Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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"Green chemistry" approaches are based on ecofriendly technologies, aiming to reduce or eliminate the use of solvents, or render them efficient and safer. Moreover, this scientific field is devoted to reduction or elimination of prevailing environmental and health threats, which typically accompany chemical products and traditional processes. The present book "Green Chemistry" contains 9 selected chapters, starting with a general introductory chapter on "green chemistry," and covers many recent applications and developments based on the principles of "green chemistry." This book is considered the appropriate way to communicate the advances in green materials and their applications to the scientific community. Chemists, scientists and researchers from related areas, and undergraduates involved in environmental issues and interested in approaches to improve the quality of life could find an inspiring and effective guide by reading this book.',isbn:"978-953-51-3848-8",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3847-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4025-2",doi:"10.5772/68007",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"green-chemistry",numberOfPages:190,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f33464ef8bb9839d75b674a0f8409c77",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Martin Koller",publishedDate:"February 28th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6067.jpg",numberOfDownloads:18815,numberOfWosCitations:24,numberOfCrossrefCitations:39,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:69,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:5,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:132,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 27th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 20th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 22nd 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 22nd 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 22nd 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/144691/images/system/144691.png",biography:"Hosam M. Saleh is a Professor of Radioactive Waste Management in the Radioisotope Department, Atomic Energy Authority, Egypt. He obtained an MSc and Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from Cairo University, Egypt. He has more than 25 years of experience in hazardous waste management with an emphasis on treatment and developing new matrixes for the immobilization of these wastes. He is also interested in studying innovative economic and environmentally friendly techniques for the management of hazardous and radioactive wastes. He has authored many peer-reviewed scientific papers and chapters and served as an editor of several books. He was selected among the top 2% of scientists in the world according to the Stanford University report for 2020 and 2021.",institutionString:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"15",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"14",institution:{name:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"218817",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Koller",slug:"martin-koller",fullName:"Martin Koller",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/218817/images/6932_n.png",biography:"Martin Koller is an experienced senior researcher in the field of biomediated polyhydroxyalkaoate (PHA) production, encompassing the design and development of continuous and discontinuous fermentation processes and novel downstream processing techniques for sustainable biopolymer recovery from microbial biomass. His research focus is on enhanced cost-efficiency of PHA production from surplus materials using both eubacteria and halophile archaea as whole cell biocatalysts.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Graz",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"497",title:"Green Chemistry",slug:"organic-chemistry-green-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"57200",title:"Introductory Chapter: Principles of Green Chemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71191",slug:"introductory-chapter-principles-of-green-chemistry",totalDownloads:2820,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Hosam El-Din Mostafa Saleh and M. Koller",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57200",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57200",authors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"},{id:"218817",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",surname:"Koller",slug:"martin-koller",fullName:"Martin Koller"}],corrections:null},{id:"57998",title:"Green Separation of Bioactive Natural Products Using Liquefied Mixture of Solids",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71755",slug:"green-separation-of-bioactive-natural-products-using-liquefied-mixture-of-solids",totalDownloads:2077,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bioactive natural products are secondary metabolites of plants and animals generated through various biological pathways. They are the main sources of new drugs, functional food and food additives. Since their contents in plant and animal tissues are extremely small compared to those of primary metabolites, the separations of bioactive principles from complex matrixes are often the inherent bottleneck in the utilization of bioactive natural products. A novel separation technique based on a liquefied mixture of solids at its eutectic compositions is presented in this chapter. The mixture can be prepared from natural primary metabolites and therefore can be considered as a green solvent. The separation of bioactive compounds (γ-oryzanol) from rice bran oil-based biodiesel using green methods with minimum energy requirement is discussed. Other applications for separations of alkaloid and phenolic compounds from their plant matrices are also presented. Different raw materials require different separation techniques due to the presence of different impurities, and the current trend is to use green methods with minimum energy requirement. This overview of recent technological advances, discussion of pertinent problems and prospect of current methodologies in the separation of bioactive natural products may provide a driving force for the development of novel separation techniques.",signatures:"Siti Zullaikah, Orchidea Rachmaniah, Adi Tjipto Utomo, Helda\nNiawanti and Yi Hsu Ju",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57998",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57998",authors:[{id:"190944",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Siti",surname:"Zullaikah",slug:"siti-zullaikah",fullName:"Siti Zullaikah"},{id:"191020",title:"Dr.",name:"Adi",surname:"Utomo",slug:"adi-utomo",fullName:"Adi Utomo"},{id:"191021",title:"Prof.",name:"Yi Hsu",surname:"Ju",slug:"yi-hsu-ju",fullName:"Yi Hsu Ju"},{id:"207289",title:"MSc.",name:"Orchidea",surname:"Rachmaniah",slug:"orchidea-rachmaniah",fullName:"Orchidea Rachmaniah"},{id:"220747",title:"MSc.",name:"Helda",surname:"Niawanti",slug:"helda-niawanti",fullName:"Helda Niawanti"}],corrections:null},{id:"57996",title:"Solventless Extraction of Essential Oil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72401",slug:"solventless-extraction-of-essential-oil",totalDownloads:2010,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Essential oil is one of an important concentrated liquid that possesses many physical, chemical and pharmacological properties. Extraction of essential is one of the main issues in the last decade. Conventional treatment consisting of hydrodistillation and steam distillation has many disadvantages and finds difficult to purify essential oil. Now, it is much easier to extract essential oil with the invention of new greener technologies that reduce the involvement of solvent, decrease the extraction time, energy and descent the interaction of the concentrated volatile liquid with atmospheric oxygen through the application of vacuum.",signatures:"Muhammad Shahzad Aslam, Muhammad Syarhabil Ahmad and\nSarwat Ali Raja",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57996",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57996",authors:[{id:"198257",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarwat",surname:"Raja",slug:"sarwat-raja",fullName:"Sarwat Raja"},{id:"220324",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Shahzad",surname:"Aslam",slug:"muhammad-shahzad-aslam",fullName:"Muhammad Shahzad Aslam"},{id:"220326",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Syarhabil",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"muhammad-syarhabil-ahmad",fullName:"Muhammad Syarhabil Ahmad"}],corrections:null},{id:"56702",title:"Green Chemistry and Synthesis of Anticancer Molecule",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70419",slug:"green-chemistry-and-synthesis-of-anticancer-molecule",totalDownloads:2175,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Green chemistry is a modern area of chemistry merged with chemical engineering methods. It highlighted the synthesis of molecules in a manner of using environment-friendly chemical reagents with low waste material for enhancing environmental performance which reduce the formation of hazard substances. Modern researches are trying to reduce the risk of human kind health and the environment of our world by doing magnificent work in the field of green chemistry. In the pharmaceutical field, green chemistry works very well with the formation of many drugs and it utilizes non-hazards, reproducible and environment-friendly solvents with low time and money costs by using catalyst, microwave, ultrasonic, solid phase and solvent-free synthesis. Until now, scientist has synthesized many anticancer molecules by using these modern green chemistry techniques. These compounds showed significant anticancer activities against many human cancer cell lines. In this chapter, we will cover different views and the recently published literature to summarize the role of green chemistry in the synthesis of anticancer compounds.",signatures:"Shagufta Perveen and Areej Mohammad Al-Taweel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56702",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56702",authors:[{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen"}],corrections:null},{id:"57226",title:"The Role of Green Solvents and Catalysts at the Future of Drug Design and of Synthesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71018",slug:"the-role-of-green-solvents-and-catalysts-at-the-future-of-drug-design-and-of-synthesis",totalDownloads:2425,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Green chemistry is getting extended in many researches and industry areas. Not only pharmaceutical companies but also the other chemical industries started to take a step for green chemistry due to its advantages such as decreasing of waste and cost. With this respect, we have already witnessed that pharmaceutical companies searched out for green protocol when manufactured the pharmaceuticals. Green chemistry strategies can be seen in solvents, catalysts, and the others. So, we have briefly discussed the green solvents and nanocatalysts in this chapter. We hope that this chapter gives a brief consideration of importance of green chemistry.",signatures:"Nurettin Menges",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57226",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57226",authors:[{id:"216037",title:"Dr.",name:"Nurettin",surname:"Menges",slug:"nurettin-menges",fullName:"Nurettin Menges"}],corrections:null},{id:"56734",title:"Ionic Liquids as Green Corrosion Inhibitors for Industrial Metals and Alloys",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70421",slug:"ionic-liquids-as-green-corrosion-inhibitors-for-industrial-metals-and-alloys",totalDownloads:2168,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Present chapter describes recent advances in the field of development of ionic liquids as green and sustainable corrosion inhibitors for metals and alloys. The present chapter has been divided into several sections and subsections. Recently, development of the green and sustainable technologies for the corrosion prevention is highly desirable due to increasing ecological awareness and strict environmental regulations. In the last two decades, corrosion inhibition using ionic liquids has attracted considerable attention due to its interesting properties such as low volatility, non-inflammability, non-toxic nature, high thermal and chemical stability and high adorability. Several types of ionic liquids have been developed as “green corrosion inhibitors” for different metals and alloys such as mild steel, aluminum, copper, zinc, and magnesium in several electrolytic media. The ionic liquids are promising, noble, green and sustainable candidates to replace the traditional volatile corrosion inhibitors.",signatures:"Chandrabhan Verma, Eno E. Ebenso and Mumtaz Ahmad Quraishi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56734",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56734",authors:[{id:"35005",title:"Prof.",name:"Eno",surname:"Ebenso",slug:"eno-ebenso",fullName:"Eno Ebenso"},{id:"207838",title:"Prof.",name:"Mumtaz",surname:"Quraishi",slug:"mumtaz-quraishi",fullName:"Mumtaz Quraishi"},{id:"215227",title:"Dr.",name:"Chandrabhan",surname:"Verma",slug:"chandrabhan-verma",fullName:"Chandrabhan Verma"}],corrections:null},{id:"58505",title:"Nanoscale Zero Valent Iron for Environmental Cadmium Metal Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72737",slug:"nanoscale-zero-valent-iron-for-environmental-cadmium-metal-treatment",totalDownloads:1523,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the course of developing methods to treat heavy metal contaminants in wastewater, nanoscale zerovalent iron (nZVI) has been found to be an alternative approach. This nanoparticle has been used to remove metals such as Cr6+, Cu2+, Pb2+, Ba2+, As3+, As5+, and Co2+ from aqueous solutions. Iron nanoparticles are useful for decontamination purposes due to their smaller size, surface area-to-weight ratio, and capacity to remove groundwater contaminants. The large specific surface area of the iron nanoparticles further fosters enhanced reactivity for the transformation of environmental pollutants. Because of their smaller size, nanoscale-based iron materials are much more reactive than conventional iron powders, and they can be suspended in slurry and pumped straight to the contaminated site. The ZVI is often applied for the remediation of wastewater or groundwater with several kinds of reducible contaminants, which are near its surface reduction potential. This chapter seeks to present the efficiency of zerovalent iron nanoparticles (nZVI) to remedy the cadmium ion pollution in water as well as the use of the remediation product in photoelectrochemical devices.",signatures:"Keyla T. Soto-Hidalgo and Carlos R. Cabrera",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58505",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58505",authors:[{id:"31314",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Cabrera",slug:"carlos-cabrera",fullName:"Carlos Cabrera"},{id:"220024",title:"Dr.",name:"Keyla",surname:"Soto Hidalgo",slug:"keyla-soto-hidalgo",fullName:"Keyla Soto Hidalgo"}],corrections:null},{id:"57515",title:"The Utility of the Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) in Tracking Implementation and Environmental Impact of Industrial Green Chemistry Practices in the United States",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70716",slug:"the-utility-of-the-toxic-release-inventory-tri-in-tracking-implementation-and-environmental-impact-o",totalDownloads:1697,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Toxics Release Inventory is a rich data source with nearly 30 years of reported data from industrial facilities located in the United States. Annually, these facilities report on their chemical waste management practices, including the quantities they release to air, water, and land; treat; combust for energy recovery; or recycle. Facilities are also required to disclose any green chemistry or other pollution prevention practices, and have the option to provide additional details on these practices or on barriers they encounter in implementing such practices. The Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) provides a means by which a facility’s or industry sector’s implementation of green chemistry practices can be tracked, and the impact that these practices have on environmental performance. This chapter describes analytical options for tracking implementation of green chemistry practices and assessing the environmental impact of such practices. Key TRI data elements are highlighted as well as where to obtain the information.",signatures:"Sandra Duque Gaona",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57515",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57515",authors:[{id:"207135",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Sandra",surname:"Gaona",slug:"sandra-gaona",fullName:"Sandra Gaona"}],corrections:null},{id:"58581",title:"Green Approach in Click Chemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72928",slug:"green-approach-in-click-chemistry",totalDownloads:1931,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of the topic on click chemistry is used to synthesize various derivatives of 1, 2, 3-triazol-1-yl piperazine, 1, 2, 3-triazol-1-yl quinoxaline, one pot 1,2,3-triazole and bistriazole. These various synthesized compounds were biologically active such as antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, anticancer, antiviral, anti HIV and antitubercular activates. The heterocyclic compounds which are pharmacological active were synthesized by the Cu (I)-catalyzed Huisgen 1, 3-dipolar cycloaddition is a major example based on the click chemistry philosophy. The click chemistry in a broad sense is about using easier reactions to make compounds for certain functions of drugs. The click chemistry used as a green synthesis, because it allows the basic principles of green chemistry given by Anastas and Warner.",signatures:"Sachin P. Shirame and Raghunath B. Bhosale",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58581",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58581",authors:[{id:"220217",title:"Dr.",name:"Sachin",surname:"Shirame",slug:"sachin-shirame",fullName:"Sachin Shirame"},{id:"221368",title:"Dr.",name:"Raghunath",surname:"Bhosale",slug:"raghunath-bhosale",fullName:"Raghunath Bhosale"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6534",title:"Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7573426a162c18f39acc575c1e69f67",slug:"heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Refaat F. Aglan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6534.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. 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1. Introduction
In order to tackle the development of advanced nuclear technologies, the reliability of passive systems has become an important subject and area under discussion, for their extensive use in new and advanced nuclear power plants, (NEA, 2002), in combination with active safety or operational systems.
Following the IAEA definitions, [1], a passive component does not need any external input or energy to operate and it relies only upon natural physical laws (e.g. gravity, natural convection, conduction, etc.) and/or on inherent characteristics (properties of materials, internally stored energy, etc.) and/or ‘intelligent’ use of the energy that is inherently available in the system (e.g. decay heat, chemical reactions etc.).
The term "passive" identifies a system which is composed entirely of passive components and structures or a system which uses active components in a very limited way to initiate subsequent passive operation. That is why passive systems are expected to combine among others, the advantages of simplicity, a decrease in the need for human interaction and a reduction or avoidance of external electrical power or signals. These attractions may lead to increased safety and acceptability of nuclear power generation if the detractions can be reduced.
Besides the open feedback on economic competitiveness, special aspects like lack of data on some phenomena, missing operating experience over the wide range of conditions, and driving forces which are smaller - in most cases - than in active safety systems, must be taken into account: the less effective performance as compared to active safety systems has a strong impact on the reliability assessment of passive safety systems.
A categorisation has been developed by the IAEA in [1] distinguishing:
a.physical barriers and static structures (e.g. pipe wall, concrete building).
This category is characterized by:
no signal inputs of "intelligence", no external power sources or forces,
no moving mechanical parts,
no moving working fluid.
Examples of safety features included in this category are physical barriers against the release of fission products, such as nuclear fuel cladding and pressure boundary systems; hardened building structures for the protection of a plant against seismic and or other external events; core cooling systems relying only on heat radiation and/or conduction from nuclear fuel to outer structural parts, with the reactor in hot shutdown; and static components of safety related passive systems (e.g., tubes, pressurizers, accumulators, surge tanks), as well as structural parts (e.g., supports, shields).
b.moving working fluids (e.g. cooling by free convection).
This category is characterized by:
no signal inputs of "intelligence", no external power sources or forces,
no moving mechanical parts, but
moving working fluids.
Examples of safety features included in this category are reactor shutdown/emergency cooling systems based on injection of borated water produced by the disturbance of a hydrostatic equilibrium between the pressure boundary and an external water pool; reactor emergency cooling systems based on air or water natural circulation in heat exchangers immersed in water pools (inside containment) to which the decay heat is directly transferred; containment cooling systems based on natural circulation of air flowing around the containment walls, with intake and exhaust through a stack or in tubes covering the inner walls of silos of underground reactors; and fluidic gates between process systems, such as "surge lines" of Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs).
c.moving mechanical parts (e.g. check valves).
This category is characterized by:
no signal inputs of "intelligence", no external power sources or forces; but
moving mechanical parts, whether or not moving working fluids are also present.
Examples of safety features included in this category are emergency injection systems consisting of accumulators or storage tanks and discharge lines equipped with check valves; overpressure protection and/or emergency cooling devices of pressure boundary systems based on fluid release through relief valves; filtered venting systems of containments activated by rupture disks; and mechanical actuators, such as check valves and spring-loaded relief valves, as well as some trip mechanisms (e.g., temperature, pressure and level actuators).
d.external signals and stored energy (passive execution/active actuation, e.g. scram systems).
This category addresses the intermediary zone between active and passive where the execution of the safety function is made through passive methods as described in the previous categories except that internal intelligence is not available to initiate the process. In these cases an external signal is permitted to trigger the passive process. To recognize this departure, this category is referred to as "passive execution/active initiation".
Examples of safety features included in this category are emergency core cooling and injections systems based on gravity that initiate by battery-powered electric or electro-pneumatic valves; emergency reactor shutdown systems based on gravity or static pressure driven control rods.
According to this classification, safety systems are classified into the higher categories of passivity when all their components needed for safety are passive. Systems relying on no external power supply but using a dedicated, internal power source (e.g., a battery) to supply an active component are not subject to normal, externally caused failures and are included in the lowest category of passivity. This kind of system has active and passive characteristics at different times, for example, the active opening of a valve initiates subsequent passive operation by natural convection.
Inclusion of failure modes and reliability estimates of passive components for all systems is recommended in probabilistic safety assessment (PSA)
In the following PSA (Probabilistic Safety Assessment) and PRA (Probabilistic Risk Assessment) are utilized indifferently
studies. Consequently the reliability assessment of passive safety systems, defined as the probability to perform the requested mission to achieve the generic safety function, becomes an essential step.
Notwithstanding that passive systems are credited a higher reliability with respect to active ones, – because of the smaller unavailability due to hardware failure and human error -, there is always a nonzero likelihood of the occurrence of physical phenomena leading to pertinent failure modes, once the system comes into operation. In fact the deviations of the natural forces or physical principles, upon which they rely, from the expected conditions can impair the performance of the system itself. This remark is especially applicable to type B passive systems (i.e. implementing moving working fluids) named thermal-hydraulic passive systems, due to the small engaged driving forces and the thermal-hydraulic phenomena affecting the system performance.
Indeed, while in the case of passive A systems the development of the structural reliability analysis methodology can be carried out with the application of the principles of the probabilistic structural mechanics theory, and operating experience data can be inferred for the reliability assessment of passive C and D components, there is yet no agreed approach as far as passive B systems are concerned.
In fact, such passive safety systems in their designs rely on natural forces, such as gravity or natural convection, to perform their accident prevention and mitigation functions once actuated and started: these driving forces are not generated by external power sources (e.g., pumped systems), as is the case in operating reactor designs. Because the magnitude of the natural forces, which drive the operation of passive systems, is relatively small, counter-forces (e.g. friction) can be of comparable magnitude and cannot be ignored as it is generally the case of systems including pumps. Moreover, there are considerable uncertainties associated with factors on which the magnitude of these forces and counter forces depends (e.g. values of heat transfer coefficients and pressure losses). In addition, the magnitude of such natural driving forces depends on specific plant conditions and configurations which could exist at the time a system is called upon to perform its safety function. All these aspects affect the thermal-hydraulic (T-H) performance of the passive system.
Consequently, a lot of efforts have been devoted mostly to the development of consistent approaches and methodologies aimed at the reliability assessment of the T-H passive systems, with reference to the evaluation of the implemented physical principles (gravity, conduction, etc.). For example, the system fault tree in case of passive systems would consist of basic events, representing failure of the physical phenomena and failure of activating devices: the use of thermal-hydraulic analysis related information for modeling the passive systems should be considered in the assessment process.
The efforts conducted so far to deal with the passive safety systems reliability, have raised an amount of open issues to be addressed in a consistent way, in order to endorse the proposed approaches and to add credit to the underlying models and the eventual reliability figures, resulting from their application. In fact the applications of the proposed methodologies are to a large extent dependent upon the assumptions underlying the methods themselves. At the international level, for instance, IAEA recently coordinated a research project, denoted as “Natural Circulation Phenomena, Modelling and Reliability of Passive Systems” (2004-2008), [2,3], while another coordinated research project on “Development of Methodologies for the Assessment of Passive Safety System Performance in Advanced Reactors” (2008-2011) is currently underway: while focus of the former project has been the natural circulation and related phenomena, the objective of the latter program is to determine a common analysis-and-test method for reliability assessment of passive safety system performance. This chapter provides the insights resulting from the analysis on the technical issues associated with assessing the reliability of passive systems in the context of nuclear safety and probabilistic safety analysis, and a viable path towards the implementation of the research efforts in the related areas is delineated as well. Focus on these issues is very important since it is the major goal of the international research activities (e.g. IAEA) to strive to reach a common consensus about the different proposed approaches. The chapter is organized as follows: after an overview on passive safety systems being implemented in the design of innovative reactors and an introduction on the main components of Probabilistic Safety Assessment approach, at first the current available methodologies are illustrated and compared, the open issues coming out from their analysis are identified and for which one of them the state of the art and the outlook is presented; the relative importance of each of them within the evaluation process is presented as well.
2. Passive systems implementation in advanced reactor designs
Several advanced water cooled reactor designs incorporate passive safety systems based on natural circulation, as described in [2,3]: some of the most relevant design concepts for natural circulation systems are described hereafter and namely as regards AP600/AP1000, ESBWR and ABWR designs.
It is important to note that the incorporation of systems based on natural circulation to achieve plant safety and economic goals is being extended also to Generation-IV reactor concepts: however due to the early stage of the design - many systems are not yet established - they are not explicitly addressed.
2.1. AP600/AP1000 Passive Residual Heat Removal systems (PRHR)
Figure 1 presents a schematic that describes the connections of the primary system passive safety systems.
Figure 1.
Passive Safety Systems used in the AP600/AP1000 Designs
The AP600/AP1000 passive safety systems consist of:
A Passive Residual Heat Removal (PRHR) System
Two Core Make-up Tanks (CMTs)
A Four Stage Automatic Depressurization System (ADS)
Two Accumulator Tanks (ACC)
An In-containment Refueling Water Storage Tank, (IRWST)
A Lower Containment Sump (CS)
Passive Containment Cooling System (PCS)
The PRHR implemented in the Westinghouse AP1000 design consists of a C-Tube type heat exchanger in the water-filled In-containment Refuelling Water Storage Tank (IRWST) as shown in the schematic given in Figure 2. The PRHR provides primary coolant heat removal via a natural circulation loop. Hot water rises through the PRHR inlet line attached to one of the hot legs. The hot water enters the tube sheet in the top header of the PRHR heat exchanger at full system pressure and temperature. The IRWST is filled with cold borated water and is open to containment heat removal from the PRHR heat exchanger occurs by boiling on the outside surface of the tubes. The cold primary coolant returns to the primary loop via the PRHR outline line that is connected to the steam generator lower head.
Figure 2.
AP1000 passive residual heat removal systems (PRHR)
2.2. ESBWR (Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor) Isolation Condenser System (ICS)
During a Loss of Coolant Accident (LOCA), the reactor shuts down and the Reactor Pressure Vessel (RPV) is isolated by closing the main steam line isolation valves. The ICS removes decay heat after any reactor isolation. In other words, the ICS passively removes sensible and core decay heat from the reactor when the normal heat removal system is unavailable. Decay heat removal limits further increases in steam pressure and keeps the RPV pressure below the safety set point. The arrangement of the IC heat exchanger is shown in Figure 3.
The ICS consists of four independent loops, each containing two heat exchanger modules that condense steam inside the tube and transfers heat by heating/evaporating water in the IC pool, which is vented to the atmosphere. This transferring mechanism from IC tubes to the surrounding IC pool water is accomplished by natural convection, and no forced circulation equipment is required.
The ICS is initiated automatically by any of the following signals: high reactor pressure, main steam line isolation valve (MSIV) closure, or an RPV water level signal. To operate the ICS, the IC condensate return valve is opened whereupon the standing condensate drains into the reactor and the steam water interface in the IC tube bundle moves downward below the lower headers.
Figure 3.
Isolation condenser arrangement
2.3. ESBWR Passive Containment Cooling System (PCCS)
The PCCS is a passive system which removes the decay heat released to the containment and maintains the containment within its pressure limits for design basis accidents such as a LOCA. The schematic of the PCCS is shown in Figure 4. The PCC heat exchangers receive a steam-gas mixture from the Dry Well (DW), condense the steam and return the condensate to the RPV via the Gravity Driven Cooling System GDCS pools. The non condensable gas is vented to the Wet Well (WW) gas space through a vent line submerged in the Suppression Pool (SP). The venting of the non condensable gas is driven by the differential pressure between the DW and WW. The PCCS condenser, which is open to the containment, receives a steam-gas mixture supply directly from the DW. Therefore, the PCCS operation requires no sensing, control, logic or power actuated devices for operation. The PCCS consists of six PCCS condensers. Each PCCS condenser is made of two identical modules and each entire PCCS condenser two-module assembly is designed for 11 MWt capacity. The condenser condenses steam on the tube side and transfers heat to the water in the IC/PCC pool. The evaporated steam in the IC/PCC pool is vented to the atmosphere. PCCS condensers are located in the large open IC/PCC pool, which are designed to allow full use of the collective water inventory.
Figure 4.
Passive containment cooling condenser arrangement
2.4. ABWR (Advanced Boiling Water Reactor) passive reactor cooling system and passive containment cooling system
The passive heat removal system (PHRS) consists of two dedicated systems (Figure 5, right) namely the passive reactor cooling system (PRCS: the same as Isolation condenser) and the passive containment cooling system (PCCS), that use a common heat sink pool above the containment allowing a one-day grace period, with a 4*50% redundancy (Figure 5, left). These passive systems not only cover beyond DBA condition, but also provide in-depth heat removal backup for the RHR.
In addition, they provide the overpressure protection safety function, practically excluding the necessity of containment venting before and after core damage. Figure 6 shows PCCS functional schematic and an example of containment pressure transient following typical low pressure core melt scenario.
Figure 5.
ABWR Passive heat removal system
Figure 6.
Example of containment pressure transient following typical low pressure core melt scenario.
3. Overview of PSA
PSA methodology widely used in the nuclear power industry is deemed helpful to the safety assessment of the facility and along the correspondent licensing process: probabilistic safety assessment can provide insights into safety and identify measures for informing designers of the safety of the plant.
The first comprehensive application of the PSA dates back to 1975, to the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission\'s (U.S. NRC) Reactor Safety Study [4]. Since that pioneering study, there has been substantial methodological development, and PSA techniques have become a standard tool in the safety evaluation of the nuclear power plants (NPPs) and industrial installations in general. Due to historical reasons, the PSA sometimes is called PRA.
As the most important area of PSA projects remains nuclear power plants, mainly due to the specific features of the nuclear installations, three levels of PSA have evolved:
Level 1:The assessment of plant failures leading to core damage and the estimation of core damage frequency. A Level 1 PSA provides insights into design weaknesses and ways of preventing core damage. In the case of other industrial assessments, Level 1 PSA provides estimates of the accidents frequency and the main contributors.
Level 2: As possible releases are additionally protected by containment in most NPPs, PSA at this response and severe accident management possibilities. The results obtained in Level 1 are the basis for Level 2 quantification. In the case of other industrial assessments, Level 2 PSA might be fully covered by Level 1, as containment function is rather unique feature and is not common in other industries.
Level 3: The assessment of off-site consequences leading to estimates of risks to the public. Level 3 incorporates results om both previous levels.
Level1 PSA is the most important level and creates the background for further risk assessment, therefore it will be presented in detail. The structure of the other levels is much more application specific, and will be discussed only in general.
The methodology is based on systematically: 1) postulating potential accident scenarios triggered by an initiating event (IE), 2) identifying the systems acting as “defences” against these scenarios, 3) decomposing the systems into components, associating the failure modes and relative probabilities, 4) assessing the frequency of the accident scenarios. Two elements of the PSA methodology typically stand out:
The event tree (ET) which is used to model the accident scenarios: it represents the main sequences of functional success and failure of safety systems appointed to cope with the initiating events and the consequences of each sequence. These consequences, denoted also as end states, are identified either as a safe end state or an accident end state.
The fault tree (FT) which documents the systematic, deductive analysis of all the possible causes for the failure of the required function within an accident scenario modelled by the ET. A FT analysis is performed for each of the safety systems, required in response to the IE.
Assigning the safe end state to a sequence means that the scenario has been successfully terminated and undesired consequences have not occurred. In contrast the accident end state means that the sequence has resulted in undesired consequences.
Synthetically, the methodology embraced for the analysis consists of the following major tasks:
identification of initiating events or initiating event groups of accident sequences: each initiator is defined by a frequency of occurrence;
systems analysis: identification of functions to be performed in response to each initiating events to successfully prevent plant damage or to mitigate the consequences and identification of the correspondent plant systems that perform these functions (termed front-line systems): for each system the probability of failure is assessed, by fault tree model;
accident sequences development by constructing event trees for each initiating event or initiating event groups;
accident sequences analysis to assess the frequencies of all relevant accident sequences;
identification of dominant sequences on a frequency-consequence base, i.e. the ones presenting the most severe consequences to the personnel, the plant, the public and the environment and definition of the reference accident scenarios to be further analysed through deterministic transient analysis (for instance by t-h code simulation), in order to verify the fulfilment of the safety criteria. Consequences in the case of Level 1 PSA of NPPs are usually defined as degrees of reactor core damage, including \'safe\' state and \'severe\' accident state.
One of the main issues encountered in probabilistic analysis concerns the availability of pertinent data for the quantification of the risk, which eventually raises a large uncertainty in the results achieved. Usually these data are accessible from consolidated data bases (e.g. IAEA), resulting from the operational experience of the plants.
They pertain, for instance, to component failure rates, component probability on demand, initiating event frequency: for this reason within a PSA study usually an uncertainty analysis, in addition to a sensitivity analysis, is required in order to add credit to the model and to assess if sequences have been correctly evaluated on the probabilistic standpoint.
Event trees are used for the graphical and logical presentation of the accident sequences. An example of an event tree is shown in Figure 7. The logical combinations of success/failure conditions of functions or systems (usually safety systems, also called front-line systems) in the event tree are modelled by the fault tree.
Figure 7.
Example of an event tree
A fault tree logically combines the top event (e.g. complete failure of a support system) and the causes for that event (e.g. equipment failure, operator error etc.). An example of the fault tree is shown in Figure 8. The fault tree mainly consists of the basic events (all possible causes of the top event that are consistent with the level of detail of the study) and logical gates (OR, AND, M out of N and other logical operations). Other modelling tools, like common cause failures, house or area events are also used in the fault trees. All front-line and support systems are modelled by the fault trees and then combined in the event trees depending on the initiating event.
Figure 8.
Example of a fault tree
A fault tree is capable to include rather special cases, usually identified in complex systems. These include system and components dependencies, called common cause failures (simultaneous failures of several components due to the same reason), area events (usually fire, flood etc., which damages groups of components in certain rooms), human actions (operator errors or mitigation actions).
The PSA is a powerful tool that can be used in many different ways to assess, understand and manage risk. Its primarily objectives are the following:
estimate risk level of the facility,
identify dominant event sequences affecting safety of the facility,
identify systems, components and human actions important for safety,
assess important dependencies (among systems or man-machine interactions),
provide decision support in various application areas.
The growing area of PSA use is extensive support of probabilistic results in risk management and decision-making processes. The main areas of the PSA applications are assessment of design modifications and back-fitting, risk informed optimization of the Technical Specifications, accident management, emergency planning and others. Several modern tools of risk management are also based on the PSA model, such as risk monitoring, precursor analysis and others.
Despite its popularity among the risk assessment tools, the PSA has a number of imitations and drawbacks. The main limitations of the PSA model are the following:
Binary representation of the component state. Only two states are analyzed: failed state or fully functioning state. However, this is not always realistic, as intermediate states are also possible. The same limitation exists for the redundant systems with certain success criteria - system is in failed state (success criteria is not satisfied) or in full power. The intermediate states for redundant systems are even more important.
Independence. In most cases, the components are assumed to be independent (except modelled by CCF), however there are many sources of dependencies, not treated by the model.
Aging effect. The aging effect is ignored because of the constant failure rate assumption. The only conservative possibility to treat the aging impact is to perform sensitivity study.
Time treatment. The FT/ET model is not capable to treat time explicitly during the accident progression. This is one of the major drawbacks of the methodology. In realistic systems, many parameters and functions depend on time and this is not encountered in the model and only approximate chronological order is assumed.
Uncertainty of the calculations. Uncertainties are inevitable in the PSA results and calculations and therefore direct treatment of the quantitative PSA estimates might be misleading. Due to the fact of uncertainties, the qualitative PSA results (identification of dominant accident sequences, comparison of different safety modifications) are of greater importance than quantitative.
4. Passive system unavailability model
The reliability of a passive system refers to the ability of the system to carry out a safety function under the prevailing conditions when required and addresses mainly the related performance stability.
In general the reliability of passive systems should be seen from two main aspects:
systems/components reliability (e.g. piping, valves), as, for instance, the failure to start-up the system operation (e.g. drain valve failure to open)
physical phenomena reliability, which addresses mainly the natural circulation stability, and the proneness of the system to the failure is dependent on the boundary conditions and the mechanisms needed for maintaining the intrinsic phenomena rather than on component malfunctions.
These two kinds of system malfunction are to to be considered as ET headings, to be assessed by specific FT components, as shown in figures 9 and 10.
Figure 9.
Event tree development
Figure 10.
Fault tree model
The first facet calls for well-engineered safety components with at least the same level of reliability of the active ones.
The second aspect is concerned with the way the physical principle (gravity and density difference) operate and depends on the surrounding conditions related to accident development in terms of thermal hydraulic parameters evolution (i.e. characteristic parameters as flow rate and exchanged heat flux). This could require not a unique unreliability figure, but the unreliability to be re evaluated for each sequence following an accident initiator, or at least for a small group of bounding accident sequences, enveloping the ones chosen upon similarity of accident progress and expected consequences: with this respect thermal hydraulic analysis of the accident is helpful to estimate the evolution of the parameters during the accident progress.
First step of the analysis is the identification of the failure modes affecting the natural circulation: for this scope two well structured commonly used qualitative hazard analysis, as Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) and HAZard and OPerability analysis (HAZOP), specifically tailored on the topic, by considering the phenomenology typical of natural circulation, are adopted.
This analysis concerns both mechanical components (e.g. valve, piping, heat exchanger) of the system and the natural circulation itself, as “virtual” component and the system under investigation is the aforementioned Isolation Condenser.
FMEA is a bottom-up procedure conducted at component level by which each failure mode in a system is investigated in terms of failure causes, preventive actions on causes, consequences on the system, corrective/preventive actions to mitigate the effects on the system, while the HAZOP procedure considers any parameters characteristic of the system (among pressure, temperature, flow rate, heat exchanged through the HX, opening of the drain valve) and by applying a set of “guide” words, which imply a deviation from the nominal conditions as for instance undesired decrease or increase, determines the consequences of operating conditions outside the design intentions. FMEA and HAZOP analysis are shown in Table 1 and 2 respectively.
The analysis points out several factors leading to disturbances in the Isolation Condenser system; the list of these includes:
•Unexpected mechanical and thermal loads, challenging the primary boundary integrity
HX plugging
Mechanical component malfunction, i.e. drain valve
Non-condensable gas build-up
Heat exchange process reduction: surface oxidation, thermal stratification, piping layout, etc.
Finally a set of critical parameters direct indicators of the failure of the system is identified; these include:
Non-condensable fraction
Undetected leakage
Valve closure area in the discharge line
Heat loss
Piping layout
HX plugged pipes
Table 1.
FMEA Table for the Isolation Condenser System
Table 2.
HAZOP Table for the Isolation Condenser System
Each of these failure mode driving parameters is examined to determine the expected failure probability by defining the range and the probability distribution function pertaining to the parameter. These failure characteristics are then used to develop a probabilistic model to predict the natural circulation failure.
As stated before FT technique seems to be the most suitable mean to quantify the passive system unavailability, once introduced the failure modes in the form of critical parameters elementary basic events, linked following the Boolean algebra rules (AND et OR), or in the form of sub-fault trees. However the introduction of passive safety systems into an accident scenario, in the fashion of a safety or front line system, deserves particular attention. The reason is that its reliability figure depends more on the phenomenological nature of occurrence of the failure modes rather than on the classical component mechanical and electrical faults. This makes the relative assessment process different as regards the system model commonly adopted in the fault tree approach as depicted before.
In fact, since the failure of the physical process is addressed, the conventional failure model associated with the basic events (i.e. exponential, e–λt, λ failure rate, t mission time), commonly used for component failure model, is not applicable: each pertinent basic event will be characterized by defined parameters driving the failure mechanisms - e.g. non-condensable fraction, leak rate, partial opening of the isolation valve, heat exchanger plugged pipes, etc. - and the associated failure criterion. Thus each basic event model pertaining to the relevant failure mode requires the assignment of both the probability distribution and range of the correspondent parameter and the definition of the critical interval defining the failure (for example failure for non-condensable fraction >x%, leak rate > x gr./sec or crack size > x cm2 and so on).
In order to evaluate the overall probability of failure of the system, the single failure probabilities are combined according to:
Pet= 1.0−((1.0− Pe1)*(1.0− Pe2)*...*(1.0− Pen))E1
(1)
where:
Pet overall probability of failure
Pe1 through Pen individual probabilities of failure pertaining to each failure mode, assuming mutually non-exclusive independent events
The failure model relative to each single basic event is given by:
Pei=∫ pi(x) dx x>xoE2
(2)
pi(x)probability distribution function of the parameter x
xothreshold value according to the failure criterion
It’s worth noting that the assumed failure criterion, based on the failure threshold for each path, implies the neglecting of the “intermediate” modes of operation of the system or equivalently the degraded performance of the system (up to the failure point): this gives credit for a passive system that “partially works” and has failed for its intended function but provides some operation. This operation could be sufficient to prolong the window for opportunity to recover a failed system, for instance through redundancy configuration, and ultimately prevent or arrest core degradation.
Once the probabilistic distributions of the parameters are assigned, the reliability of the system can be directly obtained from (1) once a failure criterion is assigned and the single failure probabilities are evaluated through (2): this point is being satisfied by assigning both the range and the probability distributions, basing on expert judgment and engineering assessment. In fact, as further illustrated, difficulties arise in assigning both the range and the probability density functions relative to the critical parameters defining the failure modes, in addition to the definition of a proper failure criterion, because of the lack of operational experience and data.
5. Methodologies characterization and comparative assessment
A very good description of the various methodologies proposed so far and currently available in the open literature is given in [5].
The earliest significant effort to quantify the reliability of such systems is represented by a methodology known as REPAS (Reliability Evaluation of Passive Systems), [6], which has been developed in late 1990s, cooperatively by ENEA, the University of Pisa, the Polytechnic of Milan and the University of Rome, that was later incorporated in the EU (European Union) RMPS (Reliability Methods for Passive Systems) project. This methodology is based on the evaluation of a failure probability of a system to carry out the desired function from the epistemic uncertainties of those physical and geometric parameters which can cause a failure of the system.
The RMPS methodology, described in [7], was developed to address the following problems: 1) Identification and quantification of the sources of uncertainties and determination of the important variables, 2) Propagation of the uncertainties through thermal-hydraulic (T-H) models and assessment of passive system unreliability and 3) Introduction of passive system unreliability in accident sequence analyses. In this approach, the passive system is modelled by a qualified T-H code (e.g. CATHARE, RELAP) and the reliability evaluation is based on results of code runs, whose inputs are sampled by Monte-Carlo (M-C) simulation. This approach provides realistic assessment of the passive system reliability, thanks to the flexibility of the M-C simulation, which adapts to T-H model complexity without resort to simplifying approximation. In order to limit the number of T-H code runs required by M-C simulation, alternative methods have been proposed such as variance reduction techniques, first and second order reliability methods and response surface methods. The RMPS methodology has been successfully applied to passive systems utilizing natural circulation in different types of reactors (BWR, PWR, and VVER). A complete example of application concerning the passive residual heat removal system of a CAREM reactor is presented in [8]. The RMPS methodology tackles also an important problem, which is the integration of passive system reliability in a PSA study. So far, in existing innovative nuclear reactor projects PSA’s, only passive system components failure probabilities are taken into account, disregarding the physical phenomena on which the system is based, such as the natural circulation. The first attempts performed within the framework of RMPS have taken into account the failures of the components of the passive system as well as the impairment of the physical process involved like basic events in static event tree as exposed in [7]. Two other steps have been identified after the development of the RMPS methodology where an improvement was desirable: the inclusion of a formal expert judgment (EJ) protocol to estimate distributions for parameters whose values are either sparse on not available, and the use of efficient sensitivity analysis techniques to estimate the impact of changes in the input parameter distributions on the reliability estimates.
R&D in the United States on the reliability of passive safety systems has not been as active at least until mid 2000. A few published papers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) have demonstrated their development of approaches to the issue. Their technique has examined TH uncertainties in passive cooling systems for Generation IV-type gas-cooled reactors. The MIT research on the reliability of passive safety systems has taken a similar approach but has focused on a different set of reactor technologies. Their research has examined thermal hydraulic uncertainties in passive cooling systems for Generation IV gas-cooled reactors, as described in [9,10]. Instead of post-design probabilistic risk analysis for regulatory purposes, the MIT research seeks to leverage the capabilities of probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) to improve the design of the reactor systems early in their development life cycle.
In addition to the RMPS approach, a number of alternative methodologies have been investigated for the reliability assessment of T-H passive systems.
Three different methodologies have been proposed by ENEA (Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development). In the first methodology [11], the failure probability is evaluated as the probability of occurrence of different independent failure modes, a priori identified as leading to the violation of the boundary conditions or physical mechanisms needed for successful passive system operation.
This approach based on independent failure modes introduces a high level of conservatism as it appears that the probability of failure of the system is relevantly high, because of the combination of various modes of failure as in a series system, where a single fault is sufficient to challenge the system performance. The correspondent value of probability of failure can be conservatively assumed as the upper bound for the unavailability of the system, within a sort of “parts-count” reliability estimation.
In the second, [12], modelling of the passive system is simplified by linking to the modelling of the unreliability of the hardware components of the system: this is achieved by identifying the hardware failures that degrade the natural mechanisms upon which the passive system relies and associating the unreliability of the components designed to assure the best conditions for passive function performance.
Thus, the probabilities of degraded physical mechanisms are reduced to unreliability figures of the components whose failures challenge the successful passive system operation. If, on the one hand, this approach may in theory represent a viable way to address the matter, on the other hand, some critical issues arise with respect to the effectiveness and completeness of the performance assessment over the entire range of possible failure modes that the system may potentially undergo and their association to corresponding hardware failures. In this simplified methodology, degradation of the natural circulation process is always related to failures of active and passive components, not acknowledging, for instance, any possibility of failure just because of unfavourable initial or boundary conditions. In addition, the fault tree model adopted to represent the physical process decomposition is used as a surrogate model to replace the complex T-H code that models the system behaviour. This decomposition is not appropriate to predict interactions among physical phenomena and makes it extremely difficult to realistically assess the impact of parametric uncertainty on the performance of the system.
The third approach is based on the concept of functional failure, within the reliability physics framework of load-capacity exceedance [7,13,14]. The functional reliability concept is defined as the probability of the passive system failing to achieve its safety function as specified in terms of a given safety variable crossing a fixed safety threshold, leading the load imposed on the system to overcome its capacity. In this framework, probability distributions are assigned to both safety functional requirement on a safety physical parameter (for example, a minimum threshold value of water mass flow required to be circulating through the system for its successful performance) and system state (i.e., the actual value of water mass flow circulating), to reflect the uncertainties in both the safety thresholds for failure and the actual conditions of the system state. Thus the mission of the passive system defines which parameter values are considered a failure by comparing the corresponding pdfs according to defined safety criteria. The main drawback in the last method devised by ENEA lies in the selection and definition of the probability distributions that describe the characteristic parameters, based mainly on subjective/engineering judgment.
Every one of three methods devised by ENEA shares with the main RMPS approach the issue related to the uncertainties affecting the system performance assessment process. With respect to the RMPS a greater simplicity is introduced, although detrimental to the relevance of the approaches themselves: this is particularly relevant as far as the approach based on hardware components failure is concerned.
Finally a different approach is followed in the APSRA (Assessment of Passive System ReliAbility) methodology developed by BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, India), see [15]. In this approach, a failure surface is generated by considering the deviation of all those critical parameters, which influence the system performance. Then, the causes of deviation of these parameters are found through root diagnosis. It is attributed that the deviation of such physical parameters occurs only due to a failure of mechanical components such as valves, control systems, etc. Then, the probability of failure of a system is evaluated from the failure probability of these mechanical components through classical PSA treatment. Moreover, to reduce the uncertainty in code predictions, BARC foresee to use in-house experimental data from integral facilities as well as separate.
With reference to the two most relevant methodologies (i.e. RMPS and APSRA), the RMPS consists mainly in the identification and quantification of parameter uncertainties in the form of probability distributions, to be propagated directly into a T-H code or indirectly in using a response surface; the APSRA methodology strives to assess not the uncertainty of parameters but the causes of deviation from nominal conditions, which can be in the failure of active or passive components or systems.
As a result, different approaches are used in the RMPS and APSRA methodologies. RMPS proposes to take into account, in the PSA model, the failure of a physical process. This problem is treated in using a best estimate T-H code plus uncertainty approach. APSRA includes in the PSA model the failure of those components which cause a deviation of the key parameters resulting in a system failure, but does not take into account possible uncertainties on these key parameters. As the consequence, the T-H code is used in RMPS to propagate the uncertainties and in APSRA to build a failure surface. APSRA incorporates an important effort on qualification of the model and use of the available experimental data. These aspects have not been studied in the RMPS, given the context of the RMPS project.
The following Table attempts to identify the main characteristics of the methodologies proposed so far, with respect to some aspects, such as the development of deterministic and probabilistic approaches, the use of deterministic models to evaluate the system performance, the identification of the sources of uncertainties and the application of expert judgment.
Methodology
Probabilistic vs. deterministic
Deterministic Analysis
Uncertainties
Expert Judgment/Experimental data
REPAS/RMPS
Merge of probabilistic and thermal hydraulic aspects
T-H code adopted for uncertainty propagation
Uncertainties in parameters modelled by probability density functions
EJ adopted to a large extent; Statistical analysis when experimental data exist
APSRA
Merge of probabilistic and thermal hydraulic aspects
T-H code adopted to build the failure surface
parameters\' deviations from nominal conditions caused by failure of active or passive components (root diagnosis)
Experimental data usage; EJ for root diagnosis
ENEA approaches
Only probabilistic aspects
Uncertainties in parameters
EJ adopted to a large extent (except the approach based on hardware failure)
Table 3.
Main features of the various approaches
6. Open issues
From the exam of the various methodologies, which have been developed over these most recent years within the community of the safety research, and are currently available in the open literature, the following open questions are highlighted and consequently needs for research in all related areas are pointed out :
The aspects relative to the assessment of the uncertainties related to passive system performance: they regard both the best estimate T-H codes used for their evaluation and system reliability assessment itself;
The dependencies among the parameters, mostly T-H parameters, playing a key role in the whole process assessment.
The integration of the passive systems within an accident sequence in combination with active systems and human actions.
The consideration for the physical process and involved physical quantities dependence upon time, implying, for instance, the development of dynamic event tree to incorporate the interactions between the physical parameter evolution and the state of the system and/or the transition of the system from one state to another.
It’s worth noticing that these two last aspects are correlated, but hey will be treated separately.
The comparison between active and passive systems, mainly on a functional viewpoint.
All of these points are elaborated in the following, in an attempt to cover the entire spectrum of issues related to the topic, and capture all the relevant aspects to concentrate on and devote resources towards for fulfilling a significant advance.
6.1. Uncertainties
The quantity of uncertainties affecting the operation of the T-H passive systems affects considerably the relative process devoted to reliability evaluation, within a probabilistic safety analysis framework, as recognized in [7].
These uncertainties stem mainly from the deviations of the natural forces or physical principles, upon which they rely (e.g., gravity and density difference), from the expected conditions due to the inception of T-H factors impairing the system performance or to changes of the initial and boundary conditions, so that the passive system may fail to meet the required function. Indeed a lot of uncertainties arise, when addressing these phenomena, most of them being almost unknown due mainly to the scarcity of operational and experimental data and, consequently, difficulties arise in performing meaningful reliability analysis and deriving credible reliability figures. This is usually designated as phenomenological uncertainty, which becomes particularly relevant when innovative or untested technologies are applied, eventually contributing significantly to the overall uncertainty related to the reliability assessment.
Actually there are two facets to this uncertainty, i.e., “aleatory” and “epistemic” that, because of their natures, must be treated differently. The aleatory uncertainty is that addressed when the phenomena or events being modelled are characterized as occurring in a “random” or “stochastic” manner and probabilistic models are adopted to describe their occurrences. The epistemic uncertainty is that associated with the analyst’s confidence in the prediction of the PSA model itself, and it reflects the analyst’s assessment of how well the PSA model represents the actual system to be modelled. This has also been referred to as state-of-knowledge uncertainty, which is suitable to reduction as opposed to the aleatory which is, by its nature, irreducible. The uncertainties concerned with the reliability of passive system are both stochastic, because of the randomness of phenomena occurrence, and of epistemic nature, i.e. related to the state of knowledge about the phenomena, because of the lack of significant operational and experimental data.
For instance, as initial step, the approach described in [16]. allows identifying the uncertainties pertaining to passive system operation in terms of critical parameters driving the modes of failure, as, for instance, the presence of non-condensable gas, thermal stratification and so on. In this context the critical parameters are recognized as epistemic uncertainties.
The same reference points out, as well, the difference between the uncertainties related to passive system reliability and the uncertainties related to the T-H codes (e.g. RELAP), utilized to evaluate the performance itself, as the ones related to the coefficients, correlations, nodalization, etc.: these specific uncertainties, of epistemic nature, in turn affect the overall uncertainty in T-H passive system performance and impinge on the final sought reliability figure.
A further step of the matter can be found in[11], which attempts to assign sound distributions to the critical parameters, to further develop a probabilistic model. As is of common use when the availability of data is limited, subjective probability distributions are elicited from expert/engineering judgment procedure, to characterize the critical parameters.
Three following classes of uncertainties to be addressed are identified:
Geometrical properties: this category of uncertainty is generally concerned with the variations between the as-built system layout and the design utilized in the analysis: this is very relevant for the piping layout (e.g. suction pipe inclination at the inlet of the heat exchanger, in the isolation condenser reference configuration) and heat loss modes of failure.
Material properties: material properties are very important in estimating the failure modes concerning for instance the undetected leakages and the heat loss.
Design parameters, corresponding to the initial/boundary conditions (for instance, the actual values taken by design parameters, like the pressure in the reactor pressure vessel).
Phenomenological analysis: the natural circulation failure assessment is very sensitive to uncertainties in parameters and models used in the thermal hydraulic analysis of the system. Some of the sources of uncertainties include but are not limited to: the definition of failure of the system used in the analysis, the simplified model used in the analysis, the analysis method and the analysis focus on failure locations and modes and finally the selection of the parameters affecting the system performance.
The first, second and third groups are part of the category of aleatory uncertainties because they represent the stochastic variability of the analysis inputs and they are not reducible.
The fourth category is referred to the epistemic uncertainties, due to the lack of knowledge about the observed phenomenon and thus suitable for reduction by gathering a relevant amount of information and data. This class of uncertainties must be subjectively evaluated, since no complete investigation of these uncertainties is available.
A clear prospect of the uncertainties as shown in Table 4 [5].
As emphasized above, clearly the epistemic uncertainties address mostly the phenomena underlying the passive operation and the parameters and models used in the T-H analysis of the system (including the ones related to the best estimate code) and the system failure analysis itself. Some of the sources of uncertainties include but are not limited to the definition of failure of the system used in the analysis, the simplified model used in the analysis, the analysis method and the analysis focus of failure locations and modes and finally the selection of the parameters affecting the system performance. With this respect, it is important to underline, again, that the lack of relevant reliability and operational data imposes the reliance on the underlying expert judgment for an adequate treatment of the uncertainties, thus making the results conditional upon the expert judgment elicitation process. This can range from the simple engineering/subjective assessment to a well structured procedure based on expert judgment elicitation, as reported in [17], which outlines the main aspects of the REPAS procedure.
Aleatory
Geometrical properties
Material properties
Initial/boundary conditions (design parameters)
Epistemic
T-H analysis
Model (correlations)
Parameters
System failure analysis
Failure criteria
Failure modes (critical parameters)
Table 4.
Categories of uncertainties associated with T-H passive systems reliability assessment
In ref. [17], in order to simplify both the identification of the ranges and their corresponding probabilities, initially discrete values have been selected. As a general rule, a central pivot has been identified, and then the range has been extended to higher and lower values, if applicable. The pivot value represents the nominal condition for the parameter. The limits have been chosen in order to exclude unrealistic values or those values representing a limit zone for the operation demand of the passive system. Once the discrete ranges have been set up, discrete probability distributions have been associated, to represent the probabilities of occurrence of the values. As in the previous step, the general rule adopted is that the higher probability of occurrence corresponds to the nominal value for the parameter. Then lower probabilities have been assigned to the other values, as much low the probability as much wide the distance from the nominal value, as in a sort of Gaussian distribution.
Ultimately, as underlined in the previous section, the methodologies proposed in RMPS and within the studies conducted by MIT address the question by propagating the parameter and model uncertainties, by performing Monte Carlo simulations on the detailed T-H model based on a mechanistic code, and calculating the distribution of the safety variable and thus the probability of observing a value above the defined limit, according to the safety criterion.
6.2. Dependencies
Alike some other types of analyses for nuclear power plants, the documented experience with PSS reliability seems to focus on the analysis of one passive attribute at a time. In many cases, this may be sufficient, but for some advanced designs with multiple passive features, modelling of the synergistic effects among them is important. For example, modelling of a passive core cooling system may require simultaneous modelling of the amount of non condensable gases which build up along the circuit during extended periods of operation, the potential for stratification in the cooling pool, and interactions between the passive core cooling system and the core. Analysis of each of these aspects independently may not fully capture the important boundary conditions of each system. For instance, with regard to the aforementioned methodologies, the basic simplifying assumption of independence among system performance relevant parameters, as the degradation measures, means that the correlation among the critical parameter distributions is zero or is very low to be judged significant, so that the assessment of the failure probability is quite straightforward. If parameters have contributors to their uncertainty in common, the respective states of knowledge are dependent. As a consequence of this dependence, parameter values cannot be combined freely and independently. Instances of such limitations need to be identified and the dependencies need to be quantified. If the analyst knows of dependencies between parameters explicitly, multivariate distributions or conditional subjective pdfs (probability density functions) may be used. The dependence between the parameters can be also introduced by covariance matrices or by functional relations between the parameters.
As observed in [15], both REPAS and RMPS approaches adopt a probability density function (pdf) to treat variations of the critical parameters considered in the predictions of codes. To apply the methodology, one needs to have the pdf values of these parameters. However, it is difficult to assign accurate pdf treatment of these parameters, which ultimately define the functional failure, due to the scarcity of available data, both on an experimental and operational ground. Moreover, these parameters are not really independent ones to have deviation of their own. Rather deviations of them from their nominal conditions occur due to failure/malfunctioning of other components or as a result of the combination with different concomitant mechanisms. Thus the hypothesis of independence among the failure driving parameters appears non proper.
With reference to the functional reliability approach set forth in [13], the selected representative parameters defining the system performance, for instance coolant flow or exchanged thermal power, are properly modelled through the construction of joint probability functions in order to assess the correspondent functional reliability. A recent study shows how the assumption of independence between the marginal distributions to construct the joint probability distributions to evaluate system reliability adds conservatism to the analysis, [18]: for this reason the model is implemented to incorporate the correlations between the parameters, in the form of bivariate normal probability distributions. That study has the merit to highlight the dependence among the parameters underlying the system performance: further studies are underway, with regard, for instance to the approach based on independent failure modes. As described in the previous section 2, this approach begins by identifying critical parameters, properly modelled through probability functions, as input to basic events, corresponding to the failure modes, arranged in a series system configuration, assuming non-mutually exclusive independent events. It introduces a high level of conservatism as it appears that the probability of failure of the system is relevantly high to be considered acceptable, because of the combination of various modes of failure, where a single fault is sufficient to challenge the system performance. Initial evaluations, [19], reveal that the critical parameters are not suitable to be chosen independently of each other, mainly because of the expected synergism between the different phenomena under investigation, with the potential to jeopardize the system performance. This conclusion allows the implementation of the proposed methodology, by properly capturing the interaction between various failure modes, through modelling system performance under multiple degradation measures. It was verified that when the multiple degradation measures in a system are correlated, an incorrect independence assumption may overestimate the system reliability, according to a recent study, [20].
6.3. Incorporation of passive system within probabilistic safety assessment
PSA has been introduced for the evaluation of design and safety in the development of those reactors. A technology-neutral framework, that adopts PSA information as a major evaluation tool, has been proposed as the framework for the evaluation of safety or regulation for those reactors [21,22]. To utilize this framework, the evaluation of the reliability of Passive Systems has been recognized as an essential part of PSA.
In PSA, the status of individual systems such as a passive system is assessed by an accident sequence analysis to identify the integrated behaviour of a nuclear system and to assign its integrated system status, i.e. the end states of accident sequences. Because of the features specific of a passive system, it is difficult to define the status of a passive system in the accident sequence analysis. In other words, the status of a passive system does not become a robust form such as success or failure, since “intermediate” modes of operation of the system or equivalently the degraded performance of the system (up to the failure point) is possible. This gives credit for a passive system that “partially works” and has failed for its intended function but provides some operation: this operation could be sufficient to prolong the window for opportunity to recover a failed system, for instance through redundancy configuration, and ultimately prevent or arrest core degradation [19]. This means that the status of a passive system can be divided into several states, and each status is affected by the integrated behaviour of the reactor, because its individual performance is closely related with the accident evolution and whole plant behaviour.
Ref. [23] lays the foundations to outline a general approach for the integration of a passive system, in the form of a front line system and in combination with active ones and/or human actions, within a PSA framework.
In [7] a consistent approach, based on an event tree representation, has been developed to incorporate in a PSA study the results of reliability analyses of passive systems obtained on specific accident sequences. In this approach, the accident sequences are analyzed by taking into account the success or the failure of the components and of the physical process involved in the passive systems. This methodology allows the probabilistic evaluation of the influence of a passive system on a definite accident scenario and could be used to test the advantage of replacing an active system by a passive system in specific situations.
However in order to generalize the methodology, it is important to take into account the dynamic aspects differently than by their alone modelling into the T-H code. Indeed in complex situations where several safety systems are competing and where the human operation cannot be completely eliminated, this modelling should prove to be impossible or too expensive in computing times. It is thus interesting to explore other solutions already used in the dynamic PSA, like the method of the dynamic event trees, in order to capture the interaction between the process parameters and the system state within the dynamical evolution of the accident.
In the PSA of nuclear power plants (NPPs), accident scenarios, which are dynamic in nature, are usually analyzed with event trees and fault trees.
The current PSA framework has some limitations in handling the actual timing of events, whose variability may influence the successive evolution of the scenarios, and in modelling the interactions between the physical evolution of the process variables (temperatures, pressures, mass flows, etc.,) and the behaviour of the hardware components. Thus, differences in the sequential order of the same success and failure events and the timing of event occurrence along an accident scenario may affect its evolution and outcome; also, the evolution of the process variables (temperatures, pressures, mass flows, etc.,) may affect the event occurrence probabilities and thus the developing scenario. Another limitation lies in the binary representations of system states (i.e., success or failure), disregarding the intermediate states, which conversely concern the passive system operation, as illustrated above.
To overcome the above-mentioned limitations, dynamic methodologies have been investigated which attempt to capture the integrated response of the systems/components during an accident scenario [24].
The most evident difference between dynamic event trees (DETs) and the event trees (ETs) is as follows. ETs, which are typically used in the industrial PSA, are constructed by an analyst, and their branches are based on success/ failure criteria set by the analyst. These criteria are based on simulations of the plant dynamics. On the contrary, DETs are produced by a software that embeds the models that simulates the plant dynamics into stochastic models of components failure. A challenge arising from the dynamic approach to PSA is that the number of scenarios to be analyzed is much larger than that of the classical fault/event tree approaches, so that the a posteriori information retrieval can become quite onerous and complex.
This is even more relevant as far as thermal hydraulic natural circulation passive systems are concerned since their operation is strongly dependent, more than other safety systems, upon time and the state/parameter evolution of the system during the accident progression.
Merging probabilistic models with T-H models, i.e. dynamic reliability, is required to accomplish the evaluation process of T-H passive systems in a consistent manner: this is particularly relevant with regard to the introduction of a passive system in an accident sequence, since the required mission could be longer than 24 h as usual level 1 PSA mission time. In fact for design basis accidents, the passive systems are required to establish and maintain core cooling and containment integrity, with no operator intervention or requirement for a.c. power for 72 h, as a grace time [25].
The goal of dynamic PRA is to account for the interaction of the process dynamics and the stochastic nature/behavior of the system at various stages: it associates the state/parameter evaluation capability of the thermal hydraulic analysis to the dynamic event tree generation capability approach. The methodology should estimate the physical variation of all technical parameters and the frequency of the accident sequences when the dynamic effects are considered. If the component failure probabilities (e.g. valve per-demand probability) are known, then these probabilities can be combined with the probability distributions of estimated parameters in order to predict the probabilistic evolution of each scenario outcome.
A preliminary attempt in addressing the dynamic aspect of the system performance in the frame of passive system reliability is shown in [26], which introduces the T-H passive system as a non-stationary stochastic process, where the natural circulation is modeled in terms of time-variant performance parameters, (as for instance mass flow-rate and thermal power, to cite any) assumed as stochastic variables. In that work, the statistics associated with the stochastic variables change in time (in terms of associated mean values and standard deviations increase or decrease, for instance), so that the random variables have different values in every realization, and hence every realization is different.
6.4. Comparative assessment between active and passive systems
The design and development of future water-cooled reactors address the use of passive safety systems, i.e. those characterized by no or very limited reliance on external input (forces, power or signal, or human action) and whose operation takes advantage of natural forces, such as free convection and gravity, to fulfil the required safety function and to provide confidence in the plant’s ability to handle transients and accidents. Therefore, they are required to accomplish their mission with a sufficient reliability margin that makes them attractive as an important means of achieving both simplification and cost reduction for future plants while assuring safety requirements with lesser dependence of the safety function on active components like pumps and diesel generators.
On the other hand, since the magnitude of the natural forces, which drive the operation of passive systems, is relatively small, counter-forces (e.g. friction) can be of comparable magnitude and cannot be ignored as is generally the case with pumped systems. This concern leads to the consideration that, despite the fact that passive systems “should be” or, at least, are considered, more reliable than active ones - because of the smaller unavailability due to hardware failure and human error - there is always a nonzero likelihood of the occurrence of physical phenomena leading to pertinent failure modes, once the system enters into operation.
These characteristics of a high level of uncertainty and low driving forces for heat removal purposes justify the comparative evaluation between passive and active options, with respect to the accomplishment of a defined safety function (e.g. decay heat removal) and the generally accepted viewpoint that passive system design is more reliable and more economical than active system design has to be discussed [27].
Here are some of the benefits and disadvantages of the passive systems that should be evaluated vs. the correspondent active system.
Advantages
No external power supply: no loss of power accident has to be considered.
No human factor, implying no inclusion of the operator error in the analysis.
Better impact on public acceptance, due to the presence of “natural forces”.
Less complex system than active and therefore economic competitiveness.
Passive systems must be designed with consideration for ease of ISI, testing and maintenance so that the dose to the worker is much less.
Drawbacks
Reliance on “low driving forces”, as a source of uncertainty, and therefore need for T-H uncertainties modeling.
Licensing requirement (open issue), since the reliability has to be incorporated within the licensing process of the reactor. For instance the PRA’s should be reviewed to determine the level of uncertainty included in the models.
Need for operational tests, so that dependence upon human factor can not be neglected.
Time response: the promptness of the system intervention is relevant to the safety function accomplishment. It appears that the inception of the passive system operation, as the natural circulation, is conditional upon the actuation of some active components (as the return valve opening) and the onset of the conditions/mechanisms for natural circulation start-up
Reliability and performance assessment in any case. Quantification of their functional reliability from normal power operation to transients including accidental conditions needs to be evaluated. Functional failure can happen if the boundary conditions deviate from the specified value on which the performance of the system depends.
Ageing of passive systems must be considered for longer plant life; for example corrosion and deposits on heat exchanger surfaces could impair their function.
Economics of advanced reactors with passive systems, although claimed to be cheaper, must be estimated especially for construction and decommissioning.
The question whether it is favourable to adopt passive systems in the design of a new reactor to accomplish safety functions is still to be debated and a common consensus has not yet been reached, about the quantification of safety and cost benefits which make nuclear power more competitive, from potential annual maintenance cost reductions to safety system response.
7. Final remarks
Based on the analysis of the critical aspects related to the open points discussed in the previous section a qualitative analysis, on the basis of the author’s opinion, reported in Table 5 below aims at identifying for each of the above items both the criticality with respect to the passive system reliability assessment process, in terms of the relative importance and the existing advancement, according to Table 6 which ranks the relative level of both the importance and progress.
Item
Importance
Advance
Uncertainties
H
L
Dependencies
M
L
Integration within PSA
M
L
Passive vs. Active
H
L
Table 5.
Importance analysis
Grade
Definition
Importance
H
The item is expected to have a significant impact on the system failure
M
The item is expected to have a moderate impact on the system failure
L
The item is expected to have only a small impact on the system failure
Advance
H
The issue is modelled in a detailed way with adequate validation
M
The issue is represented by simple modelling based on experimental observations or results.
L
The issue is not represented in the analysis or the models are too complex or inappropriate which indicates that the calculation results will have a high degree of ambiguity
Table 6.
Grade rank for importance and advancement analysis
It is clear that he worst case is characterized by “high “and “low” rankings relative respectively to the importance and the advancement aspects, thus making the correspondent item development a critical challenge.
Based on this, the results of this qualitative analysis show the relevance relative to the uncertainties and the comparison between active and passive, as most critical points to be addressed in the application of the PRA to the evaluation of the passive system performance assessment. This allows the analyst to track a viable R&D program to deal with these issues and limitations and to steer the relative efforts towards their implementation.
8. Conclusions
Due to the specificities of passive systems that utilize natural circulation (small driving force, large uncertainties in their performance, lack of data…), there is a strong need for the development and demonstration of consistent methodologies and approaches for evaluating their reliability. This is a crucial issue to be resolved for their extensive use in future nuclear power plants. Recently, the development of procedures suitable for establishing the performance of a passive system has been proposed: the unavailability of reference data makes troublesome the qualification of the achieved results. These procedures can be applied for evaluating the acceptability of a passive system, specifically when nuclear reactor safety considerations are important for comparing two different systems having the same mission and, with additional investigation, for evaluating the performance of an active and passive system on a common basis. The study while identifying limitations of the achieved results or specific significant aspects that have been overlooked has suggested areas for further development or improvements of the procedures:
In order to get confidence in the achieved results, the reduction of the so identified level of uncertainty pertaining to the passive system behaviour, and regarding in particular the phenomenological uncertainty. In fact, it’s worth noting that these uncertainties are mainly related to the state of knowledge about the studied object/phenomenon, i.e., they fall within the class of epistemic uncertainties, thus suitable for reduction by gathering and analyzing a relevant quantity of information and data.
The determination of the dependencies among the relevant parameters adopted to analyze the system reliability.
The study of the dynamical aspects of the system performance, because the inherent dynamic behaviour of the system to be characterized: this translates into the development of the dynamic event tree.
The comparison against the active system, also to evaluate the economical competitiveness, while assuring the same level of safety.
Future research in nuclear safety addressing this specific topic relevant to advanced reactors should be steered towards all these points in order to foster and add credit to any proposed approach to address the issue and to facilitate the proposed methods endorsement by the scientific and technical community.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/39783.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/39783.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39783",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39783",totalDownloads:3444,totalViews:522,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:81,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 30th 2011",dateReviewed:"April 2nd 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 10th 2012",dateFinished:"October 4th 2012",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/39783",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/39783",book:{id:"2187",slug:"nuclear-power-practical-aspects"},signatures:"Luciano Burgazzi",authors:[{id:"144551",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciano",middleName:null,surname:"Burgazzi",fullName:"Luciano Burgazzi",slug:"luciano-burgazzi",email:"luciano.burgazzi@enea.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"National Agency For New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Passive systems implementation in advanced reactor designs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. AP600/AP1000 Passive Residual Heat Removal systems (PRHR)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. ESBWR (Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor) Isolation Condenser System (ICS) ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. ESBWR Passive Containment Cooling System (PCCS)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. ABWR (Advanced Boiling Water Reactor) passive reactor cooling system and passive containment cooling system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Overview of PSA ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Passive system unavailability model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Methodologies characterization and comparative assessment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Open issues ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"6.1. Uncertainties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"6.2. Dependencies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.3. Incorporation of passive system within probabilistic safety assessment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"6.4. Comparative assessment between active and passive systems",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"7. Final remarks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"8. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'IAEA TEC-DOC-626,\n\t\t\t\t\t1991 Safety Related Terms for Advanced Nuclear Power Plants. September 1991.'},{id:"B2",body:'IAEA TEC DOC-1474,\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 Natural Circulation in Water Cooled Nuclear power Plants. Phenomena, models, and methodology for system reliability assessments, November 2005.'},{id:"B3",body:'IAEA TECDOC-1624,\n\t\t\t\t\t2009 Passive Safety Systems and Natural Circulation in Water Cooled Nuclear Power Plants. 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Reliability Engineering and System Safety 93\n\t\t\t\t\t16821688 .'},{id:"B27",body:'JiYong Oh and Golay, M.,\n\t\t\t\t\t2008 Methods for Comparative Assessment of Active and Passive Safety Systems with respect to Reliability, Uncertainty, Economy and Flexibility. Proceedings of PSAM9, 9th International Probabilistic, Safety Assessment and Management Conference Hong Kong, 1823 May 2008.'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"In the following PSA (Probabilistic Safety Assessment) and PRA (Probabilistic Risk Assessment) are utilized indifferently"}],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Luciano Burgazzi",address:null,affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
The genus Trichoderma strains are versatile, highly competent, root colonizers, cosmopolitan in nature, fast growing in culture; produce numerous green spores and chlamydospores as used for eco-friendly disease management which is important in organic agriculture. Trichoderma species have been used as a biological control, biofertilizers, source of enzymes and protein producers. Trichoderma increase the fertility of soils and improved plant growth beyond disease control [1, 2]. Trichoderma strains colonization on root and enhances root growth, root area, root length, increases in dry weight, shoot length and leaf area [3]. Plant growth promotion is due to the production of plant hormones and the uptake of nutrients by the plant [4]. They promote root growth, nutrient availability and release plant growth regulators [5]. Application in plants and can prevent the infection of diseases through induced resistance, competition for nutrients and space, antibiosis, hyperparasitism. Induced resistance may be local or systemic. Trichoderma species are cosmopolitan fungi, frequently present in all types of soil, manure and decaying plant tissues [6]. Trichoderma species are a well known bio-control agent, utilize chitinolytic enzymes to disintegrate and degrade the pathogen’s cell walls and colonize on the root, soil and foliar environments suppressing phytopathogens [7, 8, 9]. Trichoderma spp. is highly interactive in root, soil and foliar in the environment, parasitize other fungi [10]. Trichoderma was first described in 1794 and its perfect stage (Hypocrea). Morphological characters and an online identification tool are available for identification of species within the genus Trichoderma and recognized from long back as biological agents, control of plant disease and also their ability to increase root growth and development, crop productivity, resistance to abiotic stresses, and uptake and use of nutrients. Application of Trichoderma harzianum to plants resulted in improved seed germination, increased plant size, and augment of leaf area and weight [11]. Trichoderma spp. is well documented and effective biological control agent of soil-borne diseases by secreting several cell wall degrading enzymes, antibiotics [12, 13]. They have produced extracellular proteins and fungi toxic substances for understanding the role in antagonistic as playing in biological interactions [14]. Trichoderma reesei and Trichoderma harzianum are capable of producing proteinase, mananase, laminarinase and chitinase that the nature of antagonism by mycoparasitism [15]. Trichoderma, a soil-borne mycoparasitic fungus has been shown effective against many.soil borne phytopathogens [16, 17, 18, 19]. Trichoderma viride and Trichoderma harzianum found to highly antagonistic against Sclerotium rolfsii and management of diseases in vegetables and legumes [20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. Trichoderma harzianum is an antagonist probably their ability to fight for cellulose in the mucilage layer at the root surface [30]. Trichoderma spp. have been reported to control soil-borne plant pathogens viz., Rhizoctonia solani Khun., Sclerotium rolfsii (Sacc.) Curzi., Pythium and Fusarium spp. [31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36] and Botrytis rot of fruits on grape. Trichoderma harzianum, widely tested as potential biological control agents many soil-borne plant pathogens [10, 37, 38, 39]. Trichoderma hamatum produced inhibitory volatiles compounds that reduced the gray mold of snap bean pods and blossom [40, 41]. Trichoderma harzianum T39 less effective in cucumber fruit and stem gray mold under wet and below 20°C compare to elevated temperatures [42]. Trichoderma harzianum inoculated in root increased peroxidase and chitinase activities in leaves of cucumber seedlings [43]. Trichoderma harzianum T39 effectively controlled Botrytis diseases, white mold (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum), leaf mold (Cladosporium fulvum) and powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca fusca) [42, 44, 45, 46, 47]. Trichoderma bio-control agents are used against fungal phyto-pathogens such as Phythium, Phytophthora, Macrophomina, Aspergillus, Rhizoctonia and Fusarium through the mechanism of mycoparasitism, antibiotics and competition for food and space [5, 48]. Induced resistance is an important mode of bio-control in vegetative tissues [49, 50]. T. harzianum induced systemic resistance in the plant against fungal and bacterial pathogens [8, 9]. Induced systemic resistance caused by various micro-organisms and protects plants against the soil or foliar pathogens [51]. Trichoderma, Gliocladium and Pythium spp. are known as mycoparasites [46]. Pythium spp. is non specific mycoparasites and interact with many soil borne fungi [52]. Trichoderma virens produces two major antifungal antibiotics- gliotoxin (toxic to Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium ultimum) and gliovirin (toxic to Pythium spp.) [53]. Trichoderma virens, produce the antibiotics gliovirin and gliotoxin as mycoparasite. Trichoderma harzianum T39 is competition for nutrients and interference with the production of pectolytic enzymes against the pathogen, and also prevents the penetration of the host tissue and is shown to induce resistance [54, 55, 56]. Trichoderma harzianum T39 produces protease on leaves against Botrytis cinerea disease development [57]. Secretion of proteolytic enzymes that deactivate pathogenicity related hydrolytic enzymes of pathogenic fungi [58]. Trichoderma viride is involved in bio-control management Sclerotium rolfsii through the proteolytic activity as reported [59]. Trichoderma species can degrade domestic waste quickly without emitting bad odors [60]. The genus Trichoderma has the potential to control plant-parasitic nematodes [7, 61]. Trichoderma harzianum is associated with a reduction in nematode population by parasitizing and killing in the rhizosphere [62]. T. harzianum has a rich source of chitinolytic enzymes which might degrade the eggshell during parasitism of eggs and juveniles [39, 62]. Trichoderma promotes crop productivity, resistance to abiotic stresses and uptake of nutrients [63]. Trichoderma colonization in the roots and soil helps insolubilization of minerals viz.; rock phosphate, Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn and also enhances N-used efficiency [1]. Trichoderma based commercial products are manufactured and marketed worldwide for the management of plant diseases [10, 17].
2. Characters and isolation techniques
Trichoderma is a good bio-control agent as well as a fertility promoter. Trichoderma fungi can produce antibiotics, enzymes that antagonize plant pathogens and hormones that regulate root architecture and promote plant growth. Trichoderma protects a wide range of foliar pathogens. Trichoderma strains have numerous mechanisms for attacking other fungi and enhancing plant and root growth [1]. Trichoderma is colonizing in the rhizosphere and resulted in the increased root, aerial systems and crop yields [64, 65]. Trichoderma has a strong capacity to mobilize and take up soil nutrients and making it more efficient and competitive. Competition for nutrients is the major mechanism used by Trichoderma harzianum to control Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis. Trichoderma spp. produces three kinds of propagules; hyphae, chlamydospores, and conidia [18]. The main propagules of Trichoderma spp. is hyphae and during the drying process losing viability. Chlamydospores and conidia have been used as the active ingredients of Trichoderma spp. based production [66, 67, 68]. Trichoderma fungal conidiophores are highly branched, not verticilate, 1-celled, ovoid, borne in small terminal clusters, loosely or compactly tufted, and often formed in distinct concentric rings (Figure 1). The conidiophore branches with paired and assume a pyramidal feature, chlamydospores produced by all species. Trichoderma strains produce only asexual spores, the sexual stage of Trichoderma belong to the ascomycete genus Hypocrea [69]. Trichoderma is one of the common fungal bio-control agents used worldwide for the management of various foliar and soil borne plant pathogens. Trichoderma fungi are present in most of all types of soils can be isolated from forest and agriculture soils and wood. Several species are beneficial in agriculture. The fungus grows a range between 25 and 30°C of optimal. The most suitable culture media for its cultivation are cornmeal dextrose agar whereas colonies appear transparent, and on potato dextrose agar the colonies appear initially white and then green (Figure 2). Trichoderma can be produced in a liquid or solid fermentation medium.
Figure 1.
Phialid showing production of conidia in highly branched conidiophore (photo credit: Dr. Pranab Dutta & Lipa deb, CPGSAS, CAU (Imphal), Umiam, Meghalaya.
Figure 2.
Pure culture of Trichoderma harzianum in PDA plate (photo credit: Dr. Pranab Dutta, CPGSAS, CAU (Imphal), Umiam, Meghalaya.
3. Mass multiplication
The mass production of Trchoderma for field application and commercial use. There are two methods of production as (i) Solid-state fermentation (ii) Liquid-state fermentation.
3.1 Solid-state fermentation
It is a common method for mass production of Trichoderma. The Trichoderma spp. have been widely grown on solid substrates like sorghum grain, wheat straw, wheat bran, spent tea leaf waste, coffee husk, rice husk, banana leaves, sawdust etc. and their mass multiplication [70, 71, 72]. The commonly used for mass culturing of Trichoderma spp. on the solid substrate as sorghum grain [73], wheat bran-saw dust [74] and other agro-based waste products. Cereal grains like, sorghum, millets, ragi are used as substrates [75]. The grains are moistened, sterilized and inoculated with Trichoderma and incubated for 10–15 days. The dark green spore coating on the grains of Trichoderma produces. These grains can be powdered and used as a seed treatment or grains may use as it is for enhancing FYM for soil application. Wastage substrate potato peel, brinjal, spinach, sugarcane, banana, papaya, guava, tea leaves and pea husk used for the multiplication of Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma viride. Trichoderma harzianum multiplied on presoaked and autoclaved Jhangora seeds for 12 days at 28°C, air dried, ground and passed through 50 and 80 mesh sieves simultaneously to obtain the powder of spores [76]. The commercial formulation was prepared by diluting this powder with the talcum powder containing 1% carboxymethyl-cellulose to get the desired concentration of biocontrol agent.
3.2 Liquid fermentation
Trichoderma is grown in a liquid fermentation system on media in stationary/shaker/fermentor and used for field application. The production of Trichoderma in liquid state fermentation includes molasses and brewer’s yeast [77], and Jaggery-soy medium [32, 33]. Viable propagules of Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma viride can be obtained within 96 h of fermentation in a fermentor with aeration, agitation, temperature controls [78]. Maximum biomass of Trichoderma spp. in short-time by using the appropriate medium in a fermentor with aeration, agitation, temperature, pH with antifoam controls than in shake-flask cultures and more suitable for industrial production. The liquid fermentation can be separated of biomass with medium and incorporated into dust, granules, pellets, wettable powders or emulsifiable liquids. The carrier is inert as the food base of Trichoderma spp. can be formulated as pellets [79], dust and powders [40, 41] and fluid drill gels [21]. Molasses yeast medium is used for mother culture; it’s prepared by adding of molasses 30 g, yeast 5 g and distiller water 1000 ml. The medium hand out into conical flasks and sterilized at 15 lb. pressure for 15 minutes in an autoclave. After the cooled medium is inoculated with 10 days old fungal disc of Trichoderma viride and then incubated for 10 days for fungal growth, serves as a mother culture. The mother culture was added to the fermentor at the rate of 1.5 lit/50 lit of the medium and incubated at room temperature for 10 days. Then the incubated fungal culture is used for commercial formulation preparation using talc powder.
4. Formulations and application
The formulation depends on the type of application, its combination of active ingredients, such as fungal spores with the inert material as diluents of the desirable form. The formulation developed through standard air dried mats and mixed with the carrier contain 108–109 propagules per gram [80]. Trichoderma is grown in the liquid medium is mixed with talc powder in the ratio of 1: 2 and dried to 8% moisture under shade. Bio-control formulation, distribution and execlution of microbial antagonists [81]. Talc based formulations of Trichoderma viride developed for seed treatment of pulse and rice crops [82]. The commercial formulations of Trichoderma spp. based on carriers are available for controlling plant diseases [83]. Trichoderma formulation prepared based on coffee husk which is a waste from the coffee curing industry [84]. Trichoderma was formulated on press mud to farmers and value-added organic manure by sugar factory [75]. Oil-based formulations are suitable for foliar sprays under dry weather conditions with prolonged shelf life. T. harzianum is an emulsion based formulation with a shelf life of 8 months use for the control of post -harvest decay of apple caused by Botrytis cinerea [37]. The application of Trichoderma is very important for successful diseases management. Das et al. [24] tested three different media amended with and without osmoticant (Mnaitol) viz., potato dextrose broth (PDB), modified Richard’s broth (MRB) and Czapek dox broth (CDB) were tested for biomass production of Trichoderma harzianum. Osmoticant amended MRB was found best for production of maximum sporulation, cfu and dry weight of biomass of the antagonist.
The common methods are seed treatment, seed bio-priming, seedling root dip, and soil application and wound dressing.
4.1 Seed treatment
Seed coating with dry powder of Trichoderma just before sowing is an effective method of antagonist for the management of soil-borne diseases. Seeds coated with a commercial dry powder of Trichoderma just before sowing at 3 to 10 g/kg seed based on seed size [85]. Seed treatment with talc-based and wheat bran based formulations use at 4 g/kg of seed have been recommended [74]. Trichoderma germinates on treated seed surface as they are sown in the soil; on germinating propagules colonize the seedlings roots and rhizosphere [86]. Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma virens and Trichoderma viride were found to be effective seed protectants against Pythium spp. and Rhizoctonia solani [87]. Seed treatments are effective against the sheath blight of rice [25], loose smut of wheat [88]. Das et al. [24] reported that seed treatment with osmoticant amended talc based bioformulation of Trichoderma harzianum was best in reduction per cent disease index of soybean rot caused by Rhizoctonia solani. Seed treatment with Trichoderma harzianum was found has most effective in improving seed germination (18.43%), reducing 90.46% infection by Rhizoctonia solani in soybean and increasing yield (69.51%) over control plot [89].
4.2 Seed bio-priming
Treated seeds with Trichoderma incubate until radical emergence is referred to as bio-primming. This technique is a simple coating of seeds and results in rapid and uniform seedling emergence and also reduces the amount of bio-control agents. Trichoderma conidia germinate on the seed surface and form a layer around seeds. Such seeds tolerate adverse conditions of the soil better than the non-primed seeds. Seed bio-priming was successfully used in tomato, brinjal, soybean and chickpea [90]. It results in rapid and uniform seedling emergence and reduces the amount of bio-control agents [91].
4.3 Seedling root dip treatment
It is suitable for transplanting rice and vegetable crops. The seedlings can be treated with the spore suspension by mixing 10 g of Trichoderma powder with 100 g of well rotten FYM per liter of water and dipping roots for 10 minutes before transplanting/drenching in nursery beds. This method is generally used for vegetable crops, rice where transplanting is practiced [92]. Root dipping in antagonist’s suspension reduces disease severity and enhances seedling growth in rice, tomato, brinjal, chili and capsicum as reported [92]. The reduction of sheath blight disease of rice by root dipping in spore suspension of seedlings before transplantation [93]. Root dipping of tomato seedlings reduces the severity of root- knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita).
4.4 Soil treatment
Trichoderma is capable of colonizing on farmyard manure (FYM) and then applied to the soil is the most effective method for the management of soil-borne diseases. The application of bio-control agents to the soil before or at the time of planting for control of soil- borne fungal pathogens [94]. Soil application of Trichoderma viride alone and in combination reduced red rot caused by Colletotrichum falcatum [95] and seedling blight, stem rot, color rot and root rot disease of Jute [14, 96]. Soil treatment with 5 Kg of Trichoderma powder per hector mixed after turning of sun hemp/dhaincha into the soil for green manuring or 1 kg of Trichoderma formulation in 100 kg of FYM. Some species of Trichoderma are reported to cause green mold disease of mushrooms [97]. Soil application (2%) of Trichoderma harzianum enriched enriched farm yard manure showed excellent result in reduction of stem rot disease incidence caused by Rhizoctonia solani and collarot of disease of tomato caused by Sclerotium rolfsii with increased seed germination (%), plant growth parameters and yield of the crop [38, 98].
4.5 Aerial spraying/wound dressing
Trichoderma can reduce the severity of diseases under field conditions. Trichoderma has been successfully applied to the aerial plant parts and on wounds of shrubs and trees [18]. Suspension of Trichoderma has been successfully applied to the aerial plant parts infected with Alternaria leaf spot of Vicia faba [99]. Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma virens talc-based formulations use for foliar sprays that reduce disease incidence of sheath blight of rice [100, 101]. Affects the efficacy and survival of antagonist in phylloplane [102]. The dosage and application have to be standardized based on the crop value. Foliar spraying of consortial formulation of Trichoderma harzianum + two entomopathogeic fungi along with seed treatment, seedling root treatment showed significant reduction of three important diseases of brinjal viz., Phomopsis leaf blight and fruit rot, Alternaria leaf spot, and Fusarium wilt [103].
5. Viability in the storage and field
One of the critical problems in the commercialization of bio-agents is the loss of viability of the propagules over time. The shelf life of the bio-control product is dependent on the storage temperature and carriers as used in the formulation of bio control agents. The shelf life of bio- control agent plays a significant role in successful marketing. Trichoderma spp. are multiplied on bio-degradable substrates for long shelf-life and is also beneficial for field application. Bio-control agents are a biomass product, maintaining their viability at the end of the course [104]. Talc based Trichoderma virens conidia keep 82% viability at 5°C in refrigerator after 6 months, while at room temperature was observed for 3 months [105]. The viable propagule of Trichoderma in talc formulation was reduced by 50% after 120 days of storage [77]. Increasing shelf life of talc formulations of Trichoderma using various ingredients (chitin and glycerol) in production medium fermentation was carried out the shelf of talc formulation of Trichoderma up to 1 year [106, 107]. Trichoderma on coffee husk has a shelf life of more than 18 months. Talc, peat, lignite and kaolin based formulations of Trichoderma, have a shelf life of 3–4 months. In the storage polypropylene bags use of various colors, Trichoderma viride showed maximum shelf life in milky white bags of 100-micron thickness. The Trichoderma fungus in the storage temperatures is less than 4°C.
6. Mode of action
Bio-control agents are playing an important role in controlling of plant pathogens, especially soil borne fungal pathogens. Biological control agents reduce the disease of the target crop usually by one or more of the modes of action manly antibiosis, competition, mycoparasitism, cell wall degrading enzymes and induced resistance. The indirect interaction with pathogens is competition for nutrients and space and directly with the pathogen by hyperparasitism or antibiosis [108]. Bio-control agents might directly interact with the pathogens by hyperparasitism [109], and antibiosis [110]. Bio-agents induce resistance enhanced in plants against pathogens, competitions for nutrients and spaces [111]. Various chemical compounds such as lectins during the initial contact, recognition and cell wall-degrading enzymes such as β-1,3-glucanases, chitinases, proteinases, and lipases, during the penetration [112]. In hyper-parasitism growth of bio control agent towards the target organism, coiling, final attack and dissolution of target pathogens cell wall by the activity of enzymes [86].
Mycoparasitism is one of the most important direct antagonism mechanisms that attack one fungus on another [113]. and causes complete death of fungal propagules or destruction and lysis [114]. Mycoparasitism is a complex process which involves chemotrophic growth, recognition and coiling, the interaction of hyphae and secretion of specific lytic enzymes [113]. Trichoderma hyphae, initial recognition and wind around the pathogen’s hyphae by forming a hook, the appressorium permeates into the pathogen cell, and chitin is broken down by enzymes such as chitinase and glucanase [109]. The fungal cell walls contain chitin and glucan are the major constituents of many fungal cells [115]. Trichoderma strains have antagonistic potential and are mainly characterized by their ability to secrete enzymes such as chitinases, glucanases, and proteases that hydrolyze the cell walls of pathogens [116]. Chemotrophic response fungus induces the released the cell wall degrading enzymes from Trichoderma viz. β-1, 3 glucanase, proteases, lipases and chitinases [117]. The role of proteases in biocontrol of Botrytis cinerea by T. harzianum [57]. In mycoparasitism has been attributed to the role of chitinases [118]. The proteases reduced the activities of the pathogen enzymes exo- and endo polygalacturonase, pectin methylesterase, pectate lyase, chitinase, cutinase, and β-1,3-glucanase that are essential during host infection. Trichoderma hyphae contact and start coiling around the attachment of hyphae [119]. The hyphae grow along the host hyphae and secrete different lytic enzymes such as glucanase, chitinase and pectinase that are involved in mycoparasitism and ultimately degeneration of the target fungus [119]. Trichoderma produces low molecular weight compounds that have antifungal and antibacterial properties, these substances inhibit cell wall synthesis [118]. Trichoderma hyphae release antibiotic compounds which penetrate the pathogen’s hyphae and inhibition of host cell wall synthesis [59, 120]. The mycoparasitism of Trichoderma spp. towards Pythium ultimum and Sclerotium rolfsii [18]. The parasitism of Rhizoctonia solani hyphae by the Trichoderma virens in controlling citrus seedling disease [121, 122]. Trichoderma species such as T. atroviride, T. virens, and T. reesei have ability of mycoparasitism [7, 123]. Trichoderma harzianum is excellent mycoparasitic activity against Rhizoctonia solsni [11] and also involve chitinase and β-1, 3 glucanase [1]. Trichoderma spp. is known to produce antimicrobial metabolites that act via hyperparasitism [10].
Antibiosisis is the condition of antagonistic to the suppression of pathogenic microorganisms due to toxic compounds (antibiotics). Antibiotic is a secondary metabolite with a low molecular weight that is harmful to the other microorganisms at a low concentration [124]. The antibiotic is produced by bio-control agents and is the main contributing mechanism under soil conditions [125]. Soil-borne microorganisms have different strains of Trichoderma species [5]. Secondary metabolites secreted in situ and effects against pathogens at low amounts [110].
Competition is the form of microbial in soils and living plant surfaces for nutrient limited environments [126]. Bio- control agents and pathogens compete with one another for the nutrients and space in the environment. The competition is considered to be an indirect interaction between the pathogen and bio control agent [127]. The competition for nutrients of bio-control agents fights for the essential micronutrients such as iron and manganese in soils. The bio control agents have more efficient for utilizing micro-nutrient uptake for the substances than the pathogens [128]. Iron competition is a limiting factor in alkaline soils for microbial growth and development [129]. Siderophore is low-molecular weight chelators with is a very high and specific affinity for Fe called siderophores [130]. Trichoderma spp. produces highly efficient low molecular weight ferric iron chelators termed siderophores that stop the growth of other fungi [131]. Siderophore is a chealate of the Fe ions that bind and take up the Siderophore-Fe-complex and making iron unavailable to the pathogen [132]. Trichoderma species as bio-control antagonists release siderophores that chelate iron (Fe3+) prevent the growth and development of fungal pathogens [90]. Trichoderma asperellum producing iron-binding siderophores controls Fusarium wilt [133].
Induce resistance is indirect mechanism in host physio-biochemical pathways that trigger defense cascades inside the plants and lead to suppression of disease development. Induced defense mechanisms involve the production of reactive oxygen species, phytoalexins, phenolic compounds, pathogenesis-related proteins, physical barriers [134]. The role of Trichoderma in plants defense as involved in induced immunity. Concept of induces resistance on cucumber seedling disease with T. harzianum [43]. The roots are recognized fungal-derived molecules that changes occur locally and systemically in gene expression, increasing salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, and phytoalexin levels in plants. The induced resistance is enhanced against infections by a pathogen in the plant without direct antagonistic interaction with the pathogen [135, 136]. Trichoderma application cause induces resistance against the diseases in plants and provides long-term protection [137]. Trichoderma in the rhizosphere can protect plants against aerial pathogen infections, through the induction of resistance via a hypersensitive response (HR), systemic acquired resistance (SAR) and induced systemic resistance (ISR) in plants [10]. Induced resistance was demonstrated through the induction of Trichoderma against foliage disease of beans caused by Colletotrichum lindemuthianum and Botrytis cinerea [138]. Trichoderma produces several metabolites that act as elicitors of plant results in the synthesis of phytoalexins, PR proteins that increase in resistance against several plant pathogens [139] and in abiotic conditions [10].
7. Diseases management
Trichoderma spp. and Gliocladium spp. were the first bio-control agents that effectively manage plant pathogens such as Sclerotium rolfsii, Rhizoctonia solani, and Fusarium solani, cause diseases on groundnut, bean, and apple, respectively [94, 138, 140]. Trichoderma viride, Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma virens are being successfully used for the control of diseases such as foot rots, root rots, damping off, collar rots and Fusarium wilts of horticultural crops. Trchoderma are effective against foliar and soil borne plant pathogens [141]. The talc based formulations of Trichoderma manage several soil-borne diseases of various crops by seed treatment at 4 g–5 g/kg seed. Soil borne plant pathogens are successfully manage through seed coating, furrow application and root dip of seedlings. Successfully managed S. rolfsii and Pythium spp. on radish and pea by seed coating of T. hamatum as reported [142]. Trichoderma harzianum application in the field with wheat bran colonized rapidly in the soil and inhibits the Rhizoctonia solani and S. rolfsii in beans [26, 143]. Trichoderma spp. has potential in controlling wilt and damping-off diseases caused by Fusarium sp. and Rhizoctonia solani [28, 121]. Pythium, and Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, Fusarium and Sclerotium, spp. are soil borne plant pathogens causing diseases in several crops, the diseases manage through Trichoderma spp. as reported [22]. Trchoderma has the potential to manage fungal and nematode diseases as well as host defense inducing ability in plants [64]. Nano-particles (Ag and Au) of Trichoderma asperellum showed antifungal activity at different concentrations, the maximum radial growth inhibition was observed at 200 ppm against Rhizoctonia solani as compared with the chemical [23].
8. Conclusion
Trichoderma is an excellent bio-control agent and also plant growth promotion. Trichoderma spp. serves as a bio-control agent due to effective against a large number of soil-borne plant pathogenic fungi and effects on some root nematodes. Trichoderma isolates improved the growth of root length, plant height, roots and shoots fresh weight and dry weight of plants. Trichoderma is effective against abiotic stresses and provides tolerance to the abiotic stresses and increases fertilizer used efficiencies. Trichoderma species have the potential to produce several enzymes that can degrade the cell wall and release several fungi toxic substances that can inhibit the growth of the fungal pathogens. A single application of Trichoderma give the long term efficacy as induces resistance against plants diseases. Applications of Trichoderma in nurseries and fields to suppress the soil-borne inoculums. The bio-efficacy is the quality of Trchoderma products to ensure the betterment. Trichoderma formulations can be applied to dry seed treatment or seed biopriming for the control of several soil-borne diseases. Trichoderma has high efficiency and aggressiveness against Macreophomina phaseolina, Aspergillus niger and Meloidogyne incognita. Trichoderma harzianum has the best antagonism to Macrophomina phaseolina and Aspergillu. niger, while the Trichoderma asperellum is efficient in the reduction of nematode. Trichoderma has no harmful effects on the environment and non-target organisms and can be applied to most food crops. Bio-control technologies have disease control of the crops and these technologies minimize the usage of harmful chemical pesticides. Trichoderma strains play an important role in the bioremediation of soil that is contaminated with pesticides and herbicides having the ability to degrade.
Conflict of interest
“The authors declare no conflict of interest.”
\n',keywords:"Trchoderma spp. formulation, multiplication, mechanisms, management",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80357.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80357.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80357",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80357",totalDownloads:97,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"December 1st 2021",datePrePublished:"February 8th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"February 4th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Trichoderma species, a cosmopolitan fungi, present in all types of soil, manure, and decaying plant tissues that can degrade domestic waste relatively quickly without emitting bad odors. Trichoderma is recognized worldwide as potential fungal bio-control agents for the management of various foliar and soil-borne plant pathogens, highly compatible with sustainable agriculture and play major role as a component of integrated pest management. Bio-control agents are an antagonism and eco-friendly approach for managing plant diseases. Trichoderma as bioagent area effective not only against soil-borne plant pathogens, but also against nematodes without any adverse effect on beneficial microbes. Trichoderma is capable of growth promotions in crops. There are two major mass production methods of Trichoderma spp. viz., solid state fermentation and liquid state fermentation. In solid, fungus is grown on various cereal grains, agricultural wastes, and byproducts, and these products are used mainly for direct soil application to suppress the soil-borne inoculums. In a liquid state, Trichoderma is grown on media such as molasses and yeast in deep tanks and fermentation can be made into different formulations such as dusts, granules, pellets, wettable powders. As seed-treating agents or bio-priming agents, Trichoderma formulations can be successfully used against several soil-borne diseases caused by Pythium, Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, Fusarium and Sclerotium, spp. in several crops.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80357",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80357",signatures:"Amar Bahadur and Pranab Dutta",book:{id:"11317",type:"book",title:"Trichoderma - Technology and Uses",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Trichoderma - Technology and Uses",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Fernando Cezar Cezar Juliatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11317.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-355-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-354-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-356-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"146372",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Cezar",surname:"Cezar Juliatti",slug:"fernando-cezar-juliatti",fullName:"Fernando Cezar Juliatti"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Characters and isolation techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Mass multiplication",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Solid-state fermentation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Liquid fermentation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Formulations and application",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1 Seed treatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2 Seed bio-priming",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.3 Seedling root dip treatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.4 Soil treatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.5 Aerial spraying/wound dressing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. Viability in the storage and field",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"6. Mode of action",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"7. Diseases management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Harman GE. 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Biological control of Rhizoctonia solani damping-off with wheat bran culture of Trichoderma harzianum. Journal of Phytopathology. 1979;69:64-68'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Amar Bahadur",address:null,affiliation:'
School of Crop Protection, College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, Central Agricultural University, India
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A multiple case analysis of selected quintains of Cebuano culture in literature reviews, and past travel observations and experiences were used as the methodology of the study. Results revealed that studies on cultural knowledge reflected a Cebuano identity of indigenous worldviews and reverence to nature. Cultural knowledge served as a basis for cultural mastery in the formulation and implementation of government policies as exemplified in the Bayanihan to Heal Act, the creation of the Inter-Agency Task Force, and other decisions of government and non-government agencies to protect people’s welfare. Cultural reflections ignited how people responded to these policies, with contrasting views and ambivalence. To prevent the furtherance of these views that would heighten possible conflict and violence, cultural innovations through a KRSP Model offers vibrant opportunities to promote and realize ESD Goal No. 4 by 2030.",signatures:"Reynaldo B. 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IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\\n\\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
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Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
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Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
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If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\\n\\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\\n\\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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2022",editors:[{id:"59529",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"ke-xu",fullName:"Ke Xu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"671c629dd86e97f0fb467b9e70e92296",slug:"molecular-cloning",bookSignature:"Sadık Dincer, Hatice Aysun Mercimek Takcı and Melis Sumengen Ozdenef",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"188141",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadik",middleName:null,surname:"Dincer",slug:"sadik-dincer",fullName:"Sadik Dincer"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7827",title:"Interpersonal 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Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Advanced Topics of Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bf964c52f9e653fac20a7fcab58070e5",slug:"advanced-topics-of-topology",bookSignature:"Francisco Bulnes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"92918",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Bulnes",slug:"francisco-bulnes",fullName:"Francisco Bulnes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11195",title:"Recent Advances in Biometrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d32e33e0f499cb5241734bb75dd2a83",slug:"recent-advances-in-biometrics",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11195.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"35",title:"Entomology",slug:"entomology",parent:{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"},numberOfBooks:6,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:166,numberOfWosCitations:75,numberOfCrossrefCitations:72,numberOfDimensionsCitations:140,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"35",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10739",title:"Global Decline of Insects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"543783652b9092962a8fa4bed38eeb17",slug:"global-decline-of-insects",bookSignature:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel Farag El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-abdel-farag-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10423",title:"The Wonders of Diptera",subtitle:"Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2746b4288e78c8688d1be1bd9d99a127",slug:"the-wonders-of-diptera-characteristics-diversity-and-significance-for-the-world-s-ecosystems",bookSignature:"Farzana Khan Perveen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10423.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8929",title:"Modern Beekeeping",subtitle:"Bases for Sustainable Production",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cbf5aca68ed2c6690ad99f68aaaddcaf",slug:"modern-beekeeping-bases-for-sustainable-production",bookSignature:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8929.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rebolledo Ranz",slug:"ramon-eduardo-rebolledo-ranz",fullName:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7561",title:"Beekeeping",subtitle:"New Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1c47c831256fe10ff19fb10f490930fc",slug:"beekeeping-new-challenges",bookSignature:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7561.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rebolledo Ranz",slug:"ramon-eduardo-rebolledo-ranz",fullName:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6619",title:"Insect Science",subtitle:"Diversity, Conservation and Nutrition",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"08241b041b2072a88452041f8fdebe7e",slug:"insect-science-diversity-conservation-and-nutrition",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah and Umar Sharif",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6619.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5163",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",subtitle:"Advances in Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fc469ff4d2cf6651cfdbf3c5cf90a469",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",bookSignature:"Emerson Dechechi Chambo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5163.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94059",title:"Dr.",name:"Emerson",middleName:"Dechechi",surname:"Dechechi Chambó",slug:"emerson-dechechi-chambo",fullName:"Emerson Dechechi Chambó"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:6,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"50073",doi:"10.5772/62487",title:"Impacts of Pesticides on Honey Bees",slug:"impacts-of-pesticides-on-honey-bees",totalDownloads:3427,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:41,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the detrimental effects that pesticides have on managed honey bee colonies and their productivity. We examine first the routes of exposure of bees to agrochemicals used for crop protection and their application to crops, fate and contamination of water and plants around the fields. Most of the time, the exposure of bees to pesticides is through ingestion of residues found in the pollen and nectar of plants and in water. Honey bees are also exposed to pesticides used for the treatment of Varroa and other parasites. The basic concepts about the toxicity of the different kinds of pesticides are explained next. Various degrees of toxicity are found among agrochemicals, and emphasis is given to the classic tenet of toxicology, “the dose makes the poison,” and its modern version “the dose and the time of exposure makes the poison.” These two factors, dose and time, help us understand the severity of the impacts that pesticides may have on bees and their risk, which are analysed in the third section. Sublethal effects are also considered. The final section is devoted to some practical advice for avoiding adverse impacts of pesticides in beekeeping.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Francisco Sanchez-Bayo and Koichi Goka",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"192045",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichi",middleName:null,surname:"Goka",slug:"koichi-goka",fullName:"Koichi Goka"}]},{id:"59212",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73864",title:"Insect Conservation for the Twenty-First Century",slug:"insect-conservation-for-the-twenty-first-century",totalDownloads:1968,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Insects have been immensely successful as an animal group. They dominate compositional diversity of all but the saltiest and coldest parts of the planet. Yet today insects are declining at a precipitous rate. This is of great concern in terms of impoverishment of Earth, and is also dire for us. Insects contribute to the maintenance of terrestrial and freshwater systems, their service delivery and their resilience. The meteoric impact of humans is challenging this dominance, yet so few people realize that the very fabric of life on which they depend is being unraveled at an alarming rate. Action is required, as are new perspectives, if we are to maintain insect diversity and services through the twenty-first century. Here, we review how we should view and act to have more effective insect diversity conservation based on six themes: (1) philosophy (establishing the ethical foundation), (2) research (the finding out), (3) policy (the framework for action), (4) psychology (understanding how to engage humans in insect conservation action), (5) practice (implementation of action), and (6) validation (establishing how well we are doing at conserving insects). We then overview some emergent challenges and solutions at both the species and landscape operational levels in agricultural, forestry, and urban environments.",book:{id:"6619",slug:"insect-science-diversity-conservation-and-nutrition",title:"Insect Science",fullTitle:"Insect Science-Diversity, Conservation and Nutrition"},signatures:"Michael J. Samways",authors:[{id:"233323",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Samways",slug:"michael-samways",fullName:"Michael Samways"}]},{id:"79121",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100416",title:"Botanical Insecticides Are a Non-Toxic Alternative to Conventional Pesticides in the Control of Insects and Pests",slug:"botanical-insecticides-are-a-non-toxic-alternative-to-conventional-pesticides-in-the-control-of-inse",totalDownloads:270,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Insect control for crops is one of the most critical global concerns. Pest management is an economic and ecological problem worldwide due to the human and environmental risks raised by most synthetic pesticide products. Botanical insecticides have resurfaced in popularity due to their low cost and low environmental impact, rather than their negative effects on human health. Botanical insecticides destroy only the insects they are meant to kill, leaving no residue on food or in the environment. Botanicals have long been used to combat pests. The compounds have many environmental advantages. However, as opposed to other bio-control pests and pathogens, their use was minimal during the twentieth century. In developing countries, botanical insecticides are well adapted for use in organic food production. Nonetheless, they may play a far bigger role in developed countries’ food production and post-harvest food protection. Consequently, the current chapter briefly addresses botanicals with active ingredients with insecticidal, antifeedant, or repellent properties.",book:{id:"10739",slug:"global-decline-of-insects",title:"Global Decline of Insects",fullTitle:"Global Decline of Insects"},signatures:"Nazeer Ahmed, Mukhtar Alam, Muhammad Saeed, Hidayat Ullah, Toheed Iqbal, Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi, Kiran Shahjeer, Rafi Ullah, Saeed Ahmed, Nibal Abd Aleem Hassan Ahmed, Hanem Fathy Khater and Muhammad Salman",authors:[{id:"97300",title:"Prof.",name:"Khalid Awadh",middleName:"Al-Mutairi",surname:"Al-Mutairi",slug:"khalid-awadh-al-mutairi",fullName:"Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi"},{id:"191884",title:"Dr.",name:"Toheed",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",slug:"toheed-iqbal",fullName:"Toheed Iqbal"},{id:"263876",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidayat",middleName:null,surname:"Ullah",slug:"hidayat-ullah",fullName:"Hidayat Ullah"},{id:"263877",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukhtar",middleName:null,surname:"Alam",slug:"mukhtar-alam",fullName:"Mukhtar Alam"},{id:"355528",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazeer",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"nazeer-ahmed",fullName:"Nazeer Ahmed"},{id:"420069",title:"Mrs.",name:"Kiran",middleName:null,surname:"Shahjeer",slug:"kiran-shahjeer",fullName:"Kiran Shahjeer"},{id:"420070",title:"Mr.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"saeed-ahmed",fullName:"Saeed Ahmed"},{id:"420221",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Saeed",slug:"muhammad-saeed",fullName:"Muhammad Saeed"},{id:"420222",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafi",middleName:null,surname:"Ullah",slug:"rafi-ullah",fullName:"Rafi Ullah"},{id:"436507",title:"Dr.",name:"Nibal Abd Aleem",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan Ahmed",slug:"nibal-abd-aleem-hassan-ahmed",fullName:"Nibal Abd Aleem Hassan Ahmed"},{id:"436596",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:null,surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater"},{id:"485113",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"muhammad-salman",fullName:"Muhammad Salman"}]},{id:"50307",doi:"10.5772/62654",title:"From Extraction to Meliponiculture: A Case Study of the Management of Stingless Bees in the West-Central Region of Mexico",slug:"from-extraction-to-meliponiculture-a-case-study-of-the-management-of-stingless-bees-in-the-west-cent",totalDownloads:2745,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Currently, stingless bees' populations are declining due to environmental degradation. In this context, the authors have developed a research project in the central-western region of Mexico with the goal to generate strategies for conservation and sustainable management of stingless bees. The chapter aims to present the process of this investigation and its main results in terms of a) local knowledge and management strategies of stingless bees, and b) the social process of technological appropriation of meliponiculture by beekeepers. We recognized specific knowledge on the biology and ecology of stingless bees that result in a system for identifying species and management strategies of wild populations of these bees based on the extraction of nests. The implementation of an innovative productive activity based on the principles of meliponiculture and current techniques has been well received by producers, which has led to the formation of the Meliponicultores Michoacanos del Balsas Association, which grows five species of stingless bees. The research suggests that conservation associated with the use of bees (integral meliponiculture) can be enhanced in the region. Faced with the loss of biodiversity and environmental crisis, it is essential to maintain and enhance local knowledge of stingless bees and management practices. This represents an alternative to develop management schemes that allow the raising and breeding of these bees, while its products are obtained.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Alejandro Reyes-González, Andrés Camou-Guerrero and Salvador\nGómez-Arreola",authors:[{id:"179951",title:"Dr.",name:"Andres",middleName:null,surname:"Camou-Guerrero",slug:"andres-camou-guerrero",fullName:"Andres Camou-Guerrero"},{id:"185413",title:"MSc.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Reyes-González",slug:"alejandro-reyes-gonzalez",fullName:"Alejandro Reyes-González"},{id:"192049",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvador",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez-Arreola",slug:"salvador-gomez-arreola",fullName:"Salvador Gómez-Arreola"}]},{id:"50683",doi:"10.5772/63145",title:"Advances in Pharmacological Activities and Chemical Composition of Propolis Produced in Americas",slug:"advances-in-pharmacological-activities-and-chemical-composition-of-propolis-produced-in-americas",totalDownloads:2583,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Propolis is a resinous material produced by bees from the selective collection of plant exudates that are subsequently mixed with beeswax and salivary bee secretions. Propolis has been used in folk medicine, and certainly, several studies have validated its biological properties. The chemical composition and pharmacological activities of propolis collected through North (including Central America and Caribbean) and South America have been studied in the last years, and several papers have reported differences and similarities among the analysed geographical samples. Propolis has been classified according to its aspect and plant source; however, the ecological diversity present along the Americas provides a plethora of botanical resins. Herein, we summarize and discuss most of the studies performed at present on this profitable product for apiculture, attempting to compare the bioactivity, phytochemical diversity and botanical sources of honeybee propolis produced in Americas.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Efrain Alday, Moisés Navarro-Navarro, Adriana Garibay-Escobar,\nRamón Robles-Zepeda, Javier Hernandez and Carlos Velazquez",authors:[{id:"96966",title:"MSc.",name:"Moises",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Navarro",slug:"moises-navarro-navarro",fullName:"Moises Navarro-Navarro"},{id:"180409",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Velazquez",slug:"carlos-velazquez",fullName:"Carlos Velazquez"},{id:"186351",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Zepeda",slug:"ramon-robles-zepeda",fullName:"Ramón Robles-Zepeda"},{id:"186352",title:"MSc.",name:"Efrain",middleName:null,surname:"Alday",slug:"efrain-alday",fullName:"Efrain Alday"},{id:"186353",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez",slug:"javier-hernandez",fullName:"Javier Hernandez"},{id:"189161",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"Garibay-Escobar",slug:"adriana-garibay-escobar",fullName:"Adriana Garibay-Escobar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50170",title:"A Comprehensive Characterization of the Honeybees in Siberia (Russia)",slug:"a-comprehensive-characterization-of-the-honeybees-in-siberia-russia-",totalDownloads:2302,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"A comprehensive study of some populations of honeybee (332 colonies) in Siberia (Tomsk region, Krasnoyarsk Krai (Yenisei population), Altai) using morphometric and molecular genetic methods was conducted. Infestation of bees (132 colonies) by Nosema has also been studied. Three variants of the COI-COII mtDNA locus were registered: PQQ, PQQQ (typical for Apis m. mellifera), and Q (specific for southern races). It was established that 64% of bee colonies from the Tomsk region and all colonies studied from the Krasnoyarsk and the Altai territories originate from Apis m. mellifera on the maternal line. According to the morphometric study, the majority of bee colonies of the Tomsk region are hybrids; in some colonies the mismatch of morphometric and mtDNA data was observed. Moreover, the majority of bee colonies infected by Nosema were hybrids. Yenisei population may be considered as a unique Apis m. mellifera population. Microsatellite analysis (loci А008, Ap049, AC117, AC216, Ap243, H110, A024, A113) showed the specific distribution of genotypes and alleles for some loci in the bees, which differ by geographical location. Loci A024 and Ap049 are of considerable interest for further study as candidate markers for differentiation of subspecies; locus A008 can be considered informative for determining of different ecotypes of Apis m. mellifera.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Nadezhda V. Ostroverkhova, Olga L. Konusova, Aksana N. Kucher\nand Igor V. Sharakhov",authors:[{id:"180112",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nadezhda",middleName:null,surname:"Ostroverkhova",slug:"nadezhda-ostroverkhova",fullName:"Nadezhda Ostroverkhova"},{id:"180249",title:"Ms.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Konusova",slug:"olga-konusova",fullName:"Olga Konusova"},{id:"180342",title:"Prof.",name:"Aksana",middleName:null,surname:"Kucher",slug:"aksana-kucher",fullName:"Aksana Kucher"},{id:"180343",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Sharakhov",slug:"igor-sharakhov",fullName:"Igor Sharakhov"}]},{id:"70501",title:"Southeast Asian Meliponiculture for Sustainable Livelihood",slug:"southeast-asian-meliponiculture-for-sustainable-livelihood",totalDownloads:1262,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Stingless bees (Apidae: Meliponini) are one of the most important pollinators of native plants and economic crops in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. They not only establish large perennial colonies with complex social organization but also have a diverse nesting biology. The economic utilization of a total of 60 stingless bee species in Asia has been reported. The current status of meliponiculture in Southeast Asia is mainly focused on pollination utilization and honey and propolis production. This chapter shows that small-scale beekeeping of stingless bees, which is suitable for the flowering pattern in the tropics, is one of the best potential alternative opportunities. The cost-effectiveness analysis based on production yield, investment cost, and profit-return rate is reviewed. Finally, a sustainable utilization of stingless bees is considered to be an enhancer of pollination services both in an agricultural crop and natural ecosystem.",book:{id:"8929",slug:"modern-beekeeping-bases-for-sustainable-production",title:"Modern Beekeeping",fullTitle:"Modern Beekeeping - Bases for Sustainable Production"},signatures:"Atsalek Rattanawannee and Orawan Duangphakdee",authors:[{id:"283087",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Atsalek",middleName:null,surname:"Rattanawannee",slug:"atsalek-rattanawannee",fullName:"Atsalek Rattanawannee"},{id:"306411",title:"Dr.",name:"Orawan",middleName:null,surname:"Duangphakdee",slug:"orawan-duangphakdee",fullName:"Orawan Duangphakdee"}]},{id:"50073",title:"Impacts of Pesticides on Honey Bees",slug:"impacts-of-pesticides-on-honey-bees",totalDownloads:3419,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:41,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the detrimental effects that pesticides have on managed honey bee colonies and their productivity. We examine first the routes of exposure of bees to agrochemicals used for crop protection and their application to crops, fate and contamination of water and plants around the fields. Most of the time, the exposure of bees to pesticides is through ingestion of residues found in the pollen and nectar of plants and in water. Honey bees are also exposed to pesticides used for the treatment of Varroa and other parasites. The basic concepts about the toxicity of the different kinds of pesticides are explained next. Various degrees of toxicity are found among agrochemicals, and emphasis is given to the classic tenet of toxicology, “the dose makes the poison,” and its modern version “the dose and the time of exposure makes the poison.” These two factors, dose and time, help us understand the severity of the impacts that pesticides may have on bees and their risk, which are analysed in the third section. Sublethal effects are also considered. The final section is devoted to some practical advice for avoiding adverse impacts of pesticides in beekeeping.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Francisco Sanchez-Bayo and Koichi Goka",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"192045",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichi",middleName:null,surname:"Goka",slug:"koichi-goka",fullName:"Koichi Goka"}]},{id:"74836",title:"Chironomidae: Biology, Ecology and Systematics",slug:"chironomidae-biology-ecology-and-systematics",totalDownloads:474,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The family of Chironomidae is a group of Diptera insects belonging to the suborder of Nematocera, commonly called “non-biting midges” in the adult stage and “bloodworms” in the larval stage. The Chironomidae are often the most abundant group of macroinvertebrates, in number of species and individuals, encountered in all aquatic environments of freshwater, brackish, terrestrial and even the sea. Likewise, Chironomidae occur in all the continents. The Chironomidae family is divided into 11 sub-families that have diffrent ecological statues. Despite the wealth of data on Chironomidae in the Holarctic region, other parts of the world are poorly studied and few guides to identifying Chironomidae have been produced. This chapter includes a theoretical synthesis on the Chironomidae, it deals with the Biology (life cycle and description of different stages), description of all subfamilies and the ecology of this important family of Diptera.",book:{id:"10423",slug:"the-wonders-of-diptera-characteristics-diversity-and-significance-for-the-world-s-ecosystems",title:"The Wonders of Diptera",fullTitle:"The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems"},signatures:"Zerguine Karima",authors:[{id:"334825",title:"Dr.",name:"Karima",middleName:null,surname:"Zerguine",slug:"karima-zerguine",fullName:"Karima Zerguine"}]},{id:"75438",title:"Characteristics of Dipteran Insects",slug:"characteristics-of-dipteran-insects",totalDownloads:510,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Diptera means two wings (Di: two, pteron: wing). They have complete metamorphosis and they are holometabolous insects which means there are 4 stages (egg, larvae, pupae and adult). The name of larval stage is “maggot”. Some of the dipteran insects cause damage in agricultural production. Some are harmful for humans. Dipteran insects have two wings. Hind wings are reduced and they are called “halteres”. Function of halteres is balancing when the insects fly. Except mosquitoes, dipteran insects have sponging-sucking mouthparts. Important examples for dipteran insects are Olive fruit fly and Medfly which cause damages in agricultural production. OFF is the most destructive pest in olive growing areas and Mediterranean fruit fly cause damages in fruit production.",book:{id:"10423",slug:"the-wonders-of-diptera-characteristics-diversity-and-significance-for-the-world-s-ecosystems",title:"The Wonders of Diptera",fullTitle:"The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems"},signatures:"Murat Helvacı",authors:[{id:"301984",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Helvaci",slug:"murat-helvaci",fullName:"Murat Helvaci"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"35",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Engineering, University of Naples “Parthenope,” Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plants, logistics, manufacturing, and safety. She serves as an associate editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and is an editorial board member for several other journals. She is also a member of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Academy.",institutionString:"Parthenope University of Naples",institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"179628",title:"Prof.",name:"Dima",middleName:null,surname:"Jamali",slug:"dima-jamali",fullName:"Dima Jamali",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSAIlQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T08:52:23.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sharjah",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},{id:"170206",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Orhan",middleName:null,surname:"Özçatalbaş",slug:"dr.-orhan-ozcatalbas",fullName:"Dr. Orhan Özçatalbaş",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/170206/images/system/170206.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Akdeniz University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"250347",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Isaac",middleName:null,surname:"Oluwatayo",slug:"isaac-oluwatayo",fullName:"Isaac Oluwatayo",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVIVQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-17T13:25:32.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"141386",title:"Prof.",name:"Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"López-Rodríguez",slug:"jesus-lopez-rodriguez",fullName:"Jesús López-Rodríguez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRBNIQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-21T08:24:16.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"208657",title:"Dr.",name:"Mara",middleName:null,surname:"Del Baldo",slug:"mara-del-baldo",fullName:"Mara Del Baldo",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLMUQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-18T08:19:24.png",institutionString:"University of Urbino Carlo Bo",institution:{name:"University of Urbino",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"169536",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Claborn",slug:"david-claborn",fullName:"David Claborn",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169536/images/system/169536.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Missouri State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"248594",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jasneth",middleName:null,surname:"Mullings",slug:"jasneth-mullings",fullName:"Jasneth Mullings",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248594/images/system/248594.jpeg",institutionString:"The University Of The West Indies - Mona Campus, Jamaica",institution:null},{id:"331299",title:"Prof.",name:"Pei-Shan",middleName:null,surname:"Liao",slug:"pei-shan-liao",fullName:"Pei-Shan Liao",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000032Fh2FQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T09:39:41.jpg",institutionString:"Research Center for Humanities and Social Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taiwan",institution:null}]},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the 'new normal'. Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.",institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"320585",title:"Dr.",name:"Deborah",middleName:null,surname:"Young",slug:"deborah-young",fullName:"Deborah Young",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002vZLcTQAW/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T08:30:47.jpg",institutionString:"Empowering Communities Globally, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"348038",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Feyza",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"feyza-bhatti",fullName:"Feyza Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/348038/images/system/348038.jpg",institutionString:"Girne American University, Cyprus",institution:{name:"Girne American University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Cyprus"}}},{id:"302382",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarado",slug:"gina-alvarado",fullName:"Gina Alvarado",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002mZoL9QAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-26T08:14:10.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Landesa Rural Development Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"128665",title:"Prof.",name:"Man-Chung",middleName:null,surname:"Chiu",slug:"man-chung-chiu",fullName:"Man-Chung Chiu",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bR9OrQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T08:36:59.JPG",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Normal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}]},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. 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