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IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1817",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Current Frontiers and Perspectives in Cell Biology",title:"Current Frontiers and Perspectives in Cell Biology",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"A numerous internationally renowned authors in the pages of this book present the views of the fields of cell biology and their own research results or review of current knowledge. Chapters are divided into five sections that are dedicated to cell structures and functions, genetic material, regulatory mechanisms, cellular biomedicine and new methods in cell biology. Multidisciplinary and often quite versatile approach by many authors have imposed restrictions of this classification, so it is certain that many chapters could belong to the other sections of this book. The current frontiers, on the manner in which they described in the book, can be a good inspiration to many readers for further improving, and perspectives which are highlighted can be seen in many areas of fundamental biology, biomedicine, biotechnology and other applications of knowledge of cell biology. The book will be very useful for beginners to gain insight into new area, as well as experts to find new facts and expanding horizons.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0544-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5284-2",doi:"10.5772/2248",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"current-frontiers-and-perspectives-in-cell-biology",numberOfPages:576,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2fd3fc4286eaf0cf01166591ec89bc66",bookSignature:"Stevo Najman",publishedDate:"April 25th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1817.jpg",numberOfDownloads:75163,numberOfWosCitations:32,numberOfCrossrefCitations:18,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:51,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:101,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 13th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 11th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 15th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 15th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 14th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"87193",title:"Prof.",name:"Stevo",middleName:"J",surname:"Najman",slug:"stevo-najman",fullName:"Stevo Najman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/87193/images/3568_n.jpg",biography:"Stevo Najman, PhD, is a full-time professor at the Faculty of Medicine, University of Niš. He defended his PhD dissertation in the field of regulation of myelopoiesis and phagocytic system at the University of Novi Sad. At the Faculty of Medicine, University of Niš, he is the head of Scientific Research Center for Biomedicine and gives lectures in the fields of cell and molecular biology, genetics, and laboratory techniques for students of medicine, dentistry, and pharmacy and also for biology students as a part-time professor at the Faculty of Science. He has published more than 130 scientific papers and seven books. 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Everybody should have an access towards adequate amount of food that can be ensured through food security. Therefore, the concept regarding the food security has utmost importance for developed and developing nations. It measures that every individual has access to the food that fulfils the food safety and quality standards. Food availability, access, utilization and stability are the pillars of the food security. These pillars are being affected due to various factors such as natural disasters, poor agricultural and post-harvest practices, climate change and poor manufacturing and marketing strategies. The role of all these factors will aim to fall in the scope of this book.
\r\n\tFood insecurity results in fear of hunger and starvation that ultimately affects one’s ability to work for sustainability and economic growth of the country. In addition to this, food insecurity results in various chronic diseases due to reduce immunity that ultimately, a burned on the county economy. Therefore, this book will intend to discuss in detail about the food insecurity challenges and their effect on the quality of life. This book will also aim to provide an overview about the new trends and future prospective that help to resolve the food security issues.
Automatic identification and data capture (AIDC) technologies supported by technologies such as Bluetooth and wireless fidelity (Wi‐Fi) are increasingly used in today\'s electronic business systems. From classic usage of bank cards in business all the way to the application of the Internet of Things (IoT) environment, various classification (models) of e‐businesses can be described through a number of services and solutions that are offered in today\'s market, based on the objects identification technologies.
\nIn this chapter, identification technologies and connectivity are described in the model of e‐business in the traffic system. Described generalized model of the traffic system is the starting point in the creation of possible e‐business models in a traffic environment, that is, it allows description of traffic management component through classification of models within e‐business system.
\nElectronic business is now completely based on modern web technologies, so this chapter presents the analysis of web technology within the development of application solutions (HTML5 and mobile applications). Conceptual model of collecting and processing data in a traffic environment is presented on the basis of modern technologies such as cloud computing (CC). Data are collected from radio‐frequency identification (RFID), near field communication (NFC) tags or beacon devices connected to the Internet of Things and cloud computing environment to provide accurate and real‐time information to the end user.
\nThe chapter ends with a review of the application of AIDC technologies in the traffic environment according to the classification of the of e‐business system.
The effectiveness and efficiency of the transport system can be achieved by using high‐quality electronic business (e‐business) systems by all interest stakeholders (companies) whose business allows its application.
\nToday, the definition of the traffic system is defined on foundational guidelines of a general systems theory and settings of systems engineering. Wherefore, the traffic is represented as a system and a process whose purpose is to carry out transport and/or transfer of transported entities (people, goods and information) using the appropriate traffic entities and taking part in roads capacity according to the established rules and protocols [1]. Generalized model of the transport system is designed as a starting model to describe the structure and behavior of any traffic system as “object of interest.” Common structural components were identified and verified by an empirical‐inductive method. Basic subsystems within the present generalized model are (Figure 1):\n
subsystem of transported entities—TrE (people, goods and information),
subsystem of adaptation of transported entity to traffic entity,
traffic entities—TfE (pedestrian, car, plane, etc.),
subsystem of traffic management and
subsystem of traffic network.
Generalized model of the traffic system [
The traffic entity can generally use only one medium or type of road, and the management of entity (traffic) can be individual or it can be centralized (automatic) in guidance. The adaptive control is based on the contributions of the theory and engineering tools in order to achieve and preserve the ideal dynamic behaviour of the process despite the modification of process parameters. Adaptive system itself is set in a wide range of changing conditions of functioning.
\nInput physical and time coordinates of the traffic entity that enters into the traffic process are changed or transformed into desired spatial coordinates with a certain time delay, and those are:\n
Travel time through the network depends on the topology (connection) of network, capacities, size of traffic flow, traffic management and the impact of incidents. In general, there is:\n
The traffic network generally consists of network elements that perform specific functions related to the access and service, traffic interflow, remote connectivity, additional services and network management. The control section can be treated as a separate system for the basic network of traffic flows. Management of transport network can in general be presented as a set of functions and activities geared to set parameters of the traffic network so that it has the desired functional properties at minimum cost.
\nThese definitions serve as a basis for more efficient management of transport network and its entities using modern information and communication technologies. For this purpose, the concept of information and communication technology is based on a combination of connected communication systems and new technologies. Modern information and communication technologies have created a completely new way of information appliance, improving the speed, capacity and quality of the process.
\nInformation theory allows the creation of mathematical models which are the basis for simple problems. The appliance of information theory in communications allows solving problems related to the realization of process, handover, transmission, reception and storage of information and its protocols in communications network. The communications network connects sources and receivers of information through transmission channels and technical devices allowing switching and management. The communication network carries out the function of information delivery from source to destination. The communication system has the task of transferring the information from one place to another [2, 3].
For the business models of companies whose business can affect the efficiency of the traffic system, it is important to be prepared for daily operating on electronic market. For this purpose, the concept of electronic commerce (e‐commerce) presents the sale, purchase and provision of all relevant information to the end user based on the Internet, and the electronic business (e‐business) includes all application solutions and enabling technologies [4].
\nThe concept of e‐business is applicable in almost all sectors and regions of the traffic system. Since the creation of the concept of e‐business until today, based on its principles, significant number of business models were created and grouped according to two basic criteria:\n
criteria of nature of performed tasks and
criteria of participants or to say subjects in jobs performed electronically.
According to the criteria of the nature of performed tasks, e‐business is divided into:\n
model of electronic sale of own goods and services,
model of electronic trading,
model of electronic marketing and
model of electronic entertainment and recreation.
Model of electronic sale of personal goods and services originated from the first standardized Internet service with the possibility of remote file transfer and its corresponding communication protocol file transfer protocol (FTP).
\nModel of electronic commerce is the process of buying, selling or exchanging products, services or information through publicly accessible computer network, the Internet, and offers a great reduction in cost and time of transactions [5].
\nModel of electronic marketing is the way to achieve the marketing activities of the company with intensive appliance of modern information and communication technology.
\nThe development of models of electronic entertainment and recreation is focused on the distribution of entertainment content via the Internet which led to the convergence of television, film, radio, video and Internet technologies and their integration into a single fun and recreation system. E‐entertainment and e‐recreation grow into the economic sector generating large profits (IT business).
\nModels of electronic business are defined based on the parties involved in the business process and the nature of their business relationship. Three types of subjects can participate in e‐business:\n
companies (business),
ultimate consumers or customers (consumer) and
state administration (government).
Regarding to the type of transaction that can be carried out, there are following models in electronic business:\n
Communication between companies and end users (Figure 2):\n
Communication of e‐government:\n
Multiple transactions (B2B2C, C2B2C, P2P)—present combinations of already existing models.
The classification of e‐business system within the environment of business models is shown in Figure 2. There are also visible links between individual models or subjects of the system.
\nThe new paradigm in providing all relevant information to end users of the traffic system, based on a system of e‐business, is the application of machine‐to‐machine (M2M) architecture. M2M communication is mostly used for remote control and is an important component in the management of inventory, remote control, robotics, traffic control, logistics services, supply chain management, fleet management, telemedicine and more. The main components of the M2M system include AIDC (RFID, NFC, real‐time location system [RTLS], quick response code [QR code]) and global positioning system (GPS) and Bluetooth beacon technology. There is also Wi‐Fi or mobile communication link and the autonomous computer software that is programmed to support networked devices to interpret the data and make decisions.
Classification of e‐business system—business models.
By analyzing the characteristics of modern information and communication technologies an overview of the possibilities is provided for individual technologies with an objective of more efficient operation of certain information and communication systems. Depending on their individual benefits, certain technologies can make certain modules of e‐business more efficient. Figure 3 shows the system architecture of e‐business in the function of satisfying the needs of users, and providing accurate information to the end user (e.g., from submission of the request to delivery).
System architecture of electronic business [e‐business].
Technologies used today are mostly based on CC concept integrated with Web 2.0, Bluetooth (beacon), RFID, NFC, RTLS and Wi‐Fi technology.
\nModern Web 2.0. technologies allow better movement of the web page, and better interactive design, effective user participation in the creation of content (information), and better functionality. The main feature is encouraging the involvement of users in creating content which help the website to get clear contours of look. Users are allowed to use the application through a web browser which means that the web is defined as a platform through which users have control over the data contained on a page [6, 7].
\nDeveloping technologies are important in order to achieve main features of Web 2.0. portal, such as HTML5 programming language, cascading style sheet (CSS) and JavaScript which are exclusively Frontend technologies. These technologies allow the front or the real view of web pages. Dynamic of website is achieved with programming languages depending on the server side and these are PHP Hypertext Preprocessor (Unix‐Linux), ASP.NET (Microsoft), Java programming language (JSP) and ColdFusion (CFM).
\nThe advantage of today\'s programming language HTML5 and CSS3 language is responsive design that allows the behaviour of content and customization for all mobile terminal devices. For this purpose, a variety of framework environments can be used, such as Bootstrap, Foundation, Sencha Touch, Onsen UI, Ionic, Semantic UI, jQuery Mobile and others. Characteristics of the development of web solution by using HTML5 programming language in relation to the development of mobile application (native App) are shown in Table 1.
Services | HTML 5 | Native app |
---|---|---|
Quality of service depends on mobile signal and Internet connection | YES | NO |
Automatic adjustment of applications for desktop and mobile version | YES | NO |
Technical support on all operating systems | YES | YES |
Requires special adaptation of applications for each operating system | NO | YES |
Time of application execution | SLOWER | FASTER |
Every system uses different programming language: Java (Android), Objective‐C (iOS), Visual C++ (Windows Mobile) | NO | YES |
Provides the ability to connect with a variety of functionalities of mobile devices such as: camera, accelerometer, various data stored in the device | NO | YES |
The user must install the application and by doing so occupies a part of unit\'s resources | NO | YES |
Certain security and moral standards must be fulfilled, as the terms of business, which can the time of placement | NO | YES |
Possibility to charge for the download of the application through the marketplace | NO | YES |
The above‐listed framework environments unify HTML5, CSS3 and
Technologies of connectivity and data collection in an environment of e‐business system depend on the needs of the system or the user. Currently, present technologies can be divided into technologies of short and of longer range.
\nShort‐range technologies (less than 1 [m]) are based on the electromagnetic radio waves and those are NFC, RFID (passive), QR code, magnetic cards, smart cards, voice recognition, OCR and barcode. Long‐range technologies (more than 1 [m]) are Bluetooth beacon (BLE), Wi‐Fi, RTLS and RFID (active) technology. Table 2 shows the characteristics of wireless technologies from the aspect of possible collection and provision of information to the end user, depending on distance and mode.
WI‐FI | Bluetooth BLE | RFID | NFC | QR Code | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Accuracy up to 10 [cm] | NO | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Accuracy up to 1 [m] | NO | YES | YES | NO | YES |
Accuracy up to 20 [m] | YES | YES | YES | NO | YES |
Accuracy on > 20 [m] | YES | YES | NO | NO | NO |
Two‐way data transfer | YES | NO | YES | YES | NO |
Secure data transmission | YES | YES | YES | YES | NO |
External power supply | NO | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Connection needed | NO | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Acceptable price | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Technologies of connectivity and data processing are used in application of the CC concept in collecting data and providing relevant information to the end user. Therefore, these technologies are shown in Figure 4, where CC environment is the basic concept of collecting and storing data.
Architecture of the system for collecting and processing data in traffic environment.
Barcode represents a linear or one‐dimensional code that uses patterns created by mixing dark lines and bright background representing a numeric or alphanumeric characters [RFID Handbook]. Data are obtained by reading the barcode with a manual or fixed barcode reader. Obtained data are saved and sent to the system as an instruction for certain changes to happen. QR code represents a significant development in the work with barcodes. QR code represents the picture in which it is possible to store information in the horizontal and vertical form (opposed to the bar code which stores information only in vertical form). QR code owns its name to the fact that it is possible to get to the stored data very quickly. QR codes can be used with smart mobile terminal device (smartphone). The user of smart mobile terminal device scans the QR code with application solution containing a stored record, and receives the requested information.
\nNFC is a technology by which one can perform contactless communication between devices, such as smart mobile devices and tablets. This type of communication allows the user to send the information or access the web and get the required information [11]. Although rarely used for informing users, NFC technology is commonly used for contactless payment systems in e‐business, whether it was the payment of transportation, purchasing tickets and similar. Except for payment, NFC technology is used to communicate and send data between two smart mobile devices.
\nRFID is the term used for contactless identification through electromagnetic field or radio waves. The carriers of information with RFID technology, as well as with NFC technology, are the tags (active and passive). An example of the use of RFID technology is a public transport of passengers where this kind of transportation payment is called the automatic fare collection (AFC). It can also be used to inform the mobile user of transport network [12]. It is also greatly used in logistics; in warehouses, distribution centers and supermarkets. Combination of RFID technology and Wi‐Fi technology defines the concept of RTLS technology whose application is recommended for large external or indoor coverage of Wi‐Fi antenna [13].
\nBluetooth beacons are devices that transmit signal to the nearby Bluetooth devices. By pairing them with different, appropriate, application solutions (specialized applications or classic web browser), they can be used for the delivery of requested information. Due to the range of the Bluetooth signal, it is one of the services based on the location of the user (location‐based services, LBS).
\nConnection technologies in the CC environment can be divided into Bluetooth and Wi‐Fi technologies. Bluetooth technology is used for wireless connection of equipment within the network and to transmit data by using radio transmission. The implementation of Bluetooth technology is achieved through a microchip which can achieve transfer within short range (beacon has greater ranges than Bluetooth version 4.0). This microchip is built into devices which are to be connected (e.g., mobile terminal devices, controllers, keyboard). Connection can also be achieved via universal serial bus (universal serial bus, USB).
\nAdvantages of Bluetooth when compared to other technologies include low power consumption, simple use, acceptable price and low energy consumption. Because of these advantages, Bluetooth is applied in a growing number of information and communication solutions. Today\'s mobile terminal devices usually contain mounted integrated circuit with Bluetooth version 4.0. This version of Bluetooth has developed because of the need to connect the device to the IoT environment. The effectiveness of Bluetooth and its low power consumption make it a quality selection for devices within IoT environment that have to work for longer period of time. BLE version has the ability to operate on different operating systems, whose applications have different connectivity options in the CC environment.
\nWi‐Fi technology is a technology for transmitting data by using radio waves. It is most commonly used to provide wireless access to the Internet and for creation of wireless networks (Eng. Wireless Local Area Network, WLAN). In order to ensure proper operation of Wi‐Fi technology, several standards are defined, and the most widely used standard for Wi‐Fi technology is 802.11b.
In order to provide high‐quality and timely information on the state of the traffic system, it is necessary to collect and process data obtained from infrastructure providers (HAK, ARZ, traffic info system of cities) [14]. Generalized model of collection and processing of traffic data is shown in Figure 5, where model involves adding different weight value to information of every individual source.
Generalized model of collection and processing traffic data.
This model is also presented as part of the system architecture shown in Figure 5, and the processing takes place in the CC environment. The concept of using generalized model to provide relevant information about traffic conditions is shown through the elements of e‐business (Figure 6).
Distribution of information by using e‐business system.
Example of a solution that delivers the technical components, business models and organizations structure of future e‐marketplace is MOBiNET project. Its intention is to establish a framework that will gather private and public ITS service providers, next‐generation mobility service suppliers and transport end users. On such framework providers of transport‐related content and services can publish and exchange their products, compose new services and reach a wide customer base [15].
\nBusiness models contain elements relevant to business of traffic information provider. Customer relationship management (CRM) system is an important component of any company in order to organize and automate sales, marketing and services and help manage all information regarding clients. CRM collects various data about the users of the system with multiple channels in order to obtain a better view of customer through his use of the system and communication with the service provider. Some of the regularly monitored channels are the official website/web shop, e‐mails, online chats with the operators, phone calls to customer service and communication with customers through social networks. These are valuable data on the company\'s relationship with the customer over time from which one can learn the habits and preferences, and anticipate some steps to define personalized offers.
\nEnterprise resource planning (ERP) system is a set of management tools in a company that balances supply and demand, and contains options for connecting buyers and suppliers in an integrated supply chain [16].
\nWeb selling component of sales is based on Web 2.0. technologies whose interactive capabilities attract users to products and services offered by the company.
\nModel of service distribution provides specific models depending on the type of user (legal or natural person). The link to the business model is a web environment of HTML5 (PHP/ASP) technology, and extensible markup language (XML) language for labeling data stored in a database (MySQL, SQL, etc.) [17].
Nowadays, a large number of organizations recognize the Internet as the most important communication tool and probably the most important technological development in general. Information and communications technology (ICT) systems have a major impact on communication and their potential impact on the growth of business is globally recognized [18]. Electronic business is one of the most common concepts of sales channels. The concept of e‐business goes beyond the functionality of online purchases. E‐business is a holistic strategy of redefining business models through technology, with the aim of gaining benefits for consumers and maximizing the profit of organization.
\nThe selection and implementation of appropriate security controls and mechanisms in the exchange, processing and storage of data in an environment of e‐business are very important in order to preserve the basic principles of security and privacy. Among other things, it includes the protection of e‐business in accordance with standards such as payment card industry data security standard (PCI DSS), NIST and others, and the implementation of security controls such as cryptography, hardware solutions, programming languages and development environment, risk assessment and management, law, etc.
\nE‐business is, among other things, intended for buying and selling products and services through information and communication systems such as the Internet. When establishing a form of e‐business a number of options should be considered, such as [19]:\n
The development of personal payment system for e‐business, the usage of third‐party solutions or a combination of previously mentioned,
The use of various technologies in order to implement the functionality of e‐business, including applications for the process of payment, the API or website for payment placed on the servers of third parties,
It is possible to maintain multiple levels of control and responsibility for the management of IC infrastructure. For example, organizations can choose the management of the entire IC infrastructure, use the service of management of all systems and infrastructure provided by third parties (outsourcing), or they can manage a part of the infrastructure within the organization and the rest of management leave to the third parties.
Regardless the chosen option, it is necessary to consider safety aspects of implementation and appliance of e‐business system.
\nPCI DSS is a set of policies and procedures designed to optimize safety of card business and online money transactions. PCI DSS was developed in 2004 by the four most common organizations for credit card transactions Visa, MasterCard, Discover and American Express.
\nPCI DSS defines six core objectives:\n
Establishment of network security
Protection of credit card data regardless of storage location
Protection of system from the activities of malicious users
Limitation and control of access to information and operations within the system
Monitoring and testing of network
The establishment, maintenance and observance of the formal security policy at any time and by any entity
According to the PCI DSS standard, the establishment of network security is implemented by implementing a firewall between the web server and the unprotected public networks and between the web server and internal network containing application servers and database servers. The example of isolation of system\'s servers in e‐business is shown in Figures 7 and 8.
Network configuration with one firewall.
Network configuration with two firewall.
Configuration of firewall and demilitarized zone (DMZ) must ensure the passage of exclusively permitted network traffic from the public network to the web server (user request), and only of the necessary traffic from the web server to the internal network (server request), shown in Figures 7 and 8. Internet traffic should never be allowed to pass to internal devices outside the DMZ. Depending on network complexity and requests, the above‐mentioned configuration can be deployed by using one (Figure 7) or two hardware firewalls (Figure 8).
\nSystem components designed to store credit card data must be located within the internal network zone, segmented from the DMZ and other unsafe parts of the network. In order to insure that the credit card data are protected, it is crucial to document all of the instances and security controls that protect data in the storage, processing or transmission in e‐business environment. Also, it is necessary to collect and retain only the minimum amount of data required for the transaction and in the minimum period required for a specific business process. The development and appliance of technology for the implementation of e‐business should not support the storage of credit card data and other sensitive information in cookies or temporary files in an unprotected form. Transmission of credit card data across the public network requires the application of encryption protocols such as SSL VPN, IPsec. For example, it is possible to observe the transfer of data between the user (consumer) and organizational web servers or leased service, or between organizations and various rental service providers. Previously mentioned encryption can be used to protect the transmission of other sensitive information (such as login data) and to encrypt transmission of credit card data within a corporate network. Traditional firewalls often have no possibility of inspection of encrypted network traffic. If the destination address and communications port meets the criteria defined by firewall policy, traffic will be allowed. In order to check the content of encrypted network traffic, it is necessary to consider solutions such as web application firewall (WAF) or intrusion detection system (IDS). If the e‐business offers services such as chat support or other messaging technologies, it is important to emphasize the users that they shouldn\'t share their credit card information via such services.
Today, the identification technology is increasingly used for everyday needs. The adaptive mobile terminal devices enable a wide appliance of identification technology in all aspects of traffic (postal, information and communication, road transport) and logistics.
\nIn today\'s postal traffic business, the appliance of modern information and communication technologies is constantly growing. The traffic entities such as packages, envelopes and vehicles (cars, trucks, mopeds or bicycles) are marked with tags that allow easier retrieval of required information during the processing time. System architecture consists of elements: reader, tag, database and antenna (Figure 9) [20].
Possibilities of RFID usage in postal traffic.
This technology can also be used within logistics processes, where the increasing application in addition to RFID technology and other technologies from the group AIDC (barcode, QR code) technology. Tracking vehicles and trailers throughout the entire transport logistics chain provides considerable benefits to all parties involved, for example, management, users and customers. The vehicle and trailer tracking system is an advanced and effective IT system for monitoring and managing precise arrivals and departures of vehicles at specific points in the logistics chain. The system is built on the experience and know‐how acquired from supplying the world\'s largest and most widespread RFID network stretching across about 60 countries [21]. This method of usage within the e‐business environment belongs to a group of B2B and B2C business, where the end user is included.
In the automotive industry, the technology is used in the form of B2B, where auto parts are marked with tags, as are the boxes in which the parts are being transported to destination. An example of such operating is a car company (Figure 10).
RFID operating within car company.
After production, auto parts (1) are getting packed (2) selected and marked by RFID tags, and stored in a database (3). Then, auto parts are packed onto pallets (4) and are transported (5) to the company. When entering the company warehouse (6) the barcode or RFID tags placed on the parts are being read (7). When assembling the vehicle on the production line previously read parts are assembled into the vehicle (8) and marked pallets are returning empty.
Assistive technologies aim to reduce barriers and increase the mobility of persons with disabilities who are in daily movement.
\nFor this purpose, there are a considerable number of solutions on market, depending on the degree of user\'s impairment. One of the solutions is the usage of RFID technology in movement of blind and visually impaired persons, as shown in Figure 11. This technology can also be used by persons with hearing impairment, children in particular, where the objects indicate the tags, and a reader transmits information through application solution to the computer where the objects are visually presented (LAMBERT system). AIDC technology‐based solutions for persons in wheelchair can be connected into the IoT environment which is a growing challenge for many researchers in this field today [22]. These solutions are classified as B2C and C2C solutions.
The appliance of RFID technology for informing visual impaired person.
The use of magnesium alloys in different industrial fields has increased mainly due to its very high strength-to-weight ratio in comparison to other structural alloys [1]. However, an important limiting factor is their high reactivity and thus, their susceptibility to corrosion [2]. The main objective of the research area has always been to increase the corrosion resistance of metallic substrates [3]. One method to reduce the effect of corrosion is to deposit a protective coating on a metallic substrate. Among the coating techniques, sol-gel process is considered a very efficient and economically viable solution for developing anticorrosion coatings on magnesium alloys. According to Segal [4], the sol-gel process can be defined as the production of inorganic oxides in the form of colloidal dispersion or metal alkoxides.
The sol-gel process was initially developed for producing pure inorganic materials, ceramic, and glass materials. However, pure inorganic sol-gel coatings do not provide enough corrosion protection due to the presence of micro-cracks or defects [5]. The ability to process organic-inorganic hybrid composites at low temperature opened new opportunities in the design of free-crack sol-gel coatings that enhances the corrosion resistance of metals [6]. The research focused on the polymerization of organic-inorganic hybrid materials by sol-gel process increased significantly near the end of the twentieth century [7]. Thus, sol-gel process has got a strong technological impact on research related to protective and functional coatings because this method allows the surface modification of different materials without changing the substrate properties.
The citation report of the “Web of Science Core Collection” database reveals that the amount of literature containing “sol gel” and “Mg alloys” as keywords was 421 between 2000 and 2021; the research in this field is annually growing because of the new alkoxysilane precursors and functional species now available to obtain silica coatings with novel physicochemical properties.
The sol-gel technology is a wet-chemical process where the principal chemical aspect is the transformation of compounds, known as precursors, that contain Si-OR and Si-OH to form stable colloidal particle suspensions known as sol [8]. The sol can be applied on the substrates by different deposition techniques and then sintered to obtain a coating. During the aging step, a chemical transformation of the sol occurs leading to a rigid network, resulting in a gel [9]. Generally, inorganic or organic-inorganic sols are obtained via hydrolysis and polycondensation reactions between silicon alkoxides (Si(OR)4) such as: tetramethoxysilane (TMOS) or tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) and organoalkoxysilanes R′-Si (OR)n-1; where R′ is the organic functional group linked to Si through a nonhydrolyzable covalent bond. During the hydrolysis stage, alkoxide groups are replaced with hydroxyl groups. Once the hydrolysis reaction has initiated, the condensation reaction occurs simultaneously. In this stage, the hydroxyl group and residual alkoxyl group react to form a three-dimensional Si∙O∙Si network [10]. From the reaction pathway point of view, two different Si∙O∙Si formation mechanisms can take place regarding if the reaction is performed under acidic or basic conditions. Therefore, the morphology and the structure of the resulting network strongly depend on the pH of the reaction.
Under acidic conditions [11], the oxygen atom of Si∙O∙R group is protonated in the first step to form a good leaving group. The central silicon atom turns to be more electrophilic and thus more susceptible to react by water to form Si∙OH group (Figure 1(1)). An equilibrium condition is established between silanol groups and H+ ions, resulting in positively charged species Si∙OH2+ that interact with a silanol group to form Si∙O∙Si bonds (Figure 1(2)). In this case, the polymerization rate is directly proportional to the H+ concentration. Therefore, a large number of monomers or small oligomers with reactive Si∙OH groups are simultaneously obtained. The hydrolysis step reaction is favored, and the condensation step reaction is the rate-determining step. It was reported that the positively charged species, Si∙OH2+, react preferentially with the less acidic silanols (silanols attached to the least condensed (Si∙O∙Si) end groups), giving to chain-like networks [13].
Mechanism of acid-catalyzed sol-gel process. (1) Hydrolysis mechanism and (2) Condensation mechanism reactions. Image adapted from reference [
Under basic conditions [14], the hydrolysis reaction occurs directly by nucleophilic attack of OH− to the silicon atom to form Si∙OH bonds. In this case, deprotonated silanol (Si∙O−) anion is formed and then it gets condensed with a silanol group. The condensation reaction is favored, and the hydrolysis reaction is the rate-determining step. The hydrolyzed species are immediately consumed because of the fast condensation. Due to the nucleophilic nature of the deprotonated silanol, the Si∙O− preferentially attacks the more acidic silanol (silanols attached to the highest condensed (Si∙O∙Si) end groups), leading to the formation of branched and highly condensed clusters.
A typical route of formation of silane sol-gel coating is described as the following process: synthesis of sol-gel > deposition > heat treatment. A sol-gel coating can be applied to Mg metallic substrates through various techniques, such as dip-coating, spin-coating, spraying, and electrodeposition, among others. However, dipping and spinning techniques are the two most used ones, especially for flat surfaces [10]. In the case of complex shapes, uniform coating can be obtained by electro-phoretic deposition method (EPD) [15].
By dip-coating, the surface treatment is attained by immersing the substrate into the sol-gel solution. The silanol groups Si∙OH interact spontaneously with the Mg∙OH groups that existed on the alloy surface via Van der Waals interactions. Upon the heat treatment, the Si∙OH and Mg∙OH bonds are attached firmly via a condensation reaction producing metallo-siloxane (Mg∙O∙Si) covalent bonds (Figure 2), and the remaining Si∙OH groups of the deposited sol condense and form Si∙O∙Si bonds [16].
Schematic representation of metallo-siloxane covalent bond formation.
By controlling the curing temperature, the control of pore volume and size and mechanical strength can be achieved. High temperatures (more than 200°C) are normally used to cure inorganic sol-gel coatings and lower temperatures (less than 200°C) for drying/curing organic-inorganic sol-gel coatings [10]. Depending on the sol-gel precursors used, an optimal curing temperature should be defined since an inaccurate temperature could result in a decrement of the corrosion resistance properties of the coating and/or on the mechanical properties of the substrates. For instance, room temperature cured sol-gel coatings exhibit crack-free morphology, but a higher water sensitivity compared to coatings cured at a higher temperature. On the other hand, an increment of the curing temperature can lead to cracked coatings due to the stresses that appear during the sintering process [12]. A relatively new approach to densify sol-gel coatings is to use UV radiation [17]. Sol-gel films treated by UV radiation at room temperature can form denser sol-gel coatings able to improve the corrosion resistance of alloys.
The poor corrosion resistance of Mg alloys can be mainly attributed to its high electronegative potential and the poorly protective properties of the quasi-passive oxide/hydroxide layer formed upon Mg. Generally, when the Mg alloys corrode in aqueous electrolyte, the metal changes its oxidation state, forms ionic species, and releases electrons. To maintain electroneutrality, the generated electrons must be consumed by other species. Therefore, the anodic reaction must be accompanied by a reduction reaction, where a molecule, ion, or atom gains electrons. In aqueous solution, water reduction is the dominant cathodic reaction. Figure 3(1) illustrates the anodic and cathodic reactions and the overall reaction that takes place during the corrosion of Mg in aqueous environment. The presence of chloride ions in the aqueous solution typically leads to accelerated corrosion processes (Figure 3(1)). Mg(OH)2 can convert to MgCl2, with higher solubility, promoting the dissolution of the Mg alloy [18].
Schematic representation of reactions that take place between Mg alloy surface and (1) NaCl aqueous solution and (2) biological environment (reprinted from Ref. [
On the other hand, the corrosive environment in the human body has a solution consisting of 0.14 M NaCl and other inorganic species, such as Ca2+, PO43−, and HCO3−. In this case, the presence of phosphates and carbonates promotes the formation of partially protective corrosion product layers [19]. It is clear that corrosion products depend on the type of the electrolyte. These corrosion products not only affect the corrosion rate but can also provide different protection properties to the substrate. Figure 3(2) shows a schematic representation of possible interactions between corrosion products of Mg alloy surface on a biological environment.
The deposition of a silane coating could control the corrosion of Mg alloys, although it could dissolve in contact with water due to the hydrolysis of the polysiloxane (Si∙O∙Si) network [20] that results in the release of silicic acid (Si(OH)4), which can be expressed as follows [21]:
It is important to determine the corrosion rate to explain the corrosion behavior and provide models that predict the kinetics of the corrosion in an engineering context. The most widely used technique for exploring the corrosion behavior of a coated Mg alloy involves immersing the samples in a corrosive solution, since the corrosion performance is faster than atmospheric corrosion tests [19]. To study the corrosion performance of coated Mg alloys in aqueous solution, a wide range of tests are used [2]. These tests are divided into two large groups: electrochemical and nonelectrochemical tests [22]. The most common electrochemical and nonelectrochemical methods used are mentioned below.
These methods are important and rapid tools for assessing the corrosion of coated Mg alloys. Between the electrochemical techniques, the most used are Potentiodynamic polarization (PDP) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS).
The most common nonelectrochemical methods used for Mg corrosion research are weight loss measurements, hydrogen collection, and pH measurements.
The electrochemical techniques for exploring the corrosion behavior of coated Mg alloys can be used independently or simultaneously with the nonelectrochemical techniques. The principles of each technique and an overview of the main advantages and limitations of different techniques were provided by Durán et al. [5]. A recent review by Kirkland et al. [23] considers the methodologies used to study the corrosion of biodegradable Mg implant materials.
One of the key techniques to reduce fuel consumption and subsequently greenhouse gas emission is to shift to lightweight vehicles. Magnesium alloys with their low density, easy recyclability, and high strength-to-weight ratio are exceptional candidates in the automotive and aerospace sectors [24]. However, the high chemical reactivity and the low standard corrosion potential (~−1.65 V.SCE), which is less electropositive than aluminum alloys (~ (−0.73 V.SCE)), make them highly susceptible to corrosion, limiting their use in such areas [25]. In order to prevent corrosion of Mg alloys, surface modification techniques such as sol-gel technology have attracted increasing interest for many researchers.
The application of single sol-gel coatings on the surface of Mg alloys has been considered as a good initial approach to provide a protective behavior to the alloy, since the deposition of an inert silane coating avoids the direct contact between substrate and corrosive environment [26]. From the point of view of synthesis, the sol-gel route offers a versatile way to synthesize effective and denser coatings with specific properties.
Pure inorganic sol-gel coatings have been studied as an inert physical barrier to provide protection against corrosion. However, inorganic sol-gel coatings have some limitations such as: (i) brittleness, shrinkage, and internal stress after heat treatment process, and (ii) the high temperature required to sinter the coating that mismatches with the thermal expansion coefficient of Mg substrate [27]. A great effort has been made to incorporate organo-alkoxysilanes into the sol-gel synthesis to obtain crack-free hybrid coatings able to be sintered at lower temperatures (below 200°C, depending on Mg alloys) close to the thermal expansion coefficient of Mg substrate [28]. Due to the wide variety of organic-inorganic precursors, there is growing attention on producing hybrid-inorganic sol-gel coatings with different cross-linked structures and compositions. The final hybrid sol-gel coatings could reach fascinating mechanical and physical properties such as flexibility, hydrophobicity, exceptional dielectric properties, strength, ductility, hardness, and good thermal stability. Zucchi et al. [29] studied the protective performance of coatings obtained using organo-silanes with a long alkyl chain (octadecyl-trimethoxysilane) on AZ31 magnesium alloy. An improvement of the corrosion resistance properties of Mg alloy was observed, confirming that the modification of the siloxane network using a long aliphatic chain provides a positive effect regarding corrosion performance.
The corrosion protection of organic-inorganic hybrid thin films prepared with other organoalkoxysilane precursors such as methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MAPTMS) and tetramethoxysilane (TMOS) on AZ31 and AZ61 Mg alloys has been also studied by El-Hadaba [30]. The results showed an enhancement of the corrosion protection properties at the initial immersion time, but a quick degradation of the coated AZ31 Mg alloy after 1 day of immersion in 0.6 M NaCl aqueous solution. This behavior was attributed to microscopic pores defects in the sol-gel layer. The low pH of the sol-gel solution promoted the Mg dissolution during the deposition process together with the hydrogen evolution during the curing sol-gel coating.
As observed, although sol-gel technology allows the preparation of different hybrid organic-inorganic sol-gel coating compositions, the obtention of effective coatings for Mg-based alloys still is a huge challenge. One of the main aspects, related to the synthesis of the sol-gel coatings on Mg alloys, is the pH of the hydrolyzed sol-gel solution. Indeed, magnesium is not stable and spontaneously degrades during sol-gel deposition step when using acidic conditions. Hernández-Barrios et al. [31] evaluated the corrosion behavior of AZ31 Mg alloy pretreated with a hybrid silica sol-gel coating prepared using acetic acid as acid-catalyst, and 3-glycidyloxypropyl-trimethoxysilane (GPTMS) and TEOS as silica precursors. The results revealed that the sol synthesized with the highest acid concentration reached more stable gelation kinetics, but with the worst corrosion resistance performance (icorr: 1.3 × 10−6 A/cm2) compared with the sol synthesized with the slower acid concentration (icorr: 2.4 × 10−7 A/cm2). The decay of the corrosion resistance of the sample coated with the more acidic sol is attributed to defects on the coating’s morphology and to the corrosion process advancing in the substrate. Indeed, during the sol-gel deposition, corrosion products are generated together with hydrogen evolution.
In this sense, pH of the sol is a critical parameter and should be considered to get a nondefective SiO2 coating not affecting the metallic substrate, and thus to provide a suitable corrosion resistance performance.
Another aspect to consider is related to the promotion of insulating coatings with high-density structures for blocking the penetration of electrolytes. In this case, complexing agents are added during the synthesis of the sol to react with the organic group of some organo-alkoxysilanes and therefore stimulate the organic polymerization. For instance, Qian et al. [32] prepared a hybrid sol-gel through hydrolysis and condensation reactions of TEOS and GPTMS. The opening of the epoxy group of GPTMS results in coatings with novel physical and chemical properties. The authors further incorporated triethylenetetramine (TETA) as an organic crosslinking agent to bond with the open epoxy groups. The corrosion behaviors of the coatings deposited on AZ31B magnesium alloy were evaluated by polarization curves measurements in the 3.5% NaCl solution. The results revealed that a compact and smooth silane film was formed on the substrate’s surface, which provided good barrier protection, improving the corrosion resistance ability (icorr: 3.7 × 10−9 A/cm2) in comparison to untreated magnesium alloy substrate (icorr: 4.1 × 10−6 A/cm2) (Figure 4).
Potentiodynamic polarization curves of bare alloy and the hybrid coating in 3.5 wt.% NaCl (reprinted from Ref. [
Furthermore, the corrosion resistance properties of silane films can be significantly improved by the incorporation of some nanoparticles into the sol-gel film. The beneficial effects of the addition of different nanoparticles on the corrosion resistance for Mg alloys have been reported by different researchers. For instance, the effect of incorporating SiO2 nanoparticles [33], graphene oxide [34, 35], carbon nanotubes [36], alumina, titania, zirconia [37], and Montmorillonite (MMT) [38] on the sol-gel synthesis has been evaluated.
For example, the addition of a colloidal silica nanoparticles suspension into the sol-gel coating is considered a good approach to increase the hardness, density, and wear resistance, and thus the corrosion resistance properties of hybrid silane coatings. Peres et al. [33] investigated the effect of adding different amounts of SiO2 nanoparticles into a hybrid silica sol based on TEOS and GPTMS on the corrosion resistance of AZ31 magnesium alloy. The results showed that the incorporation of nanoparticles improved the corrosion resistance of Mg alloy. However, the maximum amount of SiO2 recommended to obtain a coating with the best anticorrosive performance was between 100 and 300 mg l−1; coatings doped with a higher amount of SiO2 showed nanoparticles agglomeration and consequent defects and cracks. Thus, two critical issues should be considered to avoid a detrimental effect on the anticorrosion behavior of the film: (i) the dispersion of nanoparticles into the film, and (ii) the amount of loaded nanoparticles.
On the other hand, graphene oxide (GO), which is a two-dimensional sp2 carbon material, with many inherent characteristics such as good mechanical strength, chemical inertness, and good thermal stability, has also been considered to reinforce organofunctional silane coatings for corrosion protection of Mg alloys [34]. However, the high specific surface area of graphene and the strong Van der Waals force (−stacking) between graphene layers made it to agglomerate easily, resulting in hybrid coatings with a decrease in corrosion performance and microhardness properties. As graphene-based compound [39], oxidized fullerene [40], and carbon nanotube [36] have also been considered as a novel promising reinforcement for hybrid composite silane coatings for Mg alloys due to their properties including high strength, lightweight, thermal and mechanical stability, hydrophobicity, corrosion resistance, and high specific surface area. The anticorrosion and protective action of a zeolite-filled silane sol-gel coating on AZ31 magnesium substrate was studied by Calabrese et al. [41]. The zeolite composite coating evidenced very high hydrophobicity behavior (contact angle up to 140° showed good adhesion and good barrier properties during immersion in 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution.
Although significant advances have been made regarding modified sol-gel coatings composition, there is still a large gap in this research since most of the studies only provide information about the instantaneous corrosion rate, but not about the kinetic of the sol-gel film degradation in standard aqueous solution of 3.5 wt.% NaCl, which is helpful for a comprehensive choice of anticorrosion strategies and a systematic control of the degradation of sol-gel films.
Up to now, conventional physical barrier coatings with suitable composition designs have been considered to improve the corrosion resistance of Mg alloys; however, in very harsh environments when the aggressive agent and water reach the metal surface, the silane coatings are not capable to stop the corrosion process, reducing the lifetime of the coating protection. For this reason, smart self-healing protective coatings should be considered to provide long-term protection to the material. The smart self-healing effectiveness relies on a dissolving-reprecipitation interaction in the local defect, able to repair the defects entirely or partially, restoring the functionality of the coatings. The incorporation of corrosion inhibitors into the silane sol-gel coatings is the most studied strategy to obtain a self-healing ability of the silane coating thus enhancing the corrosion resistance of the metal.
Inorganic corrosion inhibitors such as rare earth inhibitors (cerium and lanthanum) have been demonstrated to be effective in the protection of magnesium alloy. For example, the rapid formation of oxygen vacancies in ceria lattice plays a crucial role in self-healing coating formulation since cerium cations interact with the OH− ion released during the corrosion process, forming stable and insoluble cerium oxide/hydroxide species that precipitate in the surface and prevent further corrosion process. Prolonging the corrosion time, the deposited film gradually grows reducing the oxygen and electron transfer [42].
The effect of adding Ce and La salts as inhibitors as well as nanoparticles in silane solution has been explored as an opportunity and a challenge for researchers. Zanotto et al. [43] studied the corrosion resistance efficiency of 3-mercapto-propyl-trimethoxysilane (PropS-SH) coatings modified with cerium nitrate (Ce(NO3)36H2O) deposited on AZ31 magnesium alloy. Moreover, Qiao et al. [44] studied the corrosion resistance behavior of 3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane coatings modified by lanthanum nitrate (La(NO3)3·6H2O) deposited on AZ31 Mg alloy. Both studies demonstrated that either cerium or lanthanum ions can be added as inhibitors to the silane solutions to enhance the corrosion of the pretreatments for magnesium alloy. However, they reported that silane coatings doped with cerium nitrate salt showed poorer corrosion behavior than those doped with cerium nanoparticles, CeO2NPs. Coatings doped with CeO2NPs were more “compact,” avoiding the electrolyte penetration, and therefore providing improved corrosion protection [45]. Under this perspective, Calado et al. [46] modified a hybrid epoxy-silane coating with ceria nanoparticles to improve the barrier protection of AZ31 Mg alloys. EIS results showed an improvement in corrosion resistance because the modified ceria-coating was capable to provide active corrosion protection. The ceria nanoparticles react with water and/or hydroxyl ions, producing a cerium (IV) oxide or hydroxide layer onto the AZ31 surface. Electrolyte diffusion pathways are blocked; thus, the localized corrosion activity is reduced.
The use of organic compounds with heteroatoms such as N, S, and O can provide inhibitory effects to silane coatings. The major role of heteroatoms in corrosion protection is the formation of a complex chelate with Mg2+ ions which create insoluble deposits on the metallic surface, blocking the active sites and preventing the local pH increases, which is responsible for the intensification of intermetallic dealloying [47]. Toorani et al. [48] proposed a silane coating with active corrosion properties using γ-amino propyltriethoxysilane (APS) and TEOS as silica precursors, and adding different organic inhibitors: 8-hydroxyquinoline (8-HQ), indole-3-carbadehyde (I3C), 2-mercaptobenzoxazole (MBO), and sodium diethyldithiocarbamate (DDTC) to silane precursors. The results showed that organic inhibitors provide better active corrosion protection properties to the silane coating compared to the bare AZ91D magnesium alloy, especially when the 8-HQ inhibitor was added. In search of new organic inhibitors for corrosion protection of Mg alloys, Ashassi-Sorkhabi et al. [49] reported the effect of adding amino acids (l-alanine, l-glutamine, l-methionine, and l-aspartic amino acids) as eco-friendly inhibitors into sol-gel coating matrix. The corrosion ability of amino acids was associated with their tendency to form hydrogen bonds with the oxide or hydroxide groups on the metal surface and to the lone pair electrons present in their heteroatoms that can complex Mg cation. The paper described that all amino acids improved the anticorrosion performance of the silane coating, but l-aspartic exhibited the best enhancement effect.
Even though silica sol-gel coatings have shown to be successful as a physical and active barrier, it is sometimes not enough for a long-term protection system in harsh environment. Some micro-defects or micro-cracks appear, allowing the penetration of corrosive agents and producing oxide-hydroxide-carbonate deposits beneath the coating, causing its rapid delamination. Thereby, the application of single-layer coating does not provide a full protection of Mg alloys. For this reason, great effort is underway to identify efficient alternative systems with desirable surface properties. In this context, the combination of different systems has been suggested, based on the deposition of a first oxide layer using conventional anodization or plasma electrolyte oxidation (PEO) processes followed by the deposition of silica sol-gel coating seems to be a good alternative.
PEO is an electrochemical process that has increasingly been employed to improve the surface properties of Mg alloys. This process produces an adhesive micro-porous oxide layer on the surface that provides a moderate protection on the metal and alloys. The ceramic-like film can be sealed with a silane coating to reduce the infiltration of the aggressive medium through the micro-pores, providing a long-term corrosion protection. Tan et al. [50] reported the preparation of a multilayer system obtained by anodizing the AZ91D Mg alloy and post-sol-gel treatment using MEMO (3-methacryloxypropyl trimethoxysilane), TPTMS (3-mercaptopropyl trimethoxysilane), and silica nanoparticles as reinforcement. The preliminary results showed that after the deposition of various silane layers by spray method, the silane coatings seal the pores of the anodized coating providing a physical corrosion protection in 3.0 wt.% NaCl.
Recently, Merino et al. [51] studied the corrosion resistant of an integrated system for AZ31B Mg alloys combining PEO and sol-gel process. In this case, the sol was prepared by using TEOS, GPTMS, colloidal SiO2 nanoparticles, and 1-methylimidazole (MI), and then deposited onto optimized oxide coating. The results revealed that the multilayer system exhibits a good corrosion performance in 3.5 wt.% NaCl, since the polarization resistance (Rp) for the integrated system samples showed a quite high value (31546.8 Ω cm2) compared to Mg alloy (207.3 Ω cm2) (Figure 5).
Bode plot and phase angle plot for bare AZ31B Mg alloy, anodized sample and multilayer system tested in 3.5 wt.% NaCl (reprinted with permission from Ref. [
This is an interesting alternative to significantly improve the corrosion resistance of Mg alloys. However, only a few papers present complete and decisive results. Additionally, different factors need to be considered to reach a good compromise between stacking and anticorrosion properties, such as sealing pore effectiveness and micro-cracks formation during the deposition of multiple silane layers [52].
Mg alloys are considered as suitable candidate materials for biomedical applications due to their mechanical properties and their confirmed biocompatibility. In biological environments, magnesium alloys biodegrade with kinetics that depend on the surrounding tissue, eliminating secondary surgical procedure of implant removal [53]. The desirable Young’s modulus of Mg alloys (41–45 GPa), which is close to the cortical bone (3–20 GPa), and the excellent ability of the Mg ions to promote bone regeneration make them attractive as orthopedic implants [54]. Currently, researchers are underway to improve bioresorbable cardiovascular stents based on Mg alloys, which are designed to provide short-term supporting structures and to combat coronary heart and peripheral artery diseases [55].
Soluble magnesium ions (Mg2+), hydroxide ions (OH−), and hydrogen gas (H2) are well known for being the primary magnesium corrosion products. Many studies have confirmed that Mg2+ ions are essential for living cells and the excess can be excreted in the urine without causing damage to excretory organs such as the liver or the kidney. However, the rapid corrosion rate of Mg-based alloys in physiological conditions promotes an intense hydrogen evolution [56]. Hydrogen gas is nontoxic and is easily diffusible, but excessive corrosion leads to the formation of undesirable gas bubbles (emphysema) in surrounding soft tissue. The rapid evolution of H2 bubbles can get accumulated and form gas pockets, leading to intensifying necrosis and inflammation within the living tissues [57]. On the other hand, depending on the type of the implant, the excessive corrosion leads to secondary problems. In the case of orthopedic implants, an excessive corrosion can produce early losing mechanical strength properties avoiding the implant assist the fracture of the bone firmly at least in the early healing stages (typically 12 weeks) [58]. Moreover, the uncontrollable and uneven degradation behavior for a vascular implant will produce huge amounts of hydrogen within a short time disfavoring the healing of neovascularization tissues which easily result in restenosis. Studies have shown that the critical period of vascular healing normally ends 3 months after implantation [58].
Both orthopedic and vascular magnesium implants look promising, but these drawbacks limit their applications. Thus, the use of Mg alloys as biodegradable implants is still in its infancy due to its high susceptibility to corrosion.
Since, silane coatings have demonstrated excellent biocompatibility, favorable cellular adhesion, and proper protein absorption, they have been employed as bio-functional coatings to control the high in-vivo degradation rate of Mg and its alloys. It has also been reported that organofunctional silane coatings do not cause adverse tissue reactions, and the degradation product (Si(OH)4) produced into the body can be easily eliminated through the renal system. For this reason, some researchers have developed different compositions of organo-inorganic silane coatings for this application. For instance, Gaur et al. [59] studied the effect of a phosphonatosilane coating, trying to improve the corrosion resistance of Mg-6Zn-Ca magnesium alloy in a physiological environment. In this study, the authors used a phosphonate (silane diethylphosphatoethyltriethoxysilane (DEPETES)) and bis sulfur silane (bis-[3-(triethoxysilyl) propyl] tetrasulfide (BTESPT)) precursors to synthetize the silane coating, considering that both precursors were found to be nontoxic. The in-vitro investigation showed that the silane coating provided significant and durable corrosion resistance. Moreover, the presence of hydrated magnesium phosphate was also identified after 216 h of immersion test in m-SBF; component reported to support osteoblast formation and tissue healing. Two years later, the same authors [60] reported the preparation of other silane coating composition obtained by using GPTMS and MTEOS to improve the in-vitro corrosion resistance and biocompatibility of the Mg6ZnCa alloy. The results demonstrated that the deposition of a silica coating obtained by combining both precursors slow down the dissolution of a biodegradable magnesium alloy in the early stages (280 h), enhancing cells growth on the coated specimen. Furthermore, the formation of magnesium/calcium phosphate on the surface of the Mg alloys after immersion time showed good bioactivity and osteo conductivity of the coating. The results suggested that the sol-gel coating developed for the Mg6ZnCa alloy is a promising solution for biomedical application such as bio-absorbable surgical skin staples (needs to be removed after 10–12 days of postsurgery), micro-clips (needs to degrade within 2 weeks), and pins used in fingers dislocation or fracture that are predicted to heal quickly.
To enhance the corrosion resistance of magnesium alloys, a modified epoxy-silane coating obtained by using GPTMS and diethylenetriamine (DETA) as organic cross-linker was also proposed by Zomorodian et al. [61]. Although hydrogen evolution, pH, and in-vitro cell culture tests were not carried out, the EIS data showed an improvement of the corrosion resistance properties in Hank’s solution associated with a dense and homogenous coating deposited on the Mg alloy. On the other hand, Castro et al. [62] also investigated the corrosion degradation rate of Mg alloys (AZ31B and AZ91D) by the deposition of two different silica sols prepared with and without colloidal silica particles for biodegradable implant materials. The results showed that the corrosion resistance behavior of Mg alloys, characterized in SBF using three different in-vitro tests: hydrogen evolution, pH variation, and potentiodynamic curves, enhanced after the deposition of the silane coating that contains nanoparticles as cross-linked network reinforcement (Figure 6).
Variation of hydrogen evolution as a function of immersion time in SBF solution for coated and uncoated AZ31B and AZ91D substrates; MTL coating corresponds to the silane coating that contains nanoparticles and TG to the silane coating without nanoparticles. (reprinted with permission from Ref. [
Recent studies consider the development of double nano-composite coatings [63], based on the first deposition of Mg(OH)2 or MgO enriched oxide layer and a subsequent deposition of a silane sol-gel coating, to achieve longer corrosion protection systems. Dou et al. [64] prepared double composite coatings using a conventional micro-arc oxidation process, and then the sol-gel technique. The in-vitro degradation performance of the composite coatings showed an improvement of the corrosion resistance properties by reducing the corrosion current density.
Different approaches have been considered to improve the biocorrosion resistance of the Mg alloys for cardiovascular stent application since it is a disease with high mortality and an increasing incidence [65]. For example, Liu et al. [66] reported the use of layer-by-layer self-assembly technique, based on the deposition of a first APTES-based silane coating followed by the deposition of a graphene oxide (GO) suspension. The results showed that the silane/GO composite coating improves the corrosion and wear resistance of Mg alloy, suggesting its use in biomedical fields as a vascular stent.
The biocompatibility of Mg alloys is determined by the toxicity of the released corrosion products and the interaction effect between metal surface and living tissues. Not all the studies mentioned in the previous section included in-vitro cell viability tests as complementary information, necessary to determine the response of the silane coatings deposited on Mg alloys.
Although AZ91D showed a better corrosion resistance performance with respect to AZ31B Mg alloys, the AZ91D shows lower biocompatibility and bioactivity due to its higher Al content. To improve the cyto-compatibility of AZ91 Mg alloys, Witecka et al. [67] studied the effect of the deposition of different silane coatings on its surface; ethyltriethoxysilane (S1), 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (S2), 3-isocyanatopyltriethoxysilane (S3), phenyltriethoxysilane (S4), and octadecyltriethoxysilane (S5). S1 was used to introduce a simple polysiloxane precursor to the substrate; S2 and S3 were selected to introduce positive and negative charges on the alloy surface, and finally, S4 and S5 were chosen to examine the π electrons and the long alkyl chain effect on the surface. Cell culture experiments showed that the cyto-compatibility was not affected by the surface modification. However, Silane S1 was the only system able to improve cell growth during 7 days of incubation. Because cyto-compatibility is a basic and important parameter in the design of silane coating to bio application, other strategies have been considered to improve the bioactivity of Mg alloys, the deposition of sol-gel derived bioactive glasses coatings being one of them. These coatings based on pure silica, SiO2-CaO-P2O5 or SiO2-CaO, have been shown the largest level of bioactivity based on their reaction rate and bone binding ability. The bone-bonding ability occurs through the development of a biological apatite layer when the materials are exposed to body fluids or simulated body fluids. In-vivo studies have shown that biological species are incorporated into the silica-rich and apatite layers. Consequently, coatings react with the physiological fluid for obtaining an adequate interfacial bonding with bone by forming hydroxyapatite layer (HA). Their main applications are focused on bone repair and regeneration in the field of tissue engineering. Regarding the synthesis, some attempts have been made to obtain bio-glass silane coatings [68, 69]. Recently, Omar et al. [70] synthesized two compositions of bioactive silica-glasses, 58S and 68S, by using tetramethyl orthosilicate (TMOS), methyltriethoxysilane (MTES) and calcium l-lactate hydrate (Figure 7).
Schematic representation of the deposition sol-gel glass-like bioactive sol for enhancing the implant performance of AZ91D magnesium alloy (reprinted with permission from [
The lactate was used to avoid the use of calcium nitrate as a precursor due to the presence of nitrate residuals in the coatings is not beneficial to the body. The results showed that both coatings showed a quick apatite formation, good corrosion resistance properties, good cell adhesion, and proliferation, representing a promising coating system for degradable AZ91D implants.
Other strategies considered in the synthesis of silane-coatings to potentially improve the biocompatibility of Mg alloys consisted of the incorporation of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles. Nikbakht et al. [71] synthetized a modified silane coating with hydroxyapatite nanoparticles to promote biocompatibility and bone healing through producing calcium phosphorus-rich corrosion products. The results showed that a correct amount of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles not only helped to optimize the barrier properties of the silane coating, but also improved cell growth, especially the MG-63 osteoblastic.
The initial interaction of biomaterials with the biological environment is based on the absorption of protein on the surface and the interaction with ions and water molecules to form various reactive interfaces. Understanding protein adsorption mechanisms, kinetics, and thermodynamics are essential to improve the design of silane biocompatible coatings [72]. Appropriate protein adsorption on the modified Mg surface alloys is essential for application in bone tissue regeneration and the effective integration of Mg implants. In relation to biomedical implants, such as cardiovascular stents, protein adsorption kinetics play a crucial role in the platelet adhesion process. Implanted biomaterials in contact with blood in vivo need to retain a low degree of platelet adhesion to prevent thrombosis, implant failure, and other complications [73]. A rapid adsorption of proteins might cause a higher number of platelet adhesion on the surface, which can trigger thrombus formation by platelet activation and ultimately result in blood coagulation. Considering that the protein adsorption can be roughly controlled through roughness and wettability, Majumder et al. [74] proposed the deposition of a hydrophobic silane-PMMA coating to improve the corrosion resistance and the hemo-compatibility nature of AE42 Mg alloys for cardiovascular stent applications. The results showed that an improvement in hydrophobicity resulted in a significant reduction of protein adsorption and hemolysis ratio, making it a favorable candidate for biodegradable stent application. Surface modification by the addition of Heparin (anticoagulant reagent) has also been considered to increase the thrombo-resistance of biomedical implants. Liu et al. [73] developed a biofunctionalized anticorrosive coating on Mg AZ31 alloy containing heparin reagent. The modified silane coating system reduced platelet adhesion on the surface, thus increasing its interest in biodegradable implant applications as cardiovascular stents.
On the other hand, bacterial infections or inflammations are one of the reasons for biomedical implants failure. Bacteria can form recalcitrant biofilms on implant surfaces, resisting conventional antibiotic treatments. As a consequence, the entire implant must be removed to allow an efficacious antibiotic treatment. Thus, it is necessary to find an effective local drug-releasing coating to simultaneously provide high anticorrosion and antibacterial ability for Mg alloys. Sol-gel coatings have attracted great attention since they offer the possibility to introduce antibiotics in the coating, and also to control the mechanism and kinetics of the drug release. Under this context, Xue et al. [75] designed a composite coating on AZ31 Mg alloy by depositing a drug-loaded coating obtained by crosslinking ciprofloxacin (CIP) (antibacterial drug) and polymethyltrimethoxysilane (PMTMS) as precursors. Cyto-compatibility and antibacterial performance of the coating were probed using in-vitro cytotoxicity tests (MTT), live/dead cell staining, and plate counting method. The results showed that the coating displayed a controllable long-term drug release ability against
This approach can be a promising alternative, but it is necessary to continue studying ways to shorten drug-release time by modifying the synthesis of the sol. The control of the sol-gel synthesis and processing parameters together with the selection of the precursors are key issues.
This chapter summarizes the advances of the silica sol-gel coating as a surface modification technique to control the corrosion of Mg and its alloys. The most important advantages of the sol-gel technique are the opportunity to introduce a wide range of alkoxysilane precursors and organic molecules in the synthesis for obtaining hybrid organic-inorganic sol-gel coatings with desirable cross-linking structure and good protective corrosion behavior. The organically modified sol-gel coatings provide the possibility to obtain thick, crack-free coatings with good corrosion performance. The hybrid films can be reinforced by doping with nanoparticles to obtain denser coatings, and with inhibitors to obtain active barrier protection. Although relevant advances have been made in recent years, some aspects related to the sol-gel technique on Mg alloys should be considered before obtaining a successful industrial application, especially for aerospace, automobile, and biomedical applications.
Since the corrosion behavior of sol-gel coatings depends on the synthesis parameters, organic-inorganic precursors, and the mechanical and chemical features of the comprising organic and inorganic networks, a variety of sol-gel coating with different compositions and cross-linked structures have been developed. However, the different protective properties and the service life between those coating on Mg alloys are still not known clearly. Therefore, systematic and long-term comparisons need to be conducted in future research to better understand the corrosion mechanism, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each coating. Furthermore, the kinetics of hydrolysis and condensation reactions, gelation kinetics, and curing process parameter should also be studied and considered to avoid cracks coating formation during the heat post-treatment. Sol-gel films treated by UV radiation at room temperature can form a denser sol-gel coating that can improve the corrosion resistance of alloys.
Although a sol-gel coating is a promising alternative, recent works show that the deposition of a single layer of sol-gel coating faces many difficulties and does not stop the corrosion of Mg alloys. On that basis, the combination of different deposition processes, such as anodization or PEO processes, and sol-gel technique could be more effective methods to mitigate the corrosion damage. However, different factors such as sealing pore effectiveness should be considered to reach a good compromise between stacking and anticorrosion properties. The preparation of efficient composite coatings for Mg-based alloys is still a huge challenge.
To achieve a practical application in the biomedical field, the design of sol-gel coatings should be more purposeful. For example, for bone implant applications, the hybrid coatings should be pro-osteogenesis and biocompatible. Moreover, the corrosion resistance studies of the silane coatings deposited on Mg alloys should be complemented with in-vitro cell viability tests to determine the bifunctionality response of the silane coatings.
However, many challenges need to be faced and solved, intelligent multilayer systems are promising alternatives to significantly increase the use of Mg alloys in many relevant applications, from corrosion protection to bioactive devices. Continues research is the best way to get them.
This chapter is a part of the dissemination activities of the project FunGlass, which has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement number: 739566.
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
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\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. 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Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. 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Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"26",type:"subseries",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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