IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7540",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Different Areas of Physiotherapy",title:"Different Areas of Physiotherapy",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Different Areas of Physiotherapy provides comprehensive coverage of the key issues and perspectives in the field of physical therapy and rehabilitation. Physiotherapy as a treatment is used to develop, maintain, and restore maximum movement and functional ability throughout the lifespan. This book provides guidance for allied health professionals treating posture and movement difficulties resulting from conditions such as Parkinson's disease, stroke, and others. In addition to content on problem-solving and basic decision-making in the practice setting, this volume includes case studies to help consolidate and apply learning.",isbn:"978-1-78985-590-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-589-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-323-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76695",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"different-areas-of-physiotherapy",numberOfPages:76,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a73ff9538d7b2ff3aab93e411b669463",bookSignature:"Mintaze Kerem Gunel",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7540.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6118,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:10,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 27th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 17th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 16th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 4th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"98035",title:"Prof.",name:"Mintaze",middleName:null,surname:"Kerem Gunel",slug:"mintaze-kerem-gunel",fullName:"Mintaze Kerem Gunel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/98035/images/system/98035.jpg",biography:"Professor Mintaze Kerem Günel, PT, PhD, graduated from Hacettepe University, School of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation in 1989. In the same year, she began to work in Hacettepe University Hospital, Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation, as a physiotherapist. She received her doctorate degree supported by Hacettepe University Research Bursary in 1998. Currently, she is teaching 'Pediatric Rehabilitation” lessons for graduate students of physiotherapy. This lesson includes physiotherapy approaches and applications in children with risky babies, cerebral palsy, congenital torticollis, meningomyelocele, obstetric brachial plexus palsy, developmental disorders, and allied neurologic and developmental problems of children.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1122",title:"Neurological Physical Therapy",slug:"neurological-physical-therapy"}],chapters:[{id:"68030",title:"Introductory Chapter: Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87974",slug:"introductory-chapter-physiotherapy-and-rehabilitation",totalDownloads:808,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Mintaze Kerem Gunel, Cemil Ozal and Duygu Turker",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68030",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68030",authors:[{id:"98035",title:"Prof.",name:"Mintaze",surname:"Kerem Gunel",slug:"mintaze-kerem-gunel",fullName:"Mintaze Kerem Gunel"}],corrections:null},{id:"63605",title:"Movement Rehabilitation in Physiotherapy after Stroke: The Role of Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81081",slug:"movement-rehabilitation-in-physiotherapy-after-stroke-the-role-of-constraint-induced-movement-therap",totalDownloads:1606,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Stroke is increasingly becoming a global health problem. This is because it may lead to death, Long-term disability such as in motor function, and significant burden to the patients and their families. The disability can be prevented or rehabilitated using a physiotherapy technique known as constraint-induced movement therapy (CIMT). The CIMT comprises of task practice with the affected limb, constraint of the unaffected limb, and transfer package to foster compliance and increase the amount of task repetition. It helps to reestablish normal motor control through facilitating changes in physiological functions of the brain, improvement in real-world arm use, and movement precision and quality. However, its protocols vary. Some protocols use number of hours and others use number of repetitions to determine the intensity or the amount of task practice. This chapter argued that CIMT is effective, but the protocols that use a number of hours of task practice are not clear and are resource intensive; and as such they could interfere with the process of clinical decision making. Consequently, it proposed the use of a number of repetitions of task practice to determine the intensity or the amount of task practice and extending the application of CIMT to those with severe impairments after stroke.",signatures:"Auwal Abdullahi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63605",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63605",authors:[{id:"252115",title:"Mr.",name:"Auwal",surname:"Abdullahi",slug:"auwal-abdullahi",fullName:"Auwal Abdullahi"}],corrections:null},{id:"63762",title:"Postural Control in Individuals with Parkinson’s Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81098",slug:"postural-control-in-individuals-with-parkinson-s-disease",totalDownloads:1476,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Parkinson’s disease is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder in the elderly population. It is a complex, progressive, multisystem disease associated with motor and nonmotor impairments. Postural instability is a crucial component of functional mobility, often overlooked by both clinicians and patients with Parkinson’s disease. It is a refractory drug complication for which rehabilitation is the most effective nonpharmacological aid. However, many interventions are based on empirical experience. Improving knowledge on the pathophysiology of postural control disorders is crucial to understand the multifaceted components affected and thus design specific rehabilitation protocols. This chapter intends to offer a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on this topic starting from the pathophysiology of postural control disorders occurring in various ecological conditions to the most innovative multidisciplinary rehabilitation approaches.",signatures:"Marialuisa Gandolfi, Nicola Valè, Mirko Filippetti, Eleonora Kirilova Dimitrova, Christian Geroin, Alessandro Picelli and Nicola Smania",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63762",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63762",authors:[{id:"48223",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicola",surname:"Smania",slug:"nicola-smania",fullName:"Nicola Smania"},{id:"48224",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro",surname:"Picelli",slug:"alessandro-picelli",fullName:"Alessandro Picelli"},{id:"48225",title:"Dr.",name:"Marialuisa",surname:"Gandolfi",slug:"marialuisa-gandolfi",fullName:"Marialuisa Gandolfi"},{id:"96546",title:"BSc.",name:"Christian",surname:"Geroin",slug:"christian-geroin",fullName:"Christian Geroin"},{id:"252052",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicola",surname:"Valè",slug:"nicola-vale",fullName:"Nicola Valè"},{id:"252054",title:"Dr.",name:"Eleonora",surname:"Dimitrova",slug:"eleonora-dimitrova",fullName:"Eleonora Dimitrova"},{id:"252056",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirko",surname:"Filippetti",slug:"mirko-filippetti",fullName:"Mirko Filippetti"}],corrections:null},{id:"63594",title:"Physical Rehabilitation in the Management of Symptomatic Adult Scoliosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81184",slug:"physical-rehabilitation-in-the-management-of-symptomatic-adult-scoliosis",totalDownloads:2228,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Scoliosis is prevalent in elderlies over the age of 60. Of the different curve types, the thoracolumbar curve is the most common curve type operated upon, as it is associated with marked trunk shift and disability. Current physiotherapy treatments consist of electrotherapy, aquatic exercises, core-strengthening exercises, and dry needling. Outcome of these treatments has not been satisfactory. Long-term successful rate of conservative treatment of symptomatic adult scoliosis is low, as the treatment addresses symptoms but not the biomechanics involved in adult scoliosis. Recent studies have shown that physiotherapeutic scoliosis-specific exercises (PSSE) and bracing stabilized the curves in 80% of the subjects. Thus PSSE and bracing should be added to the standard physiotherapy care in the management of symptomatic adult scoliosis. For asymptomatic patients with thoracolumbar curve that has an increased risk of progression, PSSE should be considered as preventative exercises. Patients who do not respond to conservative treatments and have significant spinal stenosis should be referred for surgery.",signatures:"Shu-Yan Ng, Tsz-Ki Ho and Yin-Ling Ng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63594",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63594",authors:[{id:"204673",title:"Dr.",name:"Shu Yan",surname:"Ng",slug:"shu-yan-ng",fullName:"Shu Yan Ng"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5307",title:"Cerebral Palsy",subtitle:"Current Steps",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"641950e0e459b41258249cd73ad4aee2",slug:"cerebral-palsy-current-steps",bookSignature:"Mintaze Kerem Gunel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5307.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"98035",title:"Prof.",name:"Mintaze",surname:"Kerem Gunel",slug:"mintaze-kerem-gunel",fullName:"Mintaze Kerem 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1. Introduction
The challenges of sustainability are already guiding today\'s scientific and technological progress, and because environmental awareness should necessarily be fostered from birth, toy design was selected as a field of inquiry for this contribution. The connection between toys and environmental sustainability is explored in this chapter in two main areas which complement each other. On the one hand, eco-design of toys is considered "tout court" (pure and simple). In this respect, the ecological aspects of the objects that support play (toys) should be considered at the level of the materials used, the expenditure of energy in their production and transportation, as well as in what concerns other issues related to the lifecycle of the product and for a combination of recreational, educational, and pedagogical purposes. On the other hand, children may also be actively educated to develop their environmental awareness. It is believed that these two approaches are complementary and that in an ideal scenario the toys for leisure activities given to children by their relatives, and those provided by nurseries, day-care centres, pre-schools, primary schools and even urban equipment available for kids in playgrounds should reconcile these two aims: minimizing environmental impacts (associated with pro-active eco-design, considering the whole life cycle of the recreational-educational product) and education for civic development in view of responsible citizenship with great emphasis on the foundation of environmental awareness and protection of ecosystems and the legacy for future generations.
To contextualise and underpin the development of this work, it proceeds with an initial gathering of information about the child\'s cognitive development, which is presented in the reminder of this section. The following sections seek to answer the questions raised as a result of the proposed aims along with the presentation of design results.
2. Stages of child development
A child is a human being in the "cradle" of her or his development. Childhood is the period from birth until about the 12th year of a person\'s life. It is a time of great physical development, manifested by progressive increase in height and weight of the child. It is also the period when the human being develops psychologically, and during which changes occur in behaviour and the foundations of personality are developed. Regarding the maturity of all species that inhabit the Earth, the human being is the one with the slowest growth and development rates of all. The human is a rather slow developing species; for example, in the time that a child learns to walk and run with sufficient equilibrium, other species reach full maturity, as is the case of rats, who reach sexual maturity in only 15 days.
According to Wallon (1981), the human being is determined physiologically and socially, subject to internal arrangements (affective), and external situations (sensorial-motor). In this way the study of human development must consider the subject as grounded in its relationship with the environment. This author considers the following five stages of development: impulsive-emotional - 0 months-1 year (the predominant affection); sensor-motor and projective - 3 months-3 years (dominated by intelligence); personalism - 3-6 years (formation of the personality of the individual and self-awareness); categorical stage - 6-11 years (development of memory capacities and voluntary attention); stage of adolescence - 11-16 years (physical and psychological changes). However, the stages of human development do not cease in adolescence, as, according to Wallon (1981), the learning processes that occur throughout life involve crossing a new stage of development.
Jean Piaget considered that the development of children also occurred in stages, however, according to Piaget and Inhelder (1995), the key is the sequential order of stages and not the age at which each one arises. To make up a new stadium, one must have passed through and overcome the previous stages. Jean Piaget believed that there are four stages of development, which he detailed in his Cognitive Theory. These stages are: the sensor-motor stage - 0 months-2 years; preoperative - 2-7 years (egocentricity); stage of concrete operations - 7-11 years (integrated mental organization); and stage of formal operations - 12 years and over (development of abstract thinking operations).
2.1. Observation of children at play
The previous section, aimed at contextualizing the work in this chapter, which is centred on children, presented the stages of their cognitive development (psychosocial and emotional). In order to support this contextualization, a set of observations of children at play, presented in Table 1, were made, as a form of recognition in practice of the concepts presented. These observations also allowed inference of the type of activities, the duration thereof and the reactions of children during play. Especially in the cases where two children of different ages were observed playing together, the observed states of the children are different in some cases. These result from the diverse stages of development of the children and the adequateness and appeal and complexity of the activities being carried out.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
date
\n\t\t\t
time
\n\t\t\t
actors (age)
\n\t\t\t
Description of activities
\n\t\t\t
General impressions per child
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
24-12 2010
\n\t\t\t
17:12
\n\t\t\t
Leandro (23 m.) Leonor (4 y.)
\n\t\t\t
- hide and seek (33min) - sketching and colouring (1h14min) - clay moulding of dolls (25min)
\n\t\t\t
Leandro - interest or joy - ”difficulty” -indifference
\n\t\t\t
Leonor - energy or joy - concentration - tiredness
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
26-12 2010
\n\t\t\t
14:46
\n\t\t\t
Leandro (23 m.)
\n\t\t\t
- ball play (24min) - tricycle riding (14 min) - looking at pets (caged birds) (12min)
\n\t\t\t
Leandro - joy or motivation - joy or motivation - apprehensive or fearful
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
28-12 2010
\n\t\t\t
15:30
\n\t\t\t
Vasco (14 m.)
\n\t\t\t
- looking at books with sounds and colours (12min) - puzzles and cubes (40min) - playing with the dog (15min)
\n\t\t\t
Vasco - concentration or joy
- interest or concentration - joy or satisfaction or happiness
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
02-01 2011
\n\t\t\t
10:53
\n\t\t\t
Catarina (3 y.)
\n\t\t\t
- looking at books (38min) - using paint and scribble books (45min)
\n\t\t\t
Catarina - interest - happiness
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
15-01 2011
\n\t\t\t
14:25
\n\t\t\t
Tiago (12 y.) Alexandra (10 y.)
\n\t\t\t
- playing playstation (1h) - ball games (35min) - pretending game (20min) - reading (30min) - playing with dolls and cars (15min)
\n\t\t\t
Alexandra - indifference - joy - “imagination” - interest - “imagination”
\n\t\t\t
Tiago - concentration - energy or satisfaction - “imagination” - indifference - “imagination”
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
Observation of children at play (several children interacted with the second author in a family setting).
3. Education for sustainability
In order to find a point of connection between sustainability and education for sustainability a search was initially made for concepts and needs within sustainable development. Subsequently, an analysis was made of the universe in education for sustainability and a letter from the Earth is presented, which is a declaration of fundamental principles for building a society that is fair, sustainable and peaceful.
3.1. Sustainable development
Enough for everyone, forever. These words resonate with the ideas of limited resources, responsible consumption, equality and equity and a long-term perspective, all of them corresponding to important concepts of sustainable development (Portuguese Ministry of Education, 2006). Sustainable development involves meeting present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to also meet theirs. The concept of sustainable development involves not only fostering positive impacts locally, but this should be thought in global terms, giving rise to the sense of universal responsibility. Hence, sustainable development is all about a joint effort carried out between different areas, whether social, economic, ecological or political, thus trying to strike a balance between economic growth, social equality and the preservation of natural resources and habitats. Ensuring that the people from all over the world are able to satisfy their basic needs, while assuring that future generations can have the same quality of life is at the core of the sustainable development agenda.
3.2. Education for sustainable development
\'The early childhood years are the most significant and when the greatest developments in the life of a person take place and are generally regarded as the foundation upon which the rest of an individual’s life is built (Mustard 2000; Rutter, 2002). Children, viewed beyond their genetic heritage, are influenced by the environment around them and by their relationships with their parents and with other people, so when considering the formation of emotions in children, one must look at all the ways in which the child responds to all persons with whom he or she crosses, and all the images she or he sees. The education of children is the greatest responsibility of parenting, with the aim to create "adulthood" and not perpetuate childhood, parents should bet early on in showing their children the emotional realities with which life confronts everyone, sooner or later.
As is well known, children follow the examples of parents and of all those who are part of their reality. It is however up to parents to ensure the safety of small children that are not yet able to assess the dangers that surround them, and to educate them to become citizens of a just society where everyone can exercise their rights to equality and solidarity. One ought to never forget that home is the real trainer of people. Values such as education and personal development must be transmitted within the family, however, in current times, and with the economic and social situation most people are confronted with today, it becomes increasingly difficult. Parents spend less time with their children, thus hindering the teaching of personal and social values which includes education for sustainable development. To compensate this, the school seeks to fill the gaps in education by the family, but there is still a need for restructuring at the curriculum level. The school curriculum structure does not necessarily facilitate the task of educating for sustainable development. For example, experimental teaching activities can be a real challenge when teaching is confined to a classroom. Furthermore, the assessment systems are, often, based in a competitive model in which individual grades become the main goal of the students. This is, in fact, an environment that hinders the promotion of values central to the notion of sustainable development, such as \'participation\' or \'cooperation\' (Portuguese Ministry of Education, 2006).
The call for a rampant consumerism that translates into large discharges of toxic waste and garbage are two major global problems. Through early education for sustainable development it may be possible to modify consumer relations and ensure environmental sustainability of our planet changing the current situation.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Section
\n\t\t\t
Principles
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
I - Respect and care for community life
\n\t\t\t
Respect Earth and life in all its diversity. Care for the community of life with understanding, compassion and love. Build democratic societies that are just, participatory, sustainable and peaceful. Conserving Earth\'s bounty and beauty for present and future generations.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
II - Ecological Integrity
\n\t\t\t
Protect and restore the integrity of Earth\'s ecological systems, with special attention given to biological diversity and natural processes that sustain life. Addressing the prevention of environmental problems as the best method of environmental protection and in case of insufficient recognition, taking preventive measures. Adopt patterns of production, consumption and reproduction that safeguard Earth\'s regenerative capacity, human rights and the welfare of communities. Encourage the study of ecological sustainability and promote the free exchange of knowledge and its application.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
III - Social and economic justice
\n\t\t\t
Eradicate poverty as an ethical, social and environmental problem. Ensure that economic institutions at all levels promote human development in an equitable and sustainable manner. Affirm gender equality and equity as prerequisites to sustainable development and ensure universal access to education, health care and employment. Defend, without discrimination, the right of everyone to a social and natural environment, by promoting human dignity, bodily health and spiritual well-being, with special attention given to the rights of indigenous peoples and minorities.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
IV - Democracy, nonviolence and peace
\n\t\t\t
Strengthen democratic institutions at all levels, and provide transparency and effective governance to ensure inclusive participation in decision making and access to justice. Integrate knowledge, values and skills for a sustainable way of life into formal education and lifelong learning, Treat all living beings with respect and consideration. Promote a culture of tolerance, non-violence and peace.
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 2.
Earth Charter - basic principles (Portuguese Ministry of Education, 2006).
3.3. Analysis of the educational universe in the area of sustainability
In Portugal, there are a set of pedagogical guidelines to support education for citizenship, which are published in the booklet entitled "Guidelines for Education for Sustainability", developed jointly by the Directorate General for Innovation and Curriculum Development, Ministry of Education and the Portuguese Association for Environmental Education (ASPEA). Its realization is based on the Earth Charter (Table 2), which was published by UNESCO in 2000 and approved by the UN in 2002. Published in 2006, this guide aims to foster and support primary school teachers in the arduous task of educating for sustainable development, and in serving as a basis for curriculum and civic education of children and youth. “The authors believe that the school, among other institutional actors, plays an invaluable training role that must be exercised and enjoyed in large areas, including not only formal knowledge and curriculum (...) "(Evaristo, 2006). Making the school a hub for production and dissemination of information on education for sustainable development for students and parents is one of the objectives of ASPEA.
The Earth Charter is a reference to relevant and unique training programs that aim to develop learning processes in students for a more just, sustainable and peaceful society, (Portuguese Ministry of Education, 2006).
The literature review of concepts related to education for sustainability and sustainable development, contributed significantly to the design phase of this work. In Portugal there was already a breakthrough in early education for sustainable development, which seeks to instil values such as early environmental sustainability in school children. However, authors can see that this whole journey tends to occur mostly at the theoretical level, neglecting the practical part as a crucial incentive. It is worth highlighting the commitment and positive attitude of the Ministry of Education to prepare a script that aims to guide teachers in the arduous task that is education for sustainable development.
4. Methodology for toy design
The literature review carried out to meet the goal set for this work, of reviewing existing methodologies for the design of toys, was not successful, since it fell through without attaining literature references covering this matter. The authors proceeded to propose a methodology for designing new toys (based on the systematic process of design and taking into account the stages of child development) that is the following:
Recall the stages of physical, cognitive, sensor-motor, social and emotional development of children.
Given the context of playful activities, proceed to carry out an exploration of activities that may contribute to the development of the child in one or more of the spheres covered above (1).
Find one or more metaphors that may form the basis of concepts for the creation of toys or recreational objects.
Evaluate the concepts of toy or object triggered as a result of the previous stage in satisfying a set of requirements generally applicable to toys or objects of play (e.g. low toxicity, safety regarding self-inflicted injury) and select those that satisfy the general requirements and that are configured as original proposals, potentially motivating their use by children (by selecting different age groups) and clearly support one or more activities that promote psychosocial development, development of sensory-motor skills and of physical ability in the child users.
Develop and set, based on knowledge of the context of child development and the concept selected, a specification in order to guide the design of the toy or playful object. At this stage market objectives should be considered, including costs, packaging, distribution and consideration may also be given to objectives of another nature.
Proceed to the development of the detailed concept and produce prototypes enabling testing under controlled conditions of safety, initially with adults and ensuring no hazard is presented by the prototypes when seeking to involve children in their use. (Note: at this stage children should be able to keep the prototype toys).
In this process the results of usability testing can motivate changes to the project description and a new iteration of design refinement and testing, reiterating until the development team is satisfied with the results, or the resources allocated to the development have been exhausted.
Development of production processes and of release, distribution, and marketing documentation.
4.1. Evaluation of the proposed methodology
Since there was no published methodology found alluding to the subject discussed in this chapter with respect to the design of toys, authors opted for the generation of a new methodology. The assessment of this proposed methodology was achieved through the implementation of projects based on it. Table 3 describes the strengths and weaknesses found in the pursuit of the conceptual design phase, which includes the first four steps (Table 3).
Given the academic nature of the development of plans to evaluate the proposed methodology, steps 5, 6, 7 and 8 could not be tested fully. However, step 6 was partially implemented, given the production of two prototypes, without adopting the colours, materials and the final dimensions of the toys that were designed.
Not having found a published methodology, the authors chose to develop a methodology for designing toys focused on the stages of psychosocial and emotional development of children from an early age. One of the most prevalent weaknesses of the methodology relates to the initial survey to be carried out about the stages of physical, cognitive, sensor-motor, social and emotional development of children, which may be considered as limiting creativity. As strengths, the proposed methodology’s capacity to foster iteration and improvement after the prototyping phase is highlighted.
4.2. Toy design methods considering sustainable design goals
The sustainable design methodologies proposed by Fuad-Luke (2004) and Ryan (2009) were taken as a basis on which to develop a proposal for toy design satisfying sustainability goals. The former is rather more detailed than the latter, with a high level of detail given to the process, which is deemed easy to follow. As a strong point in Ryan’s (2009) proposal, authors emphasize the fact that not only does it cover a perspective focused on the product but it also encompasses product and service systems with strategic orientation towards sustainable design goals. Both methodologies share the common goal to create products or artefacts that safeguard the continuity of the planet\'s resources, thereby creating a combined economic, social, and environmental solution. The concern with the product life cycle is also a common point in both methods. Fuad-Luke (2004) presents a methodology for the eco-pluralist designer, easy to understand, so that designers can design more sustainable products aimed at the continuity of future generations. Ryan (2009) proposes, on the other hand, a more elaborate method dealing with systems and that, as such, can be adopted and used by companies. Considering the initially proposed methodology for toy design (Table 2) and the contributions reaped from Fuad-Lake (2004) and Ryan’s (2009) methods, the toy design methodology proposed was enlarged towards being geared towards sustainability goals and towards fostering the development of environmental awareness, taking the form presented in Table 4.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Step of the proposed methodology
\n\t\t\t
Strengths and Weaknesses
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Step 1
\n\t\t\t
Strengths: With the implementation of this step, one gets a very comprehensive view of the stages of child development. Weaknesses: Once you start the development of this methodology with a focus on literature, from the standpoint of design activity, creativity is a bit on standby as it is not part of the realization of sketches. Instead of only collecting data from literature, it might be more stimulating and creative to simultaneously consider the relevance of designed objects to interact with children.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Step 2
\n\t\t\t
Strengths: Given the focus of activities that contribute to the development of specific capabilities of the child, the methodology can be used many times by various designers giving rise to very diverse projects. Weaknesses: Since the methodology focuses on specific activities related directly to child development, the results may be relevant only to a very narrow age span, challenging the duration of the interest of the child in the toy over an extended period, which may undermine the objectives of sustainability.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Step 3
\n\t\t\t
Strengths: The use of metaphors opens up almost unlimited possibilities. The simultaneous use of more than one metaphor is intended to prevent that a metaphor may predominate and the subject may become too literal if using only one metaphor. The crossing and the combination of several metaphors is a way of stimulating creativity, enhancing innovativeness of results. Weaknesses: If the designer is not careful, the project may become too literal in relation to the metaphor, so the designer must be aware and avoid over-literalness.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Step 4
\n\t\t\t
Considering the initial proposed methodology of the concept generated is a way to avoid that the project goes much forward before judging its relevance, which contributes to increase the efficacy of the methodology and to reduce costs ( for example in prototyping), and time spent by the designer, or by the design team, in creating the toy. Weaknesses: The focus on specific activities and sensory-motor skills as well as on differentiation into age groups may not be possible given that the concepts generated have been from the outset (in Step 2) directed to a specific activity focusing on one age group and supporting the development thereof.
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 3.
The authors’ evaluation of the proposed methodology for toy design.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Step
\n\t\t\t
Activities
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t
Review the stages of physical, cognitive, sensor-motor, social and emotional development of children to meet real needs rather than needs related to passing fashion or driven by the markets.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t
Given the context of the design project being developed, carry out exploration activities that may contribute to the development of the child in one or more of the spheres covered above (point 1).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t
Generate concepts for one or more activities that can underpin the creation of toys or recreational objects, directing creativity to issues that foster awareness of environmental sustainability in an educational manner: a - Do not waste materials, energy, food ... b - Respect ecosystems. c - Preserving the planet for future generations. d - Adopt the idea of the three R\'s - Reduce, Recycle, Reuse. e - Strengthen the relationship between economics, technology, society, politics and the environment. f - Enter the challenge of "moving from concept to action". g - Recover and develop values and behaviors such as trust, mutual respect, responsibility, commitment, solidarity and initiative.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t
Evaluate the toy or playful object concepts triggered in the previous stage against a set of requirements generally applicable to toys or playful objects (e.g. low toxicity, safety against injury) and select those that satisfy the general requirements and are configured as original proposals, potentially motivating their use by children (selected according to different age groups), and that satisfy in an obvious manner the support of one or more activities that promote the development of psychosocial and sensory-motor skills as well as physical ability.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t
Set, based on knowledge of the context of child development, a specification of the concept selected in order to guide the design process of the toy or playful object. At this stage market objectives should be considered including cost, packaging, distribution and consideration may also be given to objectives of a different nature, including sustainability, and such as: a - Designing to minimize the ecological footprint of the product, material or service, that is, reduce the consumption of resources including water and energy. b - Designing to take advantage of renewable energies (solar, wind, hydro or wave), instead of using non-renewable natural capital such as fossil fuels. \n\t\t\tc - Designing to enable separation of the components of the product, material or service at the end of their life-cycle in order to encourage recycling or reuse of materials and, or, of the components. d - Designing to eliminate the use of toxic or hazardous substances for humans and other life forms in all stages of the life cycle of the product, material or service. e - Designing to engender maximum benefits to the intended audience and to educate the client and the user and thereby create a more equitable future. f - Designing to use locally available materials and resources whenever possible (think globally but act locally). g - Designing modularly to encourage and allow sequential purchases, as required and according to financial availability, in order to facilitate repair and reuse and improve functionality. h - Designing to create more sustainable products, materials and services for a more sustainable future.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t
Review the existing product market, including environmental and social features.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
7
\n\t\t\t
Developing a picture of the profile outlined by the environmental impact of the new product.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
8
\n\t\t\t
Proceed to the development of the detailed concept and produce prototypes enabling testing under controlled conditions of safety, initially with adults and ensuring no hazard is presented by the prototypes when seeking to involve children in their use. (Note: at this stage children should be able to keep the prototype toys).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
9
\n\t\t\t
In this process the results of usability testing can motivate changes to the project description and a new iteration of design refinement and testing, reiterating until the development team is satisfied with the results or the resources allocated to the development have been exhausted.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
10
\n\t\t\t
Development of production processes and of release, distribution, and marketing documentation.
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 4.
Methodology for the design of toys that promote awareness of environmental sustainability.
Starting from a methodology proposed for toy design with 8 steps (Table 2), a new methodology in 10 stages was proposed in Table 4, by agglutination of steps aimed at reducing environmental impacts and at promoting awareness of environmental sustainability. Environmental considerations were introduced in step 5 (which is new), in the sixth step (which was previously step 5) and in step 7 (new). The methodology for toy design presented is aimed at promoting awareness of environmental sustainability. This is based on a systematic design process, including steps to lead a process of sustainable design of toys with inclusion of actions meant to integrate themes closely linked to education for environmental sustainability.
4.3. Toy design - 1
In applying the new methodology for the design of ecological toys, a concept was generated and implicitly chosen that underwent several iterations in order to adapt it and make it compatible with the safety requirements associated to these kinds of objects. The authors opted for the choice of children aged from 1 to 2 years, which is regarded as a phase of great sensory and cognitive development of the infant. The activity on which to focus the project on which the authors decided to implement the proposed methodology was the activity of fitting between parts, for which a preferred order is defined which will be a secondary challenge (the primary challenge is the realization of the fitting). In the project developed, authors also considered the learning activities leading to colours identification.
The authors considered several metaphors in the development of the project, having been incorporated in the foreseen interaction of the user with the toy, the fitting of cups and throwing rings into a pole, as well as a fruit tree.
The initial concept renders are presented in Figures 1 and 2. After the smoothening of sharp edges was done, and after creating empty spaces to make the parts lighter and less bulky, the same concept evolved and gained the aspect that can be appreciated in Figures 3 to 5 (the smoothening of edges aimed at satisfaction of the requirements associated with safety against damage to kids made by themselves).
Figure 1.
Initial concept renders (a) – toy design – 1.
Figure 2.
Initial concept renders (b) – toy design – 1.
Figure 3.
Evolved concept (a) – toy design – 1.
Figure 4.
Evolved concept (b) – toy design – 1.
Figure 5.
Evolved concept (c) – toy design – 1.
For the actual manufacture of the toy it was decided to select a biodegradable material such as natural latex. This is a flexible material, it does not hurt upon hitting it suddenly and there is no risk of falling as toys are spread into the room. Its production is carried out by moulding and casting, followed by curing in oven drying. For the colouring, non-toxic water-based pigments were chosen.
The prototype of the first design outcome of the project was produced by a three dimensional printing process (based on gypsum) and was made on a scale consistent with the capabilities and limitations of the 3D printer available to the authors. Figures 6 to 8 are images of the results of prototyping.
Figure 6.
Model (a) of toy design – 1.
Figure 7.
Model (b) of toy design – 1.
Figure 8.
Model (c) of toy design – 1.
The first project aims to be an example of green design features due to its biodegradable material. It is also looking into cultivating small children’s early sensibility to care for Nature and for our planet. Despite their young age, most child users are already able to recall small actions and replay them later.
4.4. Toy design - 2
The second project, which is based on methodology that aims at education for awareness of sustainability, incorporates the principles of respect for ecosystems and development of behaviour and values. This toy consists of a small tree that is inhabited by four different animals, and seeks to show that everyone is entitled to their space. Actions such as deforestation often cause the extinction of animal species and natural habitats, and as such, it is intended with this toy that the little kids become interested in the continuity of the planet.
According to the approach presented in Table 4, the authors proceeded with the development of project activities aiming to design a toy for children seeking the development of environmental awareness. The stage of cognitive development targeted was from 3 to 5 years and the activity triggered was the development of recommended levels of membership and association through stimulating of the recognition of the compatibility of symbiosis, including engagement between peers. For the generation of concepts, respecting ecosystems and recovering and developing values and behaviours such as mutual respect and commitment was specially taken into account. Over several drafts and sketches the authors explored various ideas for this project. The concept that came to be developed was based on the idea selected from among many ideas generated. The prototype was performed in 3D printing of high quality ceramic material. In the following images, the prototype is represented as image renders of the 3D model (Figures 9 and 10) and photographs of the prototype (Figures 11 and 12).
Figure 9.
Render of concept (a) – toy design – 2.
Figure 10.
Render of concept (b) – toy design – 2.
Figure 11.
Model (a) of toy design – 2.
Figure 12.
Model (b) of toy design – 2.
5. Conclusion and future work
In this chapter, design as a driver for education for environmental sustainability and the need for application of ecological concepts in the production of new products, in this case in what concerns toys, have resulted in the creation of new toy design methodologies.
The methodologies presented in this chapter were the result of a lengthy and elaborate research about early childhood education, environmental sustainability and sustainable development and of research on products already produced and which are available.
The methodologies for the design of toys and ecological design for education awareness for environmental sustainability are the result of an amalgamation of three methodologies, thus trying to bridge existing gaps in literature.
The chapter concludes with presentation of two toy projects that are expected to contribute to the aims set forth in the introduction.
In the process of assessing the design results for validation of the methodologies reached at, it is proposed for future work to conduct a survey collecting empirical data through questionnaires, which may give rise to the creation of empirical models relating the properties of objects created with the judgmental impressions of parents and other relatives of the child-users. In this way, one may determine if the methodologies proposed and implemented giving rise to the design of toys are effective towards attaining the objectives that guided their creation.
It is also proposed for future studies to carry out a test phase with prototypes embodied in latex, since the prototypes shown were made in gypsum, thus postponing the confirmation and analysis of the properties and the strength of the material proposed (latex).
Acknowledgement
Parts of the research presented in this chapter were developed as part of the second author’s Master of Science thesis in industrial design engineering, supervised by the first author.
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Universidade da Beira Interior, Portugal
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1. Introduction
The majority of raw materials used today derived from non-renewable sources such as coal and petroleum. This caused many drawbacks such as a severe depletion of non-renewable resources, continuous growth in petroleum prices, environmental impact with the rise in the emission of greenhouse gases, and accumulation of non-biodegradable waste on earth [1, 2, 3]. Currently, major global attention has shifted to other sources, for many reasons such as, need for enormous novel and sustainable material resources; supplement, reuse, and replace of petroleum-based polymeric materials; biodegradability of materials to prevent a buildup of waste; the toxicity associated with the preparation, usage, and environmental safety. Therefore, the utilization of natural resources as alternatives for petroleum-based products has been increased (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Worldwide use of renewable resources for materials in 2008.
Consequently, some new terms have been developed, such as green, environmentally benign, biodegradable … etc. Therefore, polymers are referred “green” if they exhibit one or more of the following properties: source renewability, biodegradability, composability after end of the life and environmentally friendly processing [3, 4].
Many materials can be categorized under this term such as:
Biopolymers: Biodegradable polymers (From biopolymers or petropolymers).
Recyclable polymers: (From biopolymers or petropolymers).
Polymers from renewable resources: The input materials for the production of these polymers may be either renewable (based on agricultural plant or animal products) or synthetic (derived from or based on petroleum crude oil).
Sustainable polymers from renewable resources can be prepared through chemical modification of natural polymers, such as cellulose, starch, chitin, etc. Bio-based polymers also synthesized through a two-step process from biomass (lignin, cellulose, starch, plant oils) [5, 6, 7]. Carbohydrates are the most prominent raw materials for industrial chemicals as they account for around 95% of annually produced biomass. The conversion methods including chemical and biological methods, direct extraction and selected technological advancements will be discussed. Furthermore, the application of green polymers in some petroleum processes also will be investigated.
2. Biopolymers versus green polymers
Macromolecules which are produced by living organisms and given the term biopolymers have numerous functions. Some of them, as DNA molecule, have so specific functions in information storing and convey. Others are formed in considerable level (scale) and offer protection in the form of hard shells or structural integrity [8, 9, 10, 11]. These ‘structural’ biopolymers symbolize a various range of chemical functionality and compositions and can be largely categorized as polysaccharides, triglycerides, polypeptides (Figure 2). As general, all biopolymers are green but not all green polymers are derived from natural sources, there are green synthetic polymers such as polyesters and some green polymers are derived from crude oil such as polycaprolactam (PCL) (Figure 3).
Figure 2.
Different types of biopolymers.
Figure 3.
Classification of green polymers.
2.1 Advantages of green polymers
The green polymers show superior and unique properties incomparable to other materials, these properties are [12, 13, 14]:
Economically feasible
High flexibility relative to properties and implementations
Lighter weight
Excellent anticorrosion property
Easy processing with short period in injection molding, blow molding, fiber spinning, and extrusion
Highly cost-, resource-, eco-, and energy-effective mass production
Flexible base of raw materials (oil, coal, gas, and biomass)
High energy content similar to that of oil and superior to wood
Recycling as materials and sources of energy and chemical feedstocks
Significant contributions to energy savings in applications
The green chemistry concept, which was initiated in the 1990, is linked to the term green economy. Both terms aim to minimize the claim for energy and resources, lessen wastes, avoid ecological pollution and hazards, reduce greenhouse gas release, optimize industrialization processes, and establish efficient recycling of wastes [15, 16, 17]. These elements are essential parts of sustainable chemistry.
2.2 Green principles of polymer production
Important green principles of polymer production handle the following issues [18, 19]:
High resource usefulness and elevated atom economy, capitalizing the content of raw materials in the manufactured goods.
Clean and lean production processes, preventing wastes and reducing greenhouse gas emissions
High safety criteria.
Secondary substances use like blocking groups, and organic solvents are not recommended.
No healthiness and ecological hazards by eliminating toxicity.
High-energy efficiency of materials’ manufacturing and applications.
Utilization of renewable resources and renewable energy.
Low carbon footprint.
Controlled product lifecycles with useful and effective waste recycling.
However, the properties of biopolymers are strongly influenced by their source. Visibly, the structure and characteristics of a polysaccharide are totally different from a polypeptide. Even so, there can still be spectacular variation in properties of a single biopolymer, depending on the species that produce it. A typical model of this natural variability is alginate, which is an extract from seaweed. Alginate is a linear copolymer of α-L-guluronate and β-D-mannuronate and the segments are not random copolymers but contain blocks of alternating or identical monomers. The strength of this biopolymer count on its composition, which varies significantly between different species and growth environment as well as within different parts of the original plant (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Alginate from different sources.
2.3 Physico-chemical properties of green polymers
Gel or viscous solutions formation is one of the most attractive features about green polymers; a lot of them form viscous solutions or gel in water due to intermolecular hydrogen bonding formation (Figure 5). This specific property used widely in different industries to control rheological properties and stability [20].
Figure 5.
Intermolecular hydrogen bondings.
Another important feature that most green polymers possess is their high functionality, which allows versatile modification routes in order to produce endless products [12]. Extensive works are carried out to design and invent green alternative routes for effective biomass transformation to chemicals.
These modification methodologies depend on the nature of the functional group(s), distribution of these functionalities within the polymer chain, the nature, and the usability of the product. The most common modification procedures involve esterification, ethoxylation, depolymerization, amination, etherification … etc. [21]. The next sections include thorough review for modification of green polymers for utilization in different petroleum sectors. They are categorized according to the stage they are applied in – as in Table 1.
Utilization of green polymers in the petroleum sector.
3. Green polymers in petroleum industry
3.1 Drilling fluids
The expression drilling mud implies to fluids, which are used to save up well control and transport drill cuttings from the boreholes to the surface. In the drilling process, the fluid is pumped from the surface, down the drill string, through the bit, and back to the surface via the annulus. Drilling mud constitutes an essential part of the drilling process. The appropriate fluid selection is controlled by drilling performance, expected well condition, the safety of workers, cost, and mud cuttings discarding [22]. Drilling muds must be verbalized to eliminate problems associated with formation damage, well chemistry, and other well disturbances. Choosing suitable drilling fluids and control of their properties within desirable ranges are pivotal aspects of successful oil well drilling [23]. Drilling muds are mainly composed of liquid (i.e., water, oil, or brine) and solid materials (i.e., clay, polymer, barite, and additives). The main types of drilling muds are illustrated in Figure 6.
Figure 6.
Different types of drilling muds.
There are many green polymers used as thickening agents in drilling mud formulation as either single materials or a blend of components. These include Polyethylene glycol [24], Carboxymethyl cellulose [25, 26], combination of cellulose and clay [27], amide modified polysaccharide [28], cellulose nanofibril [29], chitosan [30]. Based on their superior thickening properties, Green gums were used are excellent candidates in drilling fluid designs. In this regard, Guar gum was used during drilling operations as a first-rate additive for mud systems because of its unique properties. These properties include, but are not exclusive to, loss control agent, viscosifiers and polymer [31, 32].
Xanthan gum has used as a highly beneficial drilling mud additive that reduces related well instabilities [33, 34]. Xanthan gum also, can be used in other applications such as an emulsifier, stabilizer (in some cases), a thickener for mud systems and suspending agent [34, 35, 36, 37].
Moreover, other natural water-insoluble cellulosic materials; peanut hulls, bagasse, and sawdust were investigated as lost circulation control materials [38]. The chemical composition of these materials is given in Table 2; the data revealed that Peanut hulls have the best results relative to bagasse and sawdust as they have 60% crude fiber and the least content of cellulose.
The material
Chemical composition
Peanut hulls
Cellulose (25%), Crude fiber (60%), Water (8%), Protein (6%), Ash (2%), and Fat (1%)
Cellulose (58.2%), Lignin (28.4%), Moisture (4.8), and Ash (0.21%).
Table 2.
Chemical composition of some cellulosic materials [38].
Furthermore, some mixed green formulations were applied as thickening agents such as Sulfonate-containing polymer/polyanionic cellulose [39], sulphone crosslinked galactomannans [40].
Olatunde et al. [41] introduced a blended water-based drilling fluid based on guar gum, bentonite, polyanionic cellulose (PAC) and arabic gum. The rheological behavior and the filtration loss property of each drilling fluid developed were measured using API standard procedures. Guar gum showed the highest gel strength and the best stable rheological properties. The rheological properties of borate-guar gum crosslinked fluids were studied by Oscar [42] and he found that anionic galactomannans, which are derived from guar gum suitable as thickeners. They are capable of enhancing viscosities when used either alone or in combination with a cationic polymer and distributed in a solvent.
3.2 Demulsifiers
The process of crude oil formation is usually associated by incorporation of salty water within the crude. This formation water constitutes very drastic water-in-oil emulsions, which affect the production process and causes corrosion to the production facilities and equipment. Therefore, crude oil free of water is a significant demand for oil and gas treatment. The demuslification process is a stepwise process starts removing the natural stabilizing agents that present in the crude oil (asphaltenes), then replacing them with demulsifiers which allow water droplets to approach each other and coalescence into bigger and bigger droplets which finally leads to separation of the emulsion into two phases (Figure 7).
Figure 7.
Demulsification process.
Environmental restrictions limit the use of most traditional demulsifiers despite of its effectiveness in breaking (W/O) emulsions. Since most traditional demulsifiers are pollutive and have high environmental hazards, green demulsifiers have been applied to break down petroleum emulsions. In this regard, Abu-Bakar and Aliyu [43] investigated plant extracts of some vegetable oils such as the coconut, olive oils, and green tea as effective environmentally friendly W/O demulsifiers. The plant extract was obtained by Soxhlet extraction method while the vegetable oil (triglycerides) was obtained from coconut oil (100%), the compositions, and the purity of the extracts and the vegetable oils were determined by gas chromatography (GC) while the non-toxic effect of the tested demulsifiers was proved by potential toxicity tests. The demulsification efficiency of the investigated green demulsifiers was confirmed via bottle tests, the data revealed that the green tea extract and olive oil separated lesser amount of water than the coconut oil for all W/O emulsion samples. Moreover, Abdulraheim [44] developed chitosan-based nonionic surfactants by modification of chitosan (chemically) via esterification then etherification to produce ether amides surfactants (Figure 8). The synthesized surfactants were characterized by IR spectroscopy and their thermal properties were investigated. Furthermore, the surface properties of these surfactants were calculated through surface tension measurements at different temperatures and the demulsification efficiency of the prepared surfactants was verified under different conditions. Viscosity of the crude oil before and after demulsification was used as a parameter for demulsification process. Moreover, the demulsification process was monitored by using the optical microscope. Cellulosic materials were extensively used as bases for green demulsifiers for crude oil emulsion. Regarding this, cellulose was separated from saw dust and depolymerized into pure glucose, which is modified into nonionic surfactants via esterification then etherification, Abdel-Raouf et al. [45]. The surface properties of the synthesized surfactants were verified under different conditions. The demulsification efficiency of the prepared demulsifiers was verified for breaking two types of crude oil (light and heavy crudes) at different conditions of aqueous phase [46]. The data revealed that the light crude was more easily demulsified than the heavy crude, besides that, changes in pH or salinity of the aqueous phase of the emulsion enhance its stability and decrease the demulsification efficiency of the applied demulsifiers.
Figure 8.
Chemical modification of chitosan into nonionic surfactants.
Furthermore, a number of glucose fatty ester ethoxylates were prepared and tested as demulsifiers for oil sludge (Figure 9). Results showed that the prepared demulsifiers achieved about 90% water separation from the sludge after 6 h of injection. The hydrocarbon composition of oil phase recovered from the treated sludge was determined.
Figure 9.
Synthesis of ethoxylated glucose fatty esters.
The oil phase was rich in low molecular weight hydrocarbons this is also an indication of their efficiency as demulsifiers for petroleum sludge [47]. Zhang and Merchant [48] prepared nonionic saccharide surfactants with an amide group linking hydrophilic saccharide segment to hydrophobic alkyl segment and investigated their surface-active properties (Figure 10). The surface properties of these surfactants were studied versus the length of hydrophobic and hydrophilic and the obtained data was interrelated to structural variation in the saccharide surfactants. Roostaie et al. [49] used some cellulose, ethylcellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, at different viscosity grades, and the blend of ethylcellulose and ethoxylated coco amine to break the crude oil emulsion through bottle test. According to the obtained results, ethylcellulose was very efficient in breaking emulsion but with slow dehydration rate, which is the main weakness of that agent. Finally, the effect of temperature, agent composition, and demulsifier amount on the dehydration capacity and rate of selected agents were evaluated. Three unrefined fatty oils were used as sources for demulsifiers. The hydrolyzed form of each type of oil was adducted with maleic anhydride then modified by esterification with polyethylene glycols or ethyleneoxide-propyleneoxide block copolymers. The demulsification efficiency, coalescence rate, some surface active, thermodynamic properties, and partition coefficient of a selected demulsifier were investigated [50].
Figure 10.
The chemical structures of three water-soluble chemically modified guar derivatives with different functional lateral groups.
Atta and Elsaeed [51] prepared some nonionic polymeric surfactants from rosin by esterification of it with different molecular weights of polyethylene glycol to produce rosin ester surfactants. The surfactants were tested as sludge dispersants via viscosity measurements of sludge crude oil mixtures at different times.
Demulsifiers from green non-bio polymers were also prepared. A series of propylene oxide (PO) ethylene oxide (EO) block copolymers with different EO/PO ratios and molecular weights have been synthesized and tested for their demulsification potency in breaking water-in-benzene emulsions stabilized by asphaltenes. The demulsification competence of the prepared surfactants was studied versus the change in molecular weight and HLB, the data revealed that the amounts of separated water are directly proportional to both of them., also the effects of temperature, NaCl concentration (salinity), pH value, and solvents on the demulsification effectiveness were thoroughly inspected [52, 53].
Dalmazzone and Noïk [54] performed large screening of different chemicals that could be used as demulsifiers for oil production by classical bottle tests. Silicone derivatives were proved as effective demulsifiers in breaking two types of emulsions come from an asphaltenic and a paraffinic crude oil. According to this first round study, silicone demulsifiers appeared as good candidates for the further development of new green formulations for oil production and demulsification. Alsabagh et al. [55] studied the demulsification process of Water-in-oil emulsion at petroleum field using some demulsifiers derived from propylene and polyethylene oxides. The data revealed that the chemical structures, which containing propylene oxide, might play a vital role to ease and enhance the demulsification competence and that rising of the surfactant dosage (100–600 ppm) decreases the time taken for complete water separation.
3.3 Corrosion inhibitors
Corrosion is a severe engineering problem in this current era of industrial evolution, which causes economic losses and irreversible damage to metallic structures [56]. Figure 11 illustrates the electrochemical corrosion process. Several efforts have been made to control the destructive effects of corrosion using several preventive methodologies.
Figure 11.
Representation of electrochemical corrosion.
Corrosion inhibitors are essential petroleum additives during transport and refinery stages. In general, corrosion inhibition technology uses more than one of the following techniques:
Adopting metals with materials that improve the surface corrosion-resistant during the corrosion course of action
Addition of corrosion inhibitors that shield the surface of the metal and prevent reaction with oxidizing agents
Deposition of reactive coatings
Many green inhibitors have been developed, which are safe, biodegradable, eco-friendly and have proven effectiveness in controlling the corrosion of different metallic equipments and facilities made from steel, mild steel, stainless steel, iron, copper, aluminum, 2024-T3 aluminum alloy, steel in concrete structures, carbon steel, AA5083 Al-Mg alloy, nickel and zinc [57]. The use of inhibitors for the control of corrosion of metals and alloys, which are in contact with an aggressive environment, is highly recommended [58, 59]. The general requirements for selection of a proper inhibitor are illustrated in Figure 12.
Figure 12.
General requirements for corrosion inhibitors selection.
The inhibitors are absorbed on the metal surface and suppress the corrosion. They are classified as cathodic, anodic and mixed type inhibitors, depending upon whether the inhibitor affects the anodic metal dissolution reaction or the cathodic oxygen reduction in near-neutral solutions or hydrogen discharge reaction in acid solutions [60]. Great numbers of organic compounds have been studied to investigate their corrosion inhibition potential [61, 62, 63, 64].
All these studies have revealed that organic compounds particularly those with N, S, and O show significant inhibition efficiency. Plant extracts and organic species have become important as an environmentally acceptable, readily obtainable and renewable source for wide range of inhibitors [65, 66, 67].
The most common green polymers that can be made into corrosion inhibitor formulations are cellulose and cellulose derivatives, chitosan, fatty acids and alcohols, guar gum and starch. They can be used either in their original forms or chemically modified or blended in different formulations or as nanocomposites. This variability leads to countless designs of green inhibitors. Therefore, the most effective designs are summarized in Table 3.
Inhibitor system
Type of substrate/Corrosive medium
Ref.
Saturated waxy fatty acids and waxy fatty alcohols.
The most effective inhibitor formulations based on biopolymers.
The bigger size and the greater number of characteristic anchoring groups of polymeric corrosion inhibitors afforded superior performance. These functional groups facilitate the adsorption on the surface of metal and coat greatly more surface than the matching repeating units.
Therefore, efficient protection operation is influenced by the corrosion alleviation properties of polymers such as molecular weight, molecular size, composition, and nature of the anchoring groups. However, corrosion inhibitors from green non-biopolymers are well known. Organic inhibitors have been the most extensively used in petroleum refining processes because of their ability to form a shielding layer on the metal surface in media with high hydrocarbons content. Currently there are many of organic inhibitors belonging to diverse chemical families i.e. fatty amides [85, 86], pyridines [64, 87], imidazolines [68, 88, 89, 90] and other 1, 3-azoles [91, 92, 93] and polymers [94] have showed outstanding performance as CIs (Table 4).
Table 4.
Structural groups of green non-biopolymer inhibitors.
Moreover, protonated polyanilines were identified as a pioneer corrosion inhibitor in acid for a number of metals of the last century. Also, polyanilines as anticorrosive coatings were reported by several authors [95].
Most aniline-based polymeric materials show efficient inhibition due to their good of adhesion on the surface of metals. The metal/polymer interactions are mostly of hydrogen-bridge type or secondary interaction due to dispersion, dipole interactions, or van der Waals forces. Polyethylene terephthalate waste was modified into powerful corrosion inhibitors for API XL65 carbon steel, in a solution of 2 M HCl [96].
Amines polymer are superb corrosion inhibitors for iron in acid solutions. Jeyaprabha et al. [97, 98] investigated the corrosion inhibition act of poly(diphenylamine) and poly(aminoquinone) on iron in 0.5 M H2SO4. Other imine- and amide-based polymers have been employed as potent corrosion inhibitors for different metallic systems [99, 100, 101].
3.4 Coating materials
A coating material is an anticorrosion agent applied in the form of a thin layer covering the metallic surface. The selected coating materials shall be appropriate for the intended use and shall be chosen after verifying the following properties:
Corrosion protective properties
Product impact on public health and the environment
Properties related to application conditions, equipment, and people.
Availability and economics
Based on the above-mentioned criteria, green polymers specially biopolymers are excellent candidates for coating formulations. In the last few years, cellulose-based materials (sp. Nano and micro cellulose) have recognized themselves among the most frequently used materials for superhydrophobic coatings.
In this regard, A number of polyurethane nanocrystalline cellulose composite (PNCCC) and polyurethane micro-powdered cellulose composite (PMPCC) coatings were prepared with various loading levels of NCC and MPC, these coatings were applied onto the pretreated mild steel substrate at room temperature. The results showed that the NCC and MPC affected positively on the properties of the polyurethane coating [102].
Cleide et al. [103] studied the effect of aminopropyl triethoxysilane (APS), cellulose and polyaniline emeraldine-salt (PAni ES) as an additives to epoxy coating on the corrosion protection of mild steel. Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) and cellulose nanowhiskers (CNW) functionalized or not with PAni ES were used and compared. The coating properties were checked by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), salt spray test and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The surface of the carbon steel, after 1000 h of exposure, did not present evidence of surface corrosion. Polymer coatings using CNW and PAni ES displayed amended corrosion protection properties even after 90 days of immersion in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution.
Another series of epoxy resin-based nanocomposites were prepared in the form of coatings with different amounts of NC loadings, and the coatings were applied onto mild steel at room temperature. The corrosion protection properties of the coated mild steel substrates immersed in a 3.5% NaCl solution were studied relatively by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The results showed that all of the nanocomposite coatings with NC clearly influenced the epoxy-diamine liquid pre-polymer, both physically and chemically [104].
Lignin occupies the second rank in most widespread organic polymer. It contains benzyl alcohol, carboxyl, hydroxyl, methoxyl, phenolic and aldehydic characteristic groups. Extracted alkali lignin has shown corrosion inhibition behavior on various metal alloys in HCl solutions [105].
Chitin and chitosan are nitrogen derivative of cellulose. Chitosan is polyelectrolyte (cationic type), which can gel with polyanions and form complexes with metal ions. In our work [106], Chitosan was mixed as natural organic filler with epoxy coating in various loading levels from 2–20% to get chitosan − epoxy coating composite. The corrosion resistance and the antimicrobial activity of coatings formed by chitosan and epoxy were investigated. The corrosion resistance was evaluated via a salt spray test and the antimicrobial activity of the prepared composites was investigated against different pathogens. The obtained results demonstrated that the chitosan − epoxy coating composite showed uniform and lower corrosion rates than that of absolute epoxy coating. The DMA proved that chitosan improved the viscoelastic characteristics of epoxy coating; the mechanical and chemical resistance were also enhanced with increasing chitosan. Other chitosan derivates such as acetyl thiourea, carboxymethyl, and hydroxyapatite composites were used as efficient corrosion inhibitors [107].
Rosin is another natural polymer that can be adopted into highly durable coatings. In our work [108], Ketone type derivative of rosin was synthesized by dehydrocarboxylation of isomerized abietic acid. Acid-catalyzed Diel-Alder reaction was carried out for coupling of dipimaryl ketone with maleic anhydride. The corresponding tetra glycidyl ester was obtained by epoxidation of the dipimaryl ketone. The thermal properties of the cured resins using a rosin-based crosslinker and p-phenylene diamine (a viable crosslinker) were investigated using dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and some preliminary universal coating tests. Results showed that the fully rosin-based epoxy coatings gave better performance than bisphenol-A based one. These findings and results were attributed to a liquid crystal behavior of the rosin-based crosslinker. Furthermore, a tetrafunctional rosin-based epoxy was prepared and cured with either rosin-based hardener or common phenylene diamine to study the viability of creating high performance thermosetting polymer from a renewable resource. The analytical results indicate that fully bio-based epoxy system holds high glass transition temperature (Tg), high modulus (G`) and enhanced thermal stability [109].
Additional biopolymers such as vegetable oils [110] and Fatty acids [111] have been modified into successful coating formulations. However, other green polymers such as polyesters, polyester amides, polyether amides – (Figure 13) – have been used as coatings by many authors [112, 113, 114].
Figure 13.
Some green polymers used in coating formulations.
3.5 Oil sorbent materials
Over the past few decades, there have been many oil spill accidents. These accidents occurred during the extraction, transportation, and storage of oil, The spilled oil significantly affects the marine ecological system and the surrounding environment [115, 116]. Oil spill accidents have commended scientists all over the world to advance instant cleaning technology to treat oil spill disasters. Therefore, the removal of spilled oil from water resources is a very worthy matter.
The increased environmental awareness pushed the efforts towards inexpensive, non-toxic and biologically degradable compounds along with diverse biomasses to make multi-sized materials, sponges/aerogel, membranes, etc. for the remediation of oil spill [117]. Generally, there are two methodologies for oil spill remediation; Dispersion and/or recovery of the spilled oil (Figure 14).
Figure 14.
Oil spill treatment processes based on oil dispersion or oil recovery.
The selection of the suitable method for oil spill control is dependent on the nature of the spilled oil, its location and the surrounding conditions [118]. When oil sorbents were chosen as a treatment method, environmental designs are required. However, the growing global inhabitant’s rate has enlarged the rate of food consuming, producing immense amounts of biological waste. Therefore, the sensible solution is to consume such easily biodegradable waste or biomass to make cheap sorbent materials with higher oil uptake capability that is simple to scale up for the removal of an oil spill, rather than toxic chemicals. The most important natural polymer applied as oil sorbents or modified into gel structures are provided in Table 5.
The most common natural polymers used as oil sorbers.
Beside our previous works concerning the utilization of natural polymers as oil sorbents, we paid some attention for modifying some plastic wastes into effective oil sorbents for oil spill remediation. In this context, polymeric sorbents based on polystyrene waste were prepared and evaluated as sorbents for different oil phases under different application conditions. These sorbents are synthesized through radical polymerization of p-CMS with styrene in the presence of benzoyl peroxide as a free radical initiator. The oil uptake of organogel was determined through oil absorption tests; the highest oil absorbencies were 82.6, 74.4, 46.7, and 38.1 g/g in N,N-dimethyl formamide, CHCl3, toluene, and diesel, respectively [126].
3.6 Oil spill dispersants
Addition of some chemical agents to breakdown the spilled oil into tiny particles to facilitate the process of biodegradation is another treatment mean for spilled oil. The proposed mechanism of dispersants action is illustrated in Figure 15.
Figure 15.
Proposed mechanism of action of dispersants.
Therefore, utilization of natural polymers in dispersant formulation is highly required. Generally, all multifunctional biopolymers can be modified into dispersants due to their high functionality. Water-soluble surfactants based on rosin acids were prepared from condensed rosin acid-formaldehyde, which esterified with different poly (ethylene glycol) chains into rosin esters. The dispersion effectiveness of the prepared surfactants as oil spill dispersants was investigated and linked with the surface activity, concentrations of the surfactants and type of petroleum crude oil. Additionally, Xanthan gum formulation comprised of Polyoxyethylene Sorbitan Fatty Acid Esters (48%), bis (2-ethylhexyl)sulfosuccinate sodium salt (35%) and Xanthan Gum was applied as a dispersant for crude oil with dispersion efficiency more than 50% [127]. Some Octyl carboxymethyl chitosan as a green polymer was applied as a dispersant for waxy crude and fresh asphaltic crude with more than 90% dispersion efficacy [128]. Our environmental awareness has been extended to oil spill treatment. In this context, our attention was paid for chemical recycling of plastic wastes such as poly ethylene terephthalate into effective dispersants [129]. Moreover, green some poly oxyethylenated pentaerythritol (PE) ester surfactants have been synthesized and investigated as oil spill dispersants. Furthermore, the biodegradability of the investigated esters was studied at various conditions in order to explore their usability as oil spill dispersants. The data revealed that the investigated esters were very efficient as dispersing agents and they were completely biodegraded after 8 days [130].
4. Future perspectives
The greatest challenge with the industrial development that is a rocket rising is to maintain the environment and develop environmentally benign multi-purpose materials especially hose designed for the petroleum sector. The sustainability of these materials is guaranteed as they are constructed from natural polymers. The future concern is concentrated on the following points:
Increasing the effectiveness of the present formulations
Modifying the functionality such that a single product can achieve several functions simultaneously with the same efficiency.
Massive production of the most successful formulation in order to minimize the production cost.
Establishing green synthetic routes that produce minimal or no wastes and consumes the least energy
Our future concern is to explore more products derived from natural polymers, mainly cellulose and cellulose derivatives, as it is the most abundant biopolymer to be used as multi-purpose products in the petroleum sector and to overcome the disadvantages of the currently applied formulations such as improper mechanical properties, decreased efficiency at higher temperature or at elevated salt concentration. Our current research is the synthesis of cellulose nanocomposites as demulsifiers for petroleum sludge at ambient temperature. The breaking down of sludge requires sophisticated methodology, and the introduction of efficient demulsifiers to recover the oil from the sludge without heating will greatly reduce the sludge treatment costs. So, our future work will be extended on developing new organic–inorganic nanocomposites to increase the effectiveness of the working agents so as to double its surface area and to include inorganic core material inside a polymer shell to build up nanoparticles of a proper size.
5. Conclusions
Petroleum is the first and most important energy source. Therefore, the petroleum industry is rapidly growing and necessitates great attention. At the same time, the green chemistry concept is linked to this industry such that most if not all the materials used in this sector become green material. The concept ‘green’ was demonstrated and the difference between biomaterial and green material is discussed. The advantages of the green materials were mentioned. Moreover, the materials utilized in the petroleum sector were categorized according to the stage of application. Some products such as corrosion inhibitors and coating materials can be used in more than one stage. Furthermore, corrosion inhibitors perform the same function but differ in application methodology. The difference between the oil sorbers and the oil spill dispersant was discussed and the need for each category was identified. The green polymers included in this work are tabulated in Table 6.
Tween 80, bis (2-ethylhexyl)sulfosuccinate sodium salt and Xanthan Gum
Table 6.
The green polymer reviewed in this work.
\n',keywords:"Green polymers, corrosion inhibitors, demulsifiers, oil spill dispersants",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78072.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78072.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78072",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78072",totalDownloads:194,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 11th 2021",dateReviewed:"July 12th 2021",datePrePublished:"August 13th 2021",datePublished:"June 28th 2022",dateFinished:"August 13th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The concept of green chemistry has been established to find safe methodologies and environmentally benign solutions for the present and the onset problems. In this regard, extensive work has been carried out worldwide to replace the currently used materials with green ones. The terminology green relies on all the non-pollutive or the degradable materials regardless of their source. Therefore, there are biobased green materials and non-biobased green materials. This review sheds light on several green polymers used in different petroleum industries. The polymers are reviewed according to the stage of oil processing in which they are applied. Furthermore, different modification methodologies of natural polymers are revised. Also, the role of green non-biopolymers in different petroleum industries is investigated. It is worth mentioning that we concentrate our efforts on the utilization of different natural polymers in petroleum applications. Thereafter, some natural polymers such as chitosan and cellulose and their derivatives were specifically reviewed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78072",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78072",signatures:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf, Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy and Abdulraheim M.A. Hasan",book:{id:"10856",type:"book",title:"Crude Oil",subtitle:"New Technologies and Recent Approaches",fullTitle:"Crude Oil - New Technologies and Recent Approaches",slug:"crude-oil-new-technologies-and-recent-approaches",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",bookSignature:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf and Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-533-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-532-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-534-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"102626",title:"Prof.",name:"Manar",middleName:null,surname:"Elsayed Abdel-Raouf",slug:"manar-elsayed-abdel-raouf",fullName:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"102626",title:"Prof.",name:"Manar",middleName:null,surname:"Elsayed Abdel-Raouf",fullName:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf",slug:"manar-elsayed-abdel-raouf",email:"drmanar770@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/102626/images/system/102626.jpg",institution:{name:"Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"196784",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:"Hasan",surname:"Hasan El-Keshawy",fullName:"Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy",slug:"mohamed-hasan-el-keshawy",email:"elkeshawy2006@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196784/images/system/196784.png",institution:{name:"Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"203536",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulraheim",middleName:"M. A.",surname:"M.A. Hasan",fullName:"Abdulraheim M.A. Hasan",slug:"abdulraheim-m.a.-hasan",email:"araheim@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/203536/images/7147_n.png",institution:{name:"Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Biopolymers versus green polymers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Advantages of green polymers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Green principles of polymer production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Physico-chemical properties of green polymers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Green polymers in petroleum industry",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Drilling fluids",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Demulsifiers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3 Corrosion inhibitors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.4 Coating materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.5 Oil sorbent materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.6 Oil spill dispersants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Future perspectives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'B.C. Suddell and W.J. Evans, Natural fiber composites in automotive applications, In: Natural Fibers in Biopolymers & Their Biocomposites, CRC Press, 2005, pp. 231-259.'},{id:"B2",body:'D. K. Schneiderman and M.A. Hillmyer, 50th anniversary perspective: There is a great future in sustainable polymers, Macromolecules 50 (10) (2017) 3733.'},{id:"B3",body:'Y. Zhu, C. Romain, and C.K. 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El-Hamouly, synthesis and characterization of oil sorbent based on Hydroxypropyl cellulose acrylate, Egypt. J. Pet., 22 (4) (2013) 539.'},{id:"B126",body:'Keshawy, A. R. M. Abdul-Raheim, K. I. Kabel, A. F. El-Kafrawy and T. Abd El-Moghny, synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of polymeric oil sorbent for remediation of hydrocarbons spillage, J. Dispers. Sci. Technol., 38 (5) (2016) 729.'},{id:"B127",body:'Wang, Y. Li, X. Yang, M. Bao and H. Cheng, the enhanced stability and biodegradation of dispersed crude oil droplets by xanthan gum as an additive of chemical dispersant, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 118 (1-2) (2017) 275.'},{id:"B128",body:'A.M. Al-Sabagh, R. E. Morsi, M. Z. Elsabee, H. F. Naguib and Y. M. Moustafa, Petroleum oil dispersion efficiency and stability using eco-friendly chitosan-based surfactant and nanoparticles, J. Dispers. Sci. Technol., 33 (11) (2012) 1661.'},{id:"B129",body:'A.M. Atta, M. E. Abdel-Rauf, N. E. Maysour, A. M. Abdul-Rahiem and A. A. A. Abdel-Azim, Surfactants from recycled poly (ethylene terephthalate) waste as water based oil spill dispersants, J. Polym. Res., 13 (1) (2006) 39.'},{id:"B130",body:'M.E.-S. Abdel-Raouf, Biodegradable Polyoxyethylenated Pentaerythritol Quaternary Esters as Oil Spill Dispersants, Tenside Surfactants Deterg., 49(2) (2012)114.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf",address:null,affiliation:'
Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute, Cairo, Egypt
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy",address:"elkeshawy2006@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute, Cairo, Egypt
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Abdulraheim M.A. Hasan",address:null,affiliation:'
Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute, Cairo, Egypt
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To find out which algorithm obtains better results, there are 30 test instances used, which are grouped into 3 sets of problems according to the position of the nodes. The study begins with an economic impact analysis of the transportation sector in companies, which represents up to 20% of the final cost of the product. This case study focuses on the CVRP for its acronym capacitated vehicle routing problem, analyzing the best-known heuristics such as Clarke & Wright and sweep, and the algorithms GRASP and simulated annealing metaheuristics based.",signatures:"Fernando Francisco Sandoya Sánchez, Carmen Andrea Letamendi Lazo and Fanny Yamel Sanabria Quiñónez",authors:[{id:"155426",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Sandoya",fullName:"Fernando Sandoya",slug:"fernando-sandoya",email:"fsandoya@espol.edu.ec"},{id:"313162",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Letamendi",fullName:"Carmen Letamendi",slug:"carmen-letamendi",email:"cletamendi@gmail.com"},{id:"319376",title:"Dr.",name:"Fanny",surname:"Sanabria",fullName:"Fanny Sanabria",slug:"fanny-sanabria",email:"fannysanabriaq@outlook.com"}],book:{id:"8241",title:"Novel Trends in the Traveling Salesman Problem",slug:"novel-trends-in-the-traveling-salesman-problem",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"2961",title:"Prof.",name:"Donald",surname:"Davendra",slug:"donald-davendra",fullName:"Donald Davendra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/2961/images/system/2961.jpg",biography:"Dr. Donald Davendra is Professor and Chair of Computer Science at Central Washington University, USA. 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The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
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During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\n
Services included are:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\\n\\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\\n\\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\\n\\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\\n\\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\\n\\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
\\n
\\n\\n
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\\n\\n
If your manuscript:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
\\n\\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\\n
\\n\\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\\n\\n
Open Access Funding
\\n\\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\\n\\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\\n\\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
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\\n\\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\\n\\t
Long-term archiving
\\n\\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\\n\\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\\n\\t
Dissemination and Promotion
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\\n\\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\\n\\t
+5,700 OA books published
\\n\\t
Most competitive prices in the market
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Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
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Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
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Personal support during every step of the publication process
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+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
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10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n\t
850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
\n
\n\n
During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
\n\n
\n\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
\n
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What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+5,700 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
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The present chapter will discuss some insights of the role of microorganisms in BFT, main water quality parameters, the importance of the correct carbon-to-nitrogen ratio in the culture media, its calculations, and different types, as well as metagenomics of microorganisms and future perspectives.",book:{id:"5355",slug:"water-quality",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality"},signatures:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano, Luis Rafael Martínez-\nCórdova, Marcel Martínez-Porchas and Anselmo Miranda-Baeza",authors:[{id:"146126",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho",middleName:null,surname:"Emerenciano",slug:"mauricio-gustavo-coelho-emerenciano",fullName:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano"},{id:"186970",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Porchas",slug:"marcel-martinez-porchas",fullName:"Marcel Martínez-Porchas"},{id:"186971",title:"Prof.",name:"Anselmo",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda-Baeza",slug:"anselmo-miranda-baeza",fullName:"Anselmo Miranda-Baeza"},{id:"195101",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Córdoba",slug:"luis-rafael-martinez-cordoba",fullName:"Luis Rafael Martínez-Córdoba"}]},{id:"62247",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77315",title:"Application of Biosorption for Removal of Heavy Metals from Wastewater",slug:"application-of-biosorption-for-removal-of-heavy-metals-from-wastewater",totalDownloads:7571,totalCrossrefCites:72,totalDimensionsCites:139,abstract:"Fresh water accounts for 3% of water resources on the Earth. Human and industrial activities produce and discharge wastes containing heavy metals into the water resources making them unavailable and threatening human health and the ecosystem. Conventional methods for the removal of metal ions such as chemical precipitation and membrane filtration are extremely expensive when treating large amounts of water, inefficient at low concentrations of metal (incomplete metal removal) and generate large quantities of sludge and other toxic products that require careful disposal. Biosorption and bioaccumulation are ecofriendly alternatives. These alternative methods have advantages over conventional methods. Abundant natural materials like microbial biomass, agro-wastes, and industrial byproducts have been suggested as potential biosorbents for heavy metal removal due to the presence of metal-binding functional groups. Biosorption is influenced by various process parameters such as pH, temperature, initial concentration of the metal ions, biosorbent dose, and speed of agitation. Also, the biomass can be modified by physical and chemical treatment before use. The process can be made economical by regenerating and reusing the biosorbent after removing the heavy metals. Various bioreactors can be used in biosorption for the removal of metal ions from large volumes of water or effluents. The recent developments and the future scope for biosorption as a wastewater treatment option are discussed.",book:{id:"6137",slug:"biosorption",title:"Biosorption",fullTitle:"Biosorption"},signatures:"Sri Lakshmi Ramya Krishna Kanamarlapudi, Vinay Kumar\nChintalpudi and Sudhamani Muddada",authors:[{id:"238433",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudhamani",middleName:null,surname:"Muddada",slug:"sudhamani-muddada",fullName:"Sudhamani Muddada"},{id:"244937",title:"Mrs.",name:"S L Ramyakrishna",middleName:null,surname:"Kanamarlapudi",slug:"s-l-ramyakrishna-kanamarlapudi",fullName:"S L Ramyakrishna Kanamarlapudi"},{id:"244938",title:"Mr.",name:"Vinay Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Chintalpudi",slug:"vinay-kumar-chintalpudi",fullName:"Vinay Kumar Chintalpudi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69568",title:"Water Quality Parameters",slug:"water-quality-parameters",totalDownloads:9909,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:"Since the industrial revolution in the late eighteenth century, the world has discovered new sources of pollution nearly every day. So, air and water can potentially become polluted everywhere. Little is known about changes in pollution rates. The increase in water-related diseases provides a real assessment of the degree of pollution in the environment. This chapter summarizes water quality parameters from an ecological perspective not only for humans but also for other living things. According to its quality, water can be classified into four types. Those four water quality types are discussed through an extensive review of their important common attributes including physical, chemical, and biological parameters. These water quality parameters are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods.",book:{id:"7718",slug:"water-quality-science-assessments-and-policy",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality - Science, Assessments and Policy"},signatures:"Nayla Hassan Omer",authors:null},{id:"58138",title:"Water Pollution: Effects, Prevention, and Climatic Impact",slug:"water-pollution-effects-prevention-and-climatic-impact",totalDownloads:21487,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:"The stress on our water environment as a result of increased industrialization, which aids urbanization, is becoming very high thus reducing the availability of clean water. Polluted water is of great concern to the aquatic organism, plants, humans, and climate and indeed alters the ecosystem. The preservation of our water environment, which is embedded in sustainable development, must be well driven by all sectors. While effective wastewater treatment has the tendency of salvaging the water environment, integration of environmental policies into the actor firms core objectives coupled with continuous periodical enlightenment on the present and future consequences of environmental/water pollution will greatly assist in conserving the water environment.",book:{id:"6157",slug:"water-challenges-of-an-urbanizing-world",title:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World",fullTitle:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World"},signatures:"Inyinbor Adejumoke A., Adebesin Babatunde O., Oluyori Abimbola\nP., Adelani-Akande Tabitha A., Dada Adewumi O. and Oreofe Toyin\nA.",authors:[{id:"101570",title:"MSc.",name:"Babatunde Olufemi",middleName:null,surname:"Adebesin",slug:"babatunde-olufemi-adebesin",fullName:"Babatunde Olufemi Adebesin"},{id:"187738",title:"Dr.",name:"Adejumoke",middleName:"Abosede",surname:"Inyinbor",slug:"adejumoke-inyinbor",fullName:"Adejumoke Inyinbor"},{id:"188818",title:"Dr.",name:"Abimbola",middleName:null,surname:"Oluyori",slug:"abimbola-oluyori",fullName:"Abimbola Oluyori"},{id:"188819",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tabitha",middleName:null,surname:"Adelani-Akande",slug:"tabitha-adelani-akande",fullName:"Tabitha Adelani-Akande"},{id:"208501",title:"Dr.",name:"Adewumi",middleName:null,surname:"Dada",slug:"adewumi-dada",fullName:"Adewumi Dada"},{id:"208502",title:"Ms.",name:"Toyin",middleName:null,surname:"Oreofe",slug:"toyin-oreofe",fullName:"Toyin Oreofe"}]},{id:"45422",title:"Urban Waterfront Regenerations",slug:"urban-waterfront-regenerations",totalDownloads:14033,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"3560",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",fullTitle:"Advances in Landscape Architecture"},signatures:"Umut Pekin Timur",authors:[{id:"165480",title:"Dr.",name:"Umut",middleName:null,surname:"Pekin Timur",slug:"umut-pekin-timur",fullName:"Umut Pekin Timur"}]},{id:"24941",title:"Tsunami in Makran Region and Its Effect on the Persian Gulf",slug:"tsunami-in-makran-region-and-its-effect-on-the-persian-gulf",totalDownloads:7384,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"406",slug:"tsunami-a-growing-disaster",title:"Tsunami",fullTitle:"Tsunami - A Growing Disaster"},signatures:"Mohammad Mokhtari",authors:[{id:"52451",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mokhtari",slug:"mohammad-mokhtari",fullName:"Mohammad Mokhtari"}]},{id:"66307",title:"Bio-hydrogen and Methane Production from Lignocellulosic Materials",slug:"bio-hydrogen-and-methane-production-from-lignocellulosic-materials",totalDownloads:2934,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"This chapter covers the information on bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials. Pretreatment methods of lignocellulosic materials and the factors affecting bio-hydrogen production, both dark- and photo-fermentation, and methane production are addressed. Last but not least, the processes for bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials are discussed.",book:{id:"7608",slug:"biomass-for-bioenergy-recent-trends-and-future-challenges",title:"Biomass for Bioenergy",fullTitle:"Biomass for Bioenergy - Recent Trends and Future Challenges"},signatures:"Apilak Salakkam, Pensri Plangklang, Sureewan Sittijunda, Mallika Boonmee Kongkeitkajorn, Siriporn Lunprom and Alissara Reungsang",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"12",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82362",title:"Studies on the Short-Term Effects of the Cease of Pesticides Use on Vineyard Microbiome",slug:"studies-on-the-short-term-effects-of-the-cease-of-pesticides-use-on-vineyard-microbiome",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105706",abstract:"In this chapter, an overview of the impact of phytosanitary treatments on the vineyard microbiome is provided, together with the results of the research we conducted. The studied plant material consisted of grapevine from the cultivars Sauvignon blanc and Cabernet Sauvignon, cultivated within the plantation of the Research Station for Viticulture and Enology from Murfatlar, Romania. For each cultivar, a treated plot and an untreated plot were established. For each of those, the phyllosphere microbiota was quantified using the epifluorescence microscopy method, followed by automated image analysis using CellC software. At the same time, the soil fungal diversity was evaluated in three stages during the year 2021, using microscopic morphological criteria. The results give useful information regarding the phytosanitary state of the studied plant, as well as the short-term effects produced by the ceasing of pesticide application on the grapevine microbiota.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Simona Ghiță, Mihaela Hnatiuc, Aurora Ranca, Victoria Artem and Mădălina-Andreea Ciocan"},{id:"82316",title:"Stakeholder Integration and Participatory Processes as Part of an Ecosystem-Based and Integrated Natural Hazard Risk Management",slug:"stakeholder-integration-and-participatory-processes-as-part-of-an-ecosystem-based-and-integrated-nat",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99516",abstract:"Participatory processes have been receiving growing attention in recent decades, especially in the environmental field. There is no unique way for designing and managing a participatory process: different types of integrating stakeholders and communities have been applied, encompassing different scopes. Participatory processes become necessary when addressing complex environmental challenges, which require flexible and transparent approaches embracing diverse knowledge and values. Integrated risk management, including Ecosystem-based solutions for Disaster Risk Reduction (Eco-DRR), is one example of such a challenge, being a joint responsibility of public institutions at different levels of public management and of the private sector. The project GreenRisk4ALPs is an example of how including local experts can be translated into practice. A stakeholder network analysis was carried out, which provided the basis to select the stakeholders involved in the subsequent participatory processes and to identify conflicts and interests related to Eco-DRR. Building upon this analysis, Rapid Risk management Appraisal workshops were carried out in different study areas to jointly analyze the strengths and weaknesses related to current risk management practices. Overall, the involvement of stakeholders from the beginning allowed to respond to their needs contributing to the improvement of risk management strategies in the Alpine Region.",book:{id:"10812",title:"Protective forests as Ecosystem-based solution for Disaster Risk Reduction (ECO-DRR)",coverURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/cover.jpg"},signatures:"Silvia Cocuccioni, Matthias Plörer and Michael Kirchner"},{id:"82297",title:"The Climate Change-Agriculture Nexus in Drylands of Ethiopia",slug:"the-climate-change-agriculture-nexus-in-drylands-of-ethiopia",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103905",abstract:"The objective of this chapter is to review the impacts of climate change on dryland agriculture and its possible solutions. Climate change poses significant challenges on dryland agriculture in Ethiopia. In turn, agriculture (malpractice) has contributed to climate change by emitting GHGs such as CO2, CH4 and N2O. Globally, agriculture’s contribution takes 14% of CO2, 47% of CH4 and 84% of N2O. Agriculture contributes to 80% of total Ethiopia’s GHGs emission: CH4, N2O and CO2, respectively, contributed to 72, 15 and 14% to aggregated emission. To soothe the impacts of climate change, countries should act now differently together to stabilize the fractions of GHGs in the atmosphere at a level that would also stabilize the climate system. Adopting climate-compatible agricultural development strategies can enable to reduce agricultural GHGs emissions or sequestration enhanced while maintaining and even increasing food supply. It is understood that combating desertification, land degradation and mitigating the effects of drought are the basis for accelerated sustainable development, poverty reduction and ensuring food security in Ethiopia. Climate-smart dryland agriculture can maintain livestock and crop productivity, reduces GHGs emission, lessens the impact of climate change and reduces the trade-offs among agricultural development to fulfill food security, climate change and ecosystem degradation.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Zenebe Mekonnen"},{id:"82124",title:"Assessment of Diversity, Growth Characteristics and Aboveground Biomass of Tree Species in Selected Urban Green Areas of Osogbo, Osun State",slug:"assessment-of-diversity-growth-characteristics-and-aboveground-biomass-of-tree-species-in-selected-u",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104982",abstract:"This study assessed the abundance and diversity of trees, estimated the growth characteristics and determined the aboveground biomass of the trees within three selected green areas, namely Riparian Corridor was abbreviated as Riparian corridor (RC), Industrial sites (IS), and Residential sites (RS) in Osogbo, Southwestern Nigeria. Species Diversity Index, Relative Dominance, and Importance Value Index of trees were also estimated. Trees\\' diversity and ranking were determined using the R statistical package. A total number of 124 tree stems were enumerated and (RC), (IS), and (RS) had 49, 38, and 37 tree stems belonging to 27, 18 and 20 species respectively. Albizia zygia (Mimosaceae) was the most abundant species in both RC and IS, while Milicia excelsa (Moraceae) was the most abundant in the RS. Growth variables were recorded as 1.18 m2, 5.01 m2, and 11.06 m2 (basal area), and 13.49 m3, 64.03 m3 and 122.39 m3 (volume) for RC, IS, and RS, respectively. The highest mean aboveground biomass was recorded in the RS (28325.20±7639.57 Kg C ha−1). There was no significant difference (P≥ 0.01) between the aboveground biomass of RC and IS but a significant difference (P≥ 0.01) existed between the aboveground biomass of RC and RS. There is a continuous transition of the urban forest.",book:{id:"11457",title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg"},signatures:"Omolara Aremu, Olusola O. Adetoro and Olusegun Awotoye"},{id:"81999",title:"Climate Change, Rural Livelihoods, and Human Well-Being: Experiences from Kenya",slug:"climate-change-rural-livelihoods-and-human-well-being-experiences-from-kenya",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104965",abstract:"Over the next few decades, climate change is set to fuel the existing degradation of ecosystems across Africa, leading to dramatic consequences for poor rural populations that depend largely on agriculture and fishing for their livelihoods. This chapter draws on the findings of a study that explored how climate change affects the livelihoods and ultimately the well-being of farming and fishing households in a remote rural area in Kenya and discusses the coping strategies adopted by these communities. Understanding how climate change impacts people’s livelihoods is important as a precursor to assist communities to adapt to and cope with the adverse effects of climate change. The results pointed to relatively wide utilization of traditional knowledge in coping strategies. Conversely, robust modern technologies for forecasting weather patterns remain under-utilized among the target population. The chapter concludes with recommendations to capitalize on and strengthen the existing coping strategies of the affected communities.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"André J. Pelser and Rujeko Samanthia Chimukuche"},{id:"81863",title:"Exploiting the Attributes of Biocontrol Agent (Neochetina bruchi) as a Potential Ecosystem Engineer’s",slug:"exploiting-the-attributes-of-biocontrol-agent-neochetina-bruchi-as-a-potential-ecosystem-engineer-s",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104775",abstract:"The biodiversity of lakes is continuously declining and diverse communities are being substituted by monoculture of invasive Eichhornia crassipes, resulting in a slew of environmental cascade effects. The ability of the Neochetina bruchi to self-perpetuate is a desirable aspect of biological control since it decreases the population to a reasonable level, making the approach more sustainable. N. bruchi is often referred to as “ecological engineers” because of the number of services it provides to the environment and enables herbicide application to be substantially reduced. Despite the presence of highly effective weevils against this weed, its effect on water hyacinth in association with the nutrients present in sites, is likely to vary with levels of disturbance caused by natural and anthropogenic factors. Understanding the aspects that determine the performance of these eco-engineers as valuable management tools will help to guide future endeavors. Our objective is to better comprehend their utility and limitations, along with critical knowledge gaps, to further enhance future applications.",book:{id:"10763",title:"Biodiversity of Ecosystems",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10763.jpg"},signatures:"Prerna Gupta and Sadhna Tamot"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:28},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tEducation and Human Development is an interdisciplinary research area that aims to shed light on topics related to both learning and development. This Series is intended for researchers, practitioners, and students who are interested in understanding more about these fields and their applications.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/23.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"280770",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine K.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavropoulos",slug:"katherine-k.m.-stavropoulos",fullName:"Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdFuQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-24T09:03:48.jpg",biography:"Katherine Stavropoulos received her BA in Psychology from Trinity College, in Connecticut, USA. Dr. Stavropoulos received her Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from the University of California, San Diego. She completed her postdoctoral work at the Yale Child Study Center with Dr. James McPartland. Dr. Stavropoulos’ doctoral dissertation explored neural correlates of reward anticipation to social versus nonsocial stimuli in children with and without autism spectrum disorders (ASD). She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. She is the Assistant Director of the SEARCH Center at UCR and is a Faculty member in the Graduate Program in Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of California, Riverside",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,annualVolume:null,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. 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