplement value to all activities inside the company. This takes to understanding the positive and negative factors which affect the organization, increases the possibility of success and it also decreases both the probability of failure and the uncertainty regarding the fulfilment of the company.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
The risks inside an organization can be generated both by internal and external factors but a great attention must be drawn to the fact that there are a lot of specific risks which could result from internal and external sources at the same time. Much further, it is recommended that this should be classified in strategic risks, financial, operational and hazard risks.
\n\t\t\tThis standard is the only one which directly endorses the necessity of developing and supporting the human and company’s knowledge base.
\n\t\t\tAt national level, Australia and New Zeeland became leaders in risk management with
In 2004 a review of the Australian standard together with a guide for implementation (HB 436, Risk Management Guidelines—Companion to AS/NZS 4360:2004) and a series of handbooks meant for various domains in which risk management is applied was published.
\n\t\t\tSome of the changes from the 1999 edition include greater importance of embedding risk management practices in the organization’s culture and processes and greater emphasis on the management of potential gains as well as potential losses.
\n\t\t\tThe standard of Australia and New Zeeland represented the model according to which a draft of the standard ISO 31000 for the risk management was elaborated and consulted in 2007 under the name
FERMA mentioned that an ISO standard would be too flexible for such an ample discipline as risk management, which is complex and varied in application. It also considered a disadvantage the substantial internal and external resources needed to implement and maintain the standard, which may have a serious effect on competitiveness, and considerable additional paperwork, without commensurate benefits.
\n\t\t\tIn November 2009, the International Organization for Standardization published the new management standard intended to help organizations of all types and sizes manage risk across the enterprise with title
ISO 31000 is realised by a team of experts from Australia and New Zeeland who were implied in elaborating the standard AS/NZS 4360:2004. This one was accepted and appreciated in numerous organizations in the entire world. For these reasons the differences between the two standards are minor and they resume to:
\n\t\t\tISO 31000 makes explicit the principles of effective management, in AS/NZS 4360:2004 these were only really implicit;
ISO 31000 gives some aspirational goals for enterprise risk management in terms of a set of attributes in an annex;
ISO 31000 provides a lot more guidance on how risk management should sit within an organisational framework to be effective and how that framework can be created, maintained and improved.
Expected both by the business environment and by the specialists in the domain and theoreticians, the appearance of the standard produced numerous comments and modifications of the terminology or of the existing working documents.
\n\t\t\tFollowing the publication of the ISO 31000 in 2009 a new document „
The new guide published by the three organizations overtakes both the risk definition and the process’ stages of the risk management from the ISO 73:2009 and from ISO 31000:2009.
\n\t\t\tThe definition set out in ISO Guide 73 is that risk is the “effect of uncertainty on objectives”. Guide 73 also states that an effect may be positive, negative or a deviation from the expected, and that risk is often described by an event, a change in circumstances or a consequence.
\n\t\t\tIn matter of the process stages of the risk management, the document „
Risk management process (based on ISO 31000: 2009).
In comparison with the 2002 variant of the standard elaborated by IRM/ AIRMIC/ ALARM, the new application scheme of the risk management is more simplified and has as important points the fact that it begins with the context establishment, and the monitoring and revision is part of each stage of the process as well as the communication and consulting with the implied stakeholders.
\n\t\t\tThe advantage of the new document elaborated by AIRMIC/ ALARM/ IRM is that it explains from the practical point of view how the ISO31000 standard can be applied effectively in order to implement a structured approach of the risk management in an organization.
\n\t\t\tThe ISO 31000 standard recommends the organizations and enterprises to elaborate and to implement a risk management framework which will be integrated in their general management system and constantly improved. The standard is a concrete document, which proposes to support the public and private organizations to develop their own risk management approach. The ISO 73 guide completes this approach, supplying the common terminology asked for avoiding the misunderstandings between the organizations in this context. Although they are not supposed to be certified, the two ISO standards attracted the business environment’s attention and of the experts in the entire world. These ones look for success modalities and factors for implementing some systems or the adaptation of the risk management’s existing systems according to ISO 31000:2009.
\n\t\tThe implementation of a risk management framework brings various benefits of the organisations. In the approach of
providing an organizational environment which gives the possibility of carrying on the activities in a substantial and controlled manner;
improving the process of taking decisions, planning and making as a priority, by a complete and structured understanding of the business activities, the volatility and project opportunities/threats ;
contributing to an efficient allocation of the capital and organization’s resources;
reducing the volatility in the unimportant areas of the business;
protecting and improving the values and the image of the company;
optimizing the operational efficiency.
Peter L. Bernstein, author of the book “Against the Gods: The Remarkable Story of Risk” (1996), considers that risk management is necessary and useful, but not an absolute guarantee for the organisation success. He warns of the limitations of risk management and the possibility of increasing risk instead of managing it. In periods of stability, Bernstein suggests, we come to assume that stability is the natural order of things and forget about stock market crashes, hyperinflation, and massive price changes. If we do not expect things to happen, we do not build them into our risk management processes. Although at the moment when the book was published there weren’t any signs of a financial crisis, his affirmations were confirmed by its beginning. Finally, Bernstein warns that the sense of security that comes from having a risk management process in place may lead us to take risks we should not take.
\n\t\t\tSimilarly, the implementation of a risk management standard produces benefits to the organization, but it can also be a failed process if a series of principles are not respected or if a key elements series of success are ignored.
\n\t\t\tAmong the generated benefits, on the first position are the image and public relations improvement, as well as the stakeholders’ and clients’ trust in the organisations raise.
\n\t\t\tGenerally, the risk management standards combine the best elements from the existent guides and methodologies in the domain and ensure flexibility and adaptability to the multiple aspects covered by risk management. In risk management, standards are preferred to laws since they require a consensus of all interested parties and do not represent just one point of view. Implementing a risk management standard into organisation, all parties will be able to speak a common language and communicate more effectively. More specifically, an ISO standard is seen as an appropriate tool to formalize the process and to harmonize over 60 existing standards dealing directly and indirectly with risks of any type (FERMA, 2007). It could also be a framework to help develop risk awareness and education. Finally, with a standard, the risk management profession could be perceived as more structured, and gain credibility and recognition versus other concurrent functions.
\n\t\t\tThere are some principles and better practices that can be applied to ensure the success of risk management.
\n\t\t\tThe risk literature (Dembo & Freeman, 1998) discusses a number of critical success factors which have the potential to influence risk management effectiveness. Critical success factors for successful implementation of an effective risk management program include: gaining executive support, integrating risk management into decision-making process, demonstrating value to the organization by creating efficiencies in procedures and controls, creating a common risk language. Although they do not refer to the adopting of a standard but to the implementation of a risk management system in general, we can affirm that the differences between the two situations are minor.
\n\t\t\tFundamental to the implementation of risk management standards is
Risk management must be
Companies that are more competent in managing risk have a higher frequency of risk reporting to different stakeholders. They are also more likely to have standardized risk reporting procedures.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
The
\n\t\t\t\t
Most experts (Hillson, 1997, Artto & Hawk, 1999) agree that one of the most significant critical success factors influencing effective risk management implementation is the one most often lacking,
This fact is also proved by the survey realised by EIU in 2007. Thus, for the question “Which element do you consider to be the most important to the success of the risk management in your organization?” the interviewed persons positioned on the first place the strong culture and risk conscience within the organization, followed by a well defined attitude towards the risk and by well defined monitoring systems and processes of the risk (Fig. 4).
\n\t\t\tEvaluation of most important factors to the success of risk management in organization (Source: adapted from
Strongly bound to the risk culture within the organization is
Another success key factor is represented by the
Understanding the organisation, their culture, the staff morality and attitude will help the consultants to estimate the goal of the risk management system that they will develop.
\n\t\t\tIn order to conform its already existing risk management system to a risk management standard an organization should go through some steps, respectively:
\n\t\t\tadopting a new model for the risk and risk management;
realising an analysis on the existing risk management framework in order to see in which measure they detain the necessary elements for the new model;
evaluating the risk management maturity in order to identify the necessary changes and improvements;
developing a strategy for implementing the necessary changes and for the sustainability of an effective risk management, estimation of the budget required;
implementing the strategy and, if is possible, validating the standards implementation through certification or audit.
The preoccupation for ensuring an effective risk management system shouldn’t end in the moment of the implementation. Once implemented, the risk management system must be
At the same time, the risk management system must be
In the research
The need of standardization in risk management is justified by the efforts to develop and introduce, during the last few years, integrated risk management frameworks inside the organizations. The financial crisis has underscored the fact that significant improvements in risk management organizations and capabilities are required. The business community and also the experts recognize that the risk management standards have an important role in improving the effectiveness of integrated risk management. In the same time, a great number of standards directed and undirected related with risk management is perceived like an obstacle in increasing the effectiveness. In this context, the creation of an ISO standard for general guidance in risk management, although without intention for use as a certification criterion (like majority of the risk management standards), is seen as an appropriate tool to formalize the process and to harmonize the best practices at international level. The latest surveys carried out demonstrate the orientation of practitioners toward standardised approaches and an increasing investment to develop risk management capabilities. Through the implementation of this standard, the organizations are able to evaluate their own practices in the risk management domain depending on a recognised referential at international level, offering rigorous principles for an effective management. Business executives will be positioned to assess their company’s risk management process against a standard, and strengthen the process and move their enterprise toward established goals.
\n\t\t\tAt the organisational level, risk management standards enhance transparency. They identify weaknesses that may contribute to vulnerability, promote market efficiency and discipline. The scope and application of such standards need to be assessed in the context of an organisation’s overall development strategy and tailored to individual organisation circumstances.
\n\t\t\tSeveral interrelated key success factors for the successful implementation of risk management standards were identified. A successful implementation requires support and leadership from executive management, a strong culture of risk management into organisation, resources and time planning, a correlation of the risk management standard with others standards during implementation process, a continuous improvement and updating on the latest developments.
\n\t\tIn Africa, goats are deeply entrenched in almost every African culture [1], particularly within communities that are not able to keep large livestock. Goats offer advantages in animal production as they have a relatively high productivity in harsh environments, use inexpensive feed resources, have a short reproductive cycle and have higher prolificacy when compared to cows [1, 2].
The global goat population has seen a sharp increase over the past decade, and the worlwide population is currently estimated at more than 1 billion animals [3]. Approximately 96% of these animals are meat goats and are found in developing countries in Asia and Africa [4]. Following the global trend, the African goat population has also increased over the last five years to represent 41% of the world’s population, and currently approaches 423 million goats. Approximately 35 million of these goats are part of the Southern African population.
Goats have been an important part of humanity since their domestication 10 000 years ago and they have since spread across the globe [5, 6]. Their roles and relative importance are not static but vary according to the agro-ecological zone, production system and socio-cultural context in which they are found [7]. Goats are one of the most important livestock species in developing countries [8, 9]. Their importance hinges on the fact that they provide meat, hides, fibre, and can be milked for home consumption [1, 10, 11]. Goats are also used for socio-economic purposes, such as festive, religious and ceremonial occasions [7, 12, 13]. They play an important economic role, providing cash-flow and being an accessible source of credit in order to meet immediate social and financial obligations [9]. Goats are therefore often described as the “village bank” [9, 14].
Goats and sheep are the preferred livestock species in dry areas due to their ability to convert poor quality pasture into good quality protein for human consumption [15]. Additionally, because of their small size, goats allow the slaughter and consumption of the entire carcass by a family in few days, without the risk of deterioration due to the absence of conserving/cooling facilities in villages of developing countries [1, 16, 17].
Goats have the potential to decrease poverty in Africa due to the role they play in food security. Through the exchange of goats for agricultural labor, they could potentially increase food security for many people in rural areas where crop production is their main activity and source of food [18]. Goat meat can significantly contribute to food security in terms of preserved (dried) protein, as their meat is of high nutritional value, with superior lean characteristics [19]. Furthermore, food security can be increased through exploiting synergies between crops and livestock, using manure and conversion of crop by-products by livestock [20, 21, 22]. Livestock plays an important role in the production of staple foods, such as cereals. They provide fertiliser (via manure) and contribute to land preparation by means of draught power. Additionally, they can be sold to generate cash necessary to buy resources for farming practices [20]. Therefore, livestock can contribute to an increase in both the area of land cultivated, as well as the productivity and efficiency with which crops are produced, resulting in the sustainability of farming systems [20]. It is estimated that worldwide livestock manure supplies up to 23% of gross nitrogen input in mixed crop–livestock systems and approximately 12% for cropping in developing countries [23]. Despite these well-known arguments, the real contribution of goats at household level has not been quantified, as most valuation systems depend on monetary standards which only take the financial contribution into account, and frequently neglect the non-monetary contribution of goats. Thus the real contribution of goats to improved livelihoods due to increased food security, especially for poor-resource communities, is unknown [13].
This chapter aims to review smallholder goat production in Southern Africa. A literature review was performed to discuss the importance of the main indigenous goat breeds and the production systems in which they are kept, as well as the constraints faced by goat farmers.
This review aims to provide background information on the current smallholder management practices of goat keepers in Southern Africa. For this, relevant information from scientific works (literature reviews, original articles, scientific reports, proceedings, and systematic reviews) related to the topic of interest and related keywords (e.g., “smallholder”, “communal”, “goats”, “reproduction”, and “extensive”) were searched. The review provides a systematic and comprehensive analysis of the findings, strengths, and limitations of the compiled studies.
Goats play a vital role in the cultural, social and economic life of rural communities. Indigenous goat breeds contribute significantly to both food security and to improved livelihoods for various resource-poor communities, especially those in rural and hard-to-reach areas [11, 24, 25]. Althought the information on the real contribution of goats to human food security and livelihoods is scarce [26], their role and relative importance varies noticeably across regions and cultural groups. The role of goats is socioeconomic well-being of people in terms of nutrition, income, savings, insurance against emergencies, cultural and ceremonial purposes [7]. Goats are used to help family members, conduct ceremonies and rituals, make linkages with ancestors, pay bride wealth (
A survey by Mataveia
According to FAOSTAT [34], during the last decade there was an increase in goat production globally and currently there are more than 1 billion goats, with Africa contributing 36.2%, Asia 58.2%, Americas 3.5%, Europe 1.7% and Oceania 0.4%. In Southern Africa, goats are the second most important livestock species after cattle [13]. Approximately 96% of the world’s goat population is kept in developing countries, of which 64% are found in rural arid (38%) and semi-arid (26%) agro-ecological zones [13]. The top-ten countries producing goat meat are all from Asia and Africa; indicating the importance of goat meat to people in resource-poor areas [5]. In Africa, goat meat production has increased from 1.1 million tons in 2008 to 1.3 million tons in 2017 [4]; of which the majority is produced and consumed locally (within households) [5, 35].
The Southern African goat population currently consists of approximately 38 million goats [36]. There are various goat breeds in Southern Africa, of which the Mashona, Matabele, Tswana, Nguni, Landim [13] and Pafuri [29] are the dominant ones. The goat populations in Southern Africa vary between countries: these variations in goats population are summarised in Table 1. Tanzania has the highest number with 18.9 million goats while Botswana has the smallest goat population (1.4 m) in Southern Africa [34].
Country | Population (in millions) |
---|---|
Angola | 4.7 |
Botswana | 1.4 |
Malawi | 8.9 |
Mozambique | 3.7 |
Namibia | 1.9 |
South Africa | 5.2 |
Eswatini | 2.4 |
Tanzania | 18.9 |
Zambia | 2.9 |
Zimbabwe | 4.7 |
Number of goats in southern African countries from [34].
FAO [37] reported that there is approximately 576 goat breeds currently distributed across the world, with 17% of these in Africa. Although goats are found in all types of ecological zones, they are mainly concentrated in tropical, dry zones. As a result of natural selection, goats exhibit a wide range of physiological diversity which results in an ability to adapt to different environments [35]. The main breeds of indigenous goats breed in Southern Africa are shown in Table 2 (Figure 1).
Country | Breed | Sources |
---|---|---|
Angola | Angola dwarf | [38] |
Botswana | Tswana | [38, 39, 40, 41] |
Malawi | Malawi goats | [38, 42, 43] |
Mozambique | Pafuri, Tete, Cabo Delgado and Landim | [12, 38, 41, 42] |
Namibia | Capriviti, Ovambo | [44] |
South Africa | Boer*, Kalahari Red*, Savanna*, Nguni, Tswana, Venda, xhosa, Swazi Zulu and Tankwa | [32, 38, 45, 46, 47] |
Eswatini | Nguni and Swazi | [13, 38, 45] |
Tanzania | Maasai, Gogo, Small East African, Sukuma, Sonjo, Pare, Kunene and Kavango | [48, 49] |
Zambia | Tswanaand Matabele | [38] |
Zimbabwe | Matabele, Binga, Chipinge, Matopo, Tswane, Shurugwi and Tsholotsho | [13, 38, 41, 50] |
Main indigenous goat breeds found in southern Africa.
The Boer, Kalahari Red and Savanna are commercial meat-type goat breeds that were locally developed.
Some of the indigenous goat breeds found in southern Africa region [
Table 3 shows the production parameters of some indigenous goats in Southern Africa under communal conditions. Because of their small physical size and superior adaptation traits, indigenous breeds are still preferred in the harsh environments of Southern Africa [10]. According to Sebei et al. [57], the major constraints to goat production are the high mortality rates among kids and slow growth among those that survive. The high disease and parasite challenge and low levels of nutrition contribute to the commonly observed poor growth performance resulting in lower production and reproduction performance [58].
Breed | Birth | Kid mortality (%) | Body Weight (Kg) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Months | |||||||||||
3 | 5–6 | 12 | Mature | ||||||||
Boer [10, 59, 60] | 4.0 | 3.5 | 40.6 | 30–33 | 22.3 | 40–50 | No | 92.0 | No | 120–140 | 70–90 |
Landim [10, 60, 61, 62] | 2.5 | 2.3 | 37.0 | 9.6 | 8.2 | 14.3 | 12.3 | 22.0 | 21.6 | 50.0 | 35.40 |
Swazi [63] | 2.0 | 1.8 | 30.0 | No | No | 8.0 | No | 14.5 | No | 35.2 | 30.0 |
Matabele [8, 13, 64] | 2.5 | 2.5 | 30.0 | No | No | 11.3 | 10.2 | 18.4 | 17.5 | 50–55 | 39.0 |
Malawi [13, 43] | 2.0 | 1.8 | 16.7 | 9.0 | 8.9 | 25.0 | No | No | No | 29.0 | 21.0 |
Pafuri [13, 56] | 3.0 | 2.4 | No | 8,0 | No | 10.1 | No | 16.7 | No | 60.0 | 43.0 |
Tswana [13, 65, 66, 67] | 4.3 | 3.6 | 33.3 | 13.4 | 11.4 | 17.8 | 16.2 | 25.39 | 24.14 | 44.0 | 40.0 |
Kalahari red [68, 69] | 2.7 | 2.0 | 19.7 | 9.8 | 8.3 | 15.6 | 12.8 | No | No | 115 | 75.0 |
Savanna [68, 70] | No | No | 17.5 | 30 | 25 | No | No | No | No | No | 60.0 |
Main production parameters of some indigenous goats in southern Africa under communal conditions.
The reproductive performance (age at first kidding and kidding interval) of some indigenous goats in Southern Africa are shown in Table 4. Gracinda et al. [62] suggested that supplementing goats with highly nutritive alternative feed sources has a positive effect on physiological functions. Supplementation with lupin grain [71] and soybean meal or corn grain [72], can improve reproduction efficiency by reducing the age at puberty and increasing ovulation rates. Energy deficiency decreases kid growth, and has an adverse effect on reproduction [73, 74]. There is a need to supplement the goats utilising the selected species with energy, protein, and phosphorus to meet the nutrient requirement for maintenance and reproduction [75].
Breed | Age at first kidding (months) | Kidding interval (d) |
---|---|---|
Boer [59, 76, 77] | 15–18.0 | 234–238 |
Landim [13, 78, 79] | 15–20.0 | 243–394 |
Pafuri [78] | 15.6 | — |
Matabele [13, 80, 81] | 14–23.0 | 240 |
Malawi [13, 82] | 15.6–16 | 330–365 |
Swazi [63] | 11.5 | 248 |
Tswana [65] | 10.0 | 365 |
Doe fertility of indigenous goats in southern Africa under communal conditions.
In Southern Africa, small ruminant production systems are classified as traditional (communal) or commercial (intensive) production systems. Most local and indigenous goats are kept in small-scale production systems in communal and resource-poor areas [75]. These systems depend on the exploitation of resources in dry-land areas, and a balance between the livestock’s requirements and the environment’al resources [83]. Kaufmann et al. [83], also classifies this system as a “social-ecologogical system”.
The traditional production system is characterised by informal labour (mostly from a family member), commonly with low livestock numbers per unit area and minimal use of technology and other inputs [84, 85]. The system is often hindered by land and water shortages, infections and predators [29]. The smallholders generally do not have the skills or resources available for animal recording and there is uncontrolled breeding, often resulting in inbreeding. The traditional production system is further divided into two main production systems, namely the mixed crop-livestock system and the pastoral production system [1, 86, 87].
The mixed crop-livestock system is used in most member states of the Southern African Development Communities Countries (SADC), including Mozambique [13]. This system is characterised by raising a small number of goats together with other livestock, such as cattle, pigs and poultry. Livestock and crop cultivation are maintained as complementary ventures; e.g. animals provide manure that will be available for fertilising the soil for crop production while livestock in return benefit by feeding on crop residues during the time of feed shortages [87, 88]. This system is characterised by low managerial and financial inputs [89]. It is an extensive farming system, with free-ranging, herding and tethering as the main management systems. This system is used by almost all pastoralists in Africa, where goats are frequently kept in mixed flocks with sheep. Children commonly herd goats, while the day-to-day management and care of young stock usually fall to women [1]. Under this system, animals graze communal land and animal herds owned by different families or individuals move from one area to another for grazing and water [87, 90, 91]. The goats graze over large areas of unwanted or marginal lands which are usually ill-suited for agricultural use [87, 92, 93].
In this system, low-skilled labour (often family members and children) are used as the primary goat handlers. They usually herd goats, sheep and cattle (as well as camels) together to graze wayside or waste vegetation. Management is limited to letting the goats out to graze during the day and confining them at night in enclosures, which are constructed using thorn bushes or wooden poles to protect them from theft and predation [92, 93]. There is no controlled breeding and no supplementary feeding or veterinary care for the animals, except for the extension services provided through government institutions [13]. Due to a shortage of water and forage, malnutrition is the primary limiting factor for profitable production of small ruminants, particularly during the dry season [13]. Goat productivity and offtake rates from these systems are typically low. Shortages in nutrients and exposure to diseases, parasites, as well as challenging climatic conditions with frequent and prolonged droughts are responsible for slow growth, which leads to low productivity [94, 95].
The semi-intensive or agropastoral production system is typically encountered in urban and peri-urban areas [88]. In this system, the goats usually graze two to four hours daily and then return to their paddocks. Usually, the farmers returning with the flock at night supply tree leaves and/or grass to feed them until the following morning, when they can graze again [93].
Tethering is a widespread practice of small ruminant management by smallholders in Southern African countries such as Mozambique [29], Zambia [13] and South Africa [59]. This system is used to protect animals from theft and to prevent them from destroying crops and also allows farmers to conduct other activities [13]. Goats are often tethered in the morning and herded in the afternoon when children have returned from school. In this management system, water is provided when the goats are moved to shelter at night and supplementation is limited (i.e. salt or mineral bricks), or absent. The only supplements, (which are provided infrequently) are household scraps, small quantities of grains or their by-products [62].
Both these traditional systems make use of a high degree of variability – in terms of composition and nutritional value of forage, quantity and quality of the water supply, accessibility of supplements, veterinary care and any other resources. The variability is almost seen as an advantage and is used to keep production costs low by strategically selecting available resources at specific time points.
Approximately 70% of Southern African goats are kept under traditional management systems where the farm structure comprises of about twenty goats [33]. The resultant goat productivity is relatively low due to minimal inputs, poor infrastructure, undefined marketing channels and multiple breeding objectives [29, 96]. Goats are popular and most preferred by smallholder due to their ability to deal with a range of climatic condition including disease challenges, inadequate feed resources and low management [3, 97]. Devendra [98], pointed out the important criteria in Southern African region for the selection of the suitable type of animal to be grown. In the criteria were included the environments (semi-arid and tropical), limited feed resources, differences in energy requirement and digestive efficiency among ruminants.
Goats are resistant to heat stress, droughts, food and water scarcity as well as diseases; they can maintain production and reproduction performance under harsh environmental conditions. This is in part due to their smaller body size which enables efficient utilisation of low-quality forage and their tolerance to water scarcity and ability to retain superior thermoregulation [38, 99, 100]. Climate change is expected to increase the frequency, intensity and length of droughts with a negative impact on rural areas, especially in sub-Saharan Africa where the human population is mostly dependent on rain for crop and livestock production [101]. However, indigenous goats have developed mechanisms, which allow them to adapt to high environmental temperatures and to achieve thermo-tolerance in extremely challenging environments [38, 102]. These mechanisms include physical, physiological and biochemical changes, such as a reduced feed intake and metabolic heat production [99, 103].
There is ample evidence that livestock and indigenous breeds that evolved in stressful tropical environments have a range of unique adaptive traits that enable them to survive and be productive and reproductive [102, 104, 105]. These goats feed primarily from browsing fodder, as potential sources of affordable feed for ruminants in developing countries. This is especially true during dry seasons, due to the ability of the available foliage to remain green and maintain its protein content, making these fodder potential sources of energy and protein to the goats [39].
Heat stress is an element that negatively affects livestock production and reproduction performance [99]. However, goats are considered less susceptible to heat stress than cattle because of their small metabolic size and their capacity to conserve water [106, 107]. Indigenous breeds of small ruminants in arid zones, such as the black Bedouin goats and Barmer goats herded in the deserts of Sinai (Middle East) and Rajasthan (India), can survive without drinking water for several days, often only drinking water once every four days [107, 108]. Desert goats have been reported to have a superior ability to withstand dehydration, and are considered among the most efficient ruminants in this regard [109]. The biological mechanisms that enables desert goats to cope with droughts depend on their ability to withstand dehydration and to minimise water losses via urine and faeces [99, 108].
Most indigenous goat breeds are physically small which help them to regulate water loss and heat gain in scorching environments [103, 110]. Their colour adaptation of the integumentary system also helps them to reflect heat [103]. Various morphological traits, such as body size and shape [108], coat and skin colour, hair type, and fat storage aid goats in their superior adaptation to harsh environments [103, 106, 111]. Typically, dark-coated animals have higher heat loads than light-coloured ones [112] and the light-coloured coat is deemed superior in tropical regions [113]. Additionally, skin pigmentation provides protection for deep tissues against solar short-wave radiation in tropical regions [114].
Reducing feed intake is another way to decrease heat stress in warm environments as the heat increment due to feeding, especially in ruminants, is a significant source of heat production [115, 116]. Goats are one of the ruminant browsers that suffer least during droughts [117]. This is due to their ability to survive on a diet constituted normally of browsing, which is least affected by the drought [102]. If the drought persists, the carrying capacity of the veld will inevitably fall but it will still be able to support goats longer than other herbivores, such as sheep and cattle, due to the goats’ capacity to reduce their metabolism and to maintain this low metabolic requirement [38, 102]. The ability of goats to survive prolonged periods of water deprivation also allows them to graze far from watering sites and to exploit available pastures optimally.
The adaptation of goats during periods of feed shortage can be via the following processes: low metabolic requirements, their capability to decrease their metabolism, increased digestive efficiency, an ability to utilise high-fibre feed and the deposition of nutrients in the form of fat as feed reserve [102].
Goats have low metabolic requirements during a period of shortage of natural pasture [38]. They can adjust to a low energy intake by reducing their energy metabolism [108, 118] and are thus able to maintain their body weight in times when food is scarce. A low metabolic requirement is an advantage if the quantity and quality of vegetation are inadequate. The improved temperate breeds are more productive than indigenous tropical breeds if ample high-quality feed is available; however, they lose weight and have increased mortalities when the environment becomes challenging and they must graze on poor quality veld. Under the same circumstances, adapted indigenous animals still grow and other physiological processes continue, such as reproduction and milk yield [102]. The adapted tropical animals recycle nutrients more efficiently than improved temperate breeds and their metabolism is reduced when the animal is losing weight [107].
The ability to reduce their metabolism permits goats to survive even after prolonged periods of severely restricted food availability [38, 102]. Their selective browsing behaviour [108] and an efficient digestive system allow the goats to maximise food intake and scarce nutrients [118]. Adejoro and Hassen [119] showed that the intake and digestibility of low quality foods could be increased by adding urea to that diet. Therefore, there is a favourable association between the improved reutilising rate of urea and better digestion of such food in desert goats.
Silanikove [108] reported the digestive efficiency of indigenous goats and their ability to utilise high-fibre feed. Goats have superior digestive efficiency compared to sheep and cattle when using high-fibre low-quality forages because of the longer mean retention time in the rumen [98, 120]. They can also eat more tannin-rich material and can thus utilise plant species that cannot be consumed by sheep [100, 108]. Goat breeds that are indigenous to semi-arid and arid areas can utilise low-quality high-fibre feed more efficiently than their exotic equivalents and also outperform indigenous sheep and cattle breeds [121]. For instance, indigenous desert black Bedouin goats outperformed Swiss Saanen goats in terms of digestive efficiency when fed on roughage diets in both controlled environments [121] and under natural conditions in a harsh environment [122].
Ruminants accumulate energy in adipose tissues when the quality and quantity of feed is sufficient, and mobilise it to meet energy requirements during periods of shortage [123, 124]. In a tropical environment, the rainy seasons alternate with dry seasons. The capacity to accumulate fat during the rainy seasons for its subsequent use for maintenance and biological functions (like pregnancy and lactation) in the dry season is an essential strategy for survival [124]. The typical vegetation of grass and shrub during the dry and rainy in Southern Africa are shown in Figures 2 and 3, respectively.
A typical vegetation of grass and shrub during the dry season.
A typical vegetation of grass and shrub during the rainy season.
In Southern Africa, the veld quantity and quality are highly variable and represent the main limitation of livestock production [125]. In addition, the grassland is affected by seasonality, where the dry seasons are generally long and characterised with low quantity and quality veld [74]. A herd of veld goats are shown in Figure 4.
A herd of veld goats during dry season.
Most indigenous and locally developed goats in Southern Africa are kept in small-scale production system in communal areas. The goat keepers exploit the severe variability of these systems (in terms of nutrition, water availability, environmental factors and livestock resources) to make strategic choices to keep production costs as low as possible.
Due to their ability to adapt to harsh environmental conditions and different foods, goats can maintain sufficient levels of production and reproduction performance in adverse climates. Goat keepers need to strike a careful balance between human-animal-environment interactions to ensure that goats maintain their essential contribution to the livelihoods of limited-resource populations in developing countries.
The authors are gratefully to the Fundo Nacional de Investigação – Projecto No 164 - Inv/FNI and Fundo para a Investigação Aplicada e Multissectorial (FIAM)- Project No 5.2.4.-Inv/FIAM for their financial support.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
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\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
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Foodborne diseases can be prevented and acute diarrhea syndromes, fever and even death from dehydration can be avoided, especially in children under the age of 5 and in immunocompromised people.",book:{id:"5873",slug:"poisoning-from-specific-toxic-agents-to-novel-rapid-and-simplified-techniques-for-analysis",title:"Poisoning",fullTitle:"Poisoning - From Specific Toxic Agents to Novel Rapid and Simplified Techniques for Analysis"},signatures:"Cecilia Hernández-Cortez, Ingrid Palma-Martínez, Luis Uriel\nGonzalez-Avila, Andrea Guerrero-Mandujano, Raúl Colmenero Solís\nand Graciela Castro-Escarpulli",authors:[{id:"204160",title:"Prof.",name:"Graciela",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-Escarpulli",slug:"graciela-castro-escarpulli",fullName:"Graciela Castro-Escarpulli"},{id:"204162",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Cortez",slug:"cecilia-hernandez-cortez",fullName:"Cecilia Hernández-Cortez"},{id:"204163",title:"MSc.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Palma-Martinez",slug:"ingrid-palma-martinez",fullName:"Ingrid Palma-Martinez"},{id:"204164",title:"MSc.",name:"Luis Uriel",middleName:null,surname:"González-Avila",slug:"luis-uriel-gonzalez-avila",fullName:"Luis Uriel González-Avila"},{id:"204165",title:"MSc.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero-Mandujano",slug:"andrea-guerrero-mandujano",fullName:"Andrea Guerrero-Mandujano"}]},{id:"56530",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69955",title:"Poisoning by Anticoagulant Rodenticides in Humans and Animals: Causes and Consequences",slug:"poisoning-by-anticoagulant-rodenticides-in-humans-and-animals-causes-and-consequences",totalDownloads:1845,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are a keystone of the management of rodent populations in the world. The widespread use of these molecules raises questions on exposure and intoxication risks, which define the safety of these products. Exposures and intoxications can affect humans, domestic animals and wildlife. Consequences are different for each group, from the simple issue of intoxication in humans to public health concern if farm animals are exposed. After a rapid presentation of the mechanism of action and the use of anticoagulant rodenticides, this chapter assesses the prominence of poisoning by anticoagulant rodenticides in humans, domestic animals and wildlife.",book:{id:"5873",slug:"poisoning-from-specific-toxic-agents-to-novel-rapid-and-simplified-techniques-for-analysis",title:"Poisoning",fullTitle:"Poisoning - From Specific Toxic Agents to Novel Rapid and Simplified Techniques for Analysis"},signatures:"Sébastien Lefebvre, Isabelle Fourel, Stéphane Queffélec, Dominique\nVodovar, Bruno Mégarbane, Etienne Benoit, Virginie Siguret and\nVirginie Lattard",authors:[{id:"180156",title:"Dr.",name:"Virginie",middleName:null,surname:"Lattard",slug:"virginie-lattard",fullName:"Virginie Lattard"},{id:"185579",title:"Dr.",name:"Sébastien",middleName:null,surname:"Lefebvre",slug:"sebastien-lefebvre",fullName:"Sébastien Lefebvre"},{id:"185580",title:"Prof.",name:"Etienne",middleName:null,surname:"Benoit",slug:"etienne-benoit",fullName:"Etienne Benoit"},{id:"209023",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabelle",middleName:null,surname:"Fourel",slug:"isabelle-fourel",fullName:"Isabelle Fourel"},{id:"209031",title:"Mr.",name:"Stéphane",middleName:null,surname:"Queffélec",slug:"stephane-queffelec",fullName:"Stéphane Queffélec"},{id:"209032",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",middleName:null,surname:"Megarbane",slug:"bruno-megarbane",fullName:"Bruno Megarbane"},{id:"209033",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominique",middleName:null,surname:"Vodovar",slug:"dominique-vodovar",fullName:"Dominique Vodovar"},{id:"209034",title:"Prof.",name:"Virginie",middleName:null,surname:"Siguret",slug:"virginie-siguret",fullName:"Virginie Siguret"}]},{id:"51450",doi:"10.5772/63888",title:"ECMO Biocompatibility: Surface Coatings, Anticoagulation, and Coagulation Monitoring",slug:"ecmo-biocompatibility-surface-coatings-anticoagulation-and-coagulation-monitoring",totalDownloads:4436,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"The interaction between the patient and the ECMO (extracorporeal membrane oxygenation) circuit initiates a significant coagulation and inflammatory response due to the large surface area of foreign material contained within the circuit. This response can be blunted with the appropriate mix of biocompatible materials and anticoagulation therapy. The use of anticoagulants, in turn, requires appropriate laboratory testing to determine whether the patient is appropriately anticoagulated. Physicians must balance the risks of bleeding with the risks of thrombosis; the proper interpretation of these tests is often shrouded in mystery. It is the purpose of this chapter to help demystify the coagulation system, anticoagulants, biocompatible surfaces, and coagulation testing so that ECMO practitioners can make informed decisions about their patients and to spur coordinated efforts for future research to improve our understanding of these complex processes.",book:{id:"5202",slug:"extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-advances-in-therapy",title:"Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",fullTitle:"Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation - Advances in Therapy"},signatures:"Timothy M. Maul, M Patricia Massicotte and Peter D. Wearden",authors:[{id:"182691",title:"Dr.",name:"Timothy",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Maul",slug:"timothy-maul",fullName:"Timothy Maul"},{id:"187110",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Wearden",slug:"peter-wearden",fullName:"Peter Wearden"},{id:"187112",title:"Dr.",name:"Patti",middleName:null,surname:"Massicotte",slug:"patti-massicotte",fullName:"Patti Massicotte"}]},{id:"39638",doi:"10.5772/51484",title:"The History of Sepsis from Ancient Egypt to the XIX Century",slug:"the-history-of-sepsis-from-ancient-egypt-to-the-xix-century",totalDownloads:10550,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"2583",slug:"sepsis-an-ongoing-and-significant-challenge",title:"Sepsis",fullTitle:"Sepsis - An Ongoing and Significant Challenge"},signatures:"Johan Sebastián Hernández Botero and María Cristina Florián Pérez",authors:[{id:"141171",title:"Dr.",name:"Johan",middleName:"Sebastian",surname:"Hernandez Botero",slug:"johan-hernandez-botero",fullName:"Johan Hernandez Botero"},{id:"141520",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Florian Perez",slug:"maria-cristina-florian-perez",fullName:"Maria Cristina Florian Perez"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56521",title:"Food Poisoning Caused by Bacteria (Food Toxins)",slug:"food-poisoning-caused-by-bacteria-food-toxins-",totalDownloads:5880,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"In the environment, there are polluting substances that can cause adverse reactions in human beings when entering the body through different ways (ingestion, inhalation, injection, or absorption). The main pollutants can be poisons, chemical compounds, toxic gases, and bacterial toxins. These can be found in different places and their effects depend on the dose and exposure time. Furthermore, foodborne diseases (FBDs) can cause disability; these diseases can be caused by toxins produced by bacteria or other toxic substances in the food, which can cause severe diarrhea, toxic shock syndrome, debilitating infections such as meningitis and even death. FBDs are transmitted through food contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms that have multiple factors of virulence, which gives them the ability to cause an infection; some bacterial genres can produce toxins directly in the food, but other genres can produce them once they have colonized the intestine. Among the pathogens involved in FBDs that are also considered to be toxigenic are Salmonella spp., Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio cholerae, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens, Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes. Foodborne diseases can be prevented and acute diarrhea syndromes, fever and even death from dehydration can be avoided, especially in children under the age of 5 and in immunocompromised people.",book:{id:"5873",slug:"poisoning-from-specific-toxic-agents-to-novel-rapid-and-simplified-techniques-for-analysis",title:"Poisoning",fullTitle:"Poisoning - From Specific Toxic Agents to Novel Rapid and Simplified Techniques for Analysis"},signatures:"Cecilia Hernández-Cortez, Ingrid Palma-Martínez, Luis Uriel\nGonzalez-Avila, Andrea Guerrero-Mandujano, Raúl Colmenero Solís\nand Graciela Castro-Escarpulli",authors:[{id:"204160",title:"Prof.",name:"Graciela",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-Escarpulli",slug:"graciela-castro-escarpulli",fullName:"Graciela Castro-Escarpulli"},{id:"204162",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Cortez",slug:"cecilia-hernandez-cortez",fullName:"Cecilia Hernández-Cortez"},{id:"204163",title:"MSc.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Palma-Martinez",slug:"ingrid-palma-martinez",fullName:"Ingrid Palma-Martinez"},{id:"204164",title:"MSc.",name:"Luis Uriel",middleName:null,surname:"González-Avila",slug:"luis-uriel-gonzalez-avila",fullName:"Luis Uriel González-Avila"},{id:"204165",title:"MSc.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero-Mandujano",slug:"andrea-guerrero-mandujano",fullName:"Andrea Guerrero-Mandujano"}]},{id:"64561",title:"Musculoskeletal Injuries: Types and Management Protocols for Emergency Care",slug:"musculoskeletal-injuries-types-and-management-protocols-for-emergency-care",totalDownloads:2489,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"These are a common type of human injuries which can result from the damage of muscular or skeletal systems (i.e., bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, nerves, blood vessels, etc.); they usually occur due to a strenuous and/or repetitive activity and can result into variety of complaints, complications, and deformities causing a big burden on the financial and health system in all societies. They are among the largest category of work-related injuries and are responsible for almost 30% of all worker’s compensation costs worldwide. Injuries to the musculoskeletal system occur in 85% of patients who sustain blunt trauma; they often appear dramatic, but rarely cause an immediate life-threatening situation, although these injuries must be assessed and managed accurately so life or limb are not jeopardized. The doctor must be familiar with the anatomy and the injury site to protect his patients from further disability and prevent complications. Major musculoskeletal trauma such as crushed injuries that can cause release of myoglobin resulting in renal tubular injury (acute kidney injury), or can be associated with internal torso injuries like acute compartment syndrome. soft tissue and skeletal system traumas may not be initially recognized, so continued reassessment and evaluation are necessary to identify all injuries.",book:{id:"6616",slug:"essentials-of-accident-and-emergency-medicine",title:"Essentials of Accident and Emergency Medicine",fullTitle:"Essentials of Accident and Emergency Medicine"},signatures:"Ahmad Subhy Alsheikhly and Mazin Subhy Alsheikhly",authors:[{id:"144628",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmad Subhy",middleName:"Humadi",surname:"Alsheikhly",slug:"ahmad-subhy-alsheikhly",fullName:"Ahmad Subhy Alsheikhly"}]},{id:"59641",title:"Problem of Burns in Children: Opportunities for Health Improvement",slug:"problem-of-burns-in-children-opportunities-for-health-improvement",totalDownloads:1415,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Burns are one of the most devastating types of trauma in medicine. Children under 5 years of age are a high-risk group to burns. The most common type is thermal burn caused by hot fluids (scald). Most childhood burns occur at home under parental supervision. These are preventable injuries. The chapter presents results of my studies about risk factors of burns in children and possibilities of health improvement. Simple changes in children’s environment and increasing awareness of caregivers can lead to a decrease in the number of this type of injuries. Moreover, the first aid given to burnt children soon after the injury usually is not adequate (no cooling thermal burns and no analgesia). Health improvement can be obtained by reducing the number of burns, the correct first aid given after the injury, and the organization of specialized health-care centers and rehabilitation services for victims of burns.",book:{id:"6616",slug:"essentials-of-accident-and-emergency-medicine",title:"Essentials of Accident and Emergency Medicine",fullTitle:"Essentials of Accident and Emergency Medicine"},signatures:"Agata Maria Kawalec",authors:null},{id:"51795",title:"ECMO Cannulation Techniques",slug:"ecmo-cannulation-techniques",totalDownloads:4333,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"An extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) circuit consists of a pump and a membrane oxygenator. This circuit can interface with the human body in a variety of cannulation strategies to provide different forms and levels of support. These various support techniques can be divided into two broad categories: those designed to support the body’s respiratory functions (lungs) and those designed to support the body’s blood circulation (heart). In this chapter we discuss various cannulation techniques used.",book:{id:"5202",slug:"extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-advances-in-therapy",title:"Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",fullTitle:"Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation - Advances in Therapy"},signatures:"Chand Ramaiah and Ashok Babu",authors:[{id:"183646",title:"Dr.",name:"Chand",middleName:null,surname:"Ramaiah",slug:"chand-ramaiah",fullName:"Chand Ramaiah"},{id:"189073",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashok",middleName:null,surname:"Babu",slug:"ashok-babu",fullName:"Ashok Babu"}]},{id:"27955",title:"Transfusion-Associated Bacterial Sepsis",slug:"transfusion-associated-sepsis",totalDownloads:8276,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"802",slug:"severe-sepsis-and-septic-shock-understanding-a-serious-killer",title:"Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock",fullTitle:"Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock - Understanding a Serious Killer"},signatures:"Jolanta Korsak",authors:[{id:"72828",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolanta",middleName:null,surname:"Korsak",slug:"jolanta-korsak",fullName:"Jolanta Korsak"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"177",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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\r\n\tThis series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in business and management, economics, and marketing. Topics will include asset liability management, financial consequences of the financial crisis and covid-19, financial accounting, mergers and acquisitions, management accounting, SMEs, financial markets, corporate finance and governance, managerial technology and innovation, resource management and sustainable development, social entrepreneurship, corporate responsibility, ethics and accountability, microeconomics, labour economics, macroeconomics, public economics, financial economics, econometrics, direct marketing, creative marketing, internet marketing, market planning and forecasting, brand management, market segmentation and targeting and other topics under business and management. This book series will focus on various aspects of business and management whose in-depth understanding is critical for business and company management to function effectively during this uncertain time of financial crisis, Covid-19 pandemic, and military activity in Europe.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/22.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 27th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"356540",title:"Prof.",name:"Taufiq",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhry",slug:"taufiq-choudhry",fullName:"Taufiq Choudhry",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000036X2hvQAC/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:58:03.jpg",biography:"Prof. Choudhry holds a BSc degree in Economics from the University of Iowa, as well as a Masters and Ph.D. in Applied Economics from Clemson University, USA. In January 2006, he became a Professor of Finance at the University of Southampton Business School. He was previously a Professor of Finance at the University of Bradford Management School. He has over 80 articles published in international finance and economics journals. His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the 'new normal'. Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.",institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. 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Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. 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