Parameters based on the hardness and elastic moduli, used as indicators of abrasion resistance and their physical meanings
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7707",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"A Guide to Small-Scale Energy Harvesting Techniques",title:"A Guide to Small-Scale Energy Harvesting Techniques",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The use of energy it is argued started about two million years ago when humans started cooking their food using firewood. As humans developed new skills with increased activities, energy interaction and usage emerged. Energy was used not only for domestic functions but also for space applications. With industrialization, humans realized that energy was needed to move machines and do other things as well. In this quest, and without understanding the consequences of using fossil fuels extensively, many problems arose. Researchers in energy embarked on a journey to study different forms of energy. To understand different needs, researchers have tried to come up with ways in which small-scale energy harvesting can be adapted to different needs that do not require heavy-duty energy production.This book attempts to present a number of ideas regarding a few selected small-scale energy harvesting methods and techniques as well as theories and products that may be helpful in improving the quality of life. Some of the new products are still in the prototype stage, while others are already being utilized. Many researchers in small-scale energy harvesting and those aspiring to follow this path of research will find this book not only motivating but also a useful guide in their endeavors.",isbn:"978-1-78923-910-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-909-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-506-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77520",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"a-guide-to-small-scale-energy-harvesting-techniques",numberOfPages:148,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"47d7741e30a569a74a8aa981a7b7a902",bookSignature:"Reccab Manyala",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7707.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8612,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:22,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 5th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 26th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 25th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 13th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 14th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"12002",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Reccab",middleName:"Ochieng",surname:"Manyala",slug:"reccab-manyala",fullName:"Reccab Manyala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12002/images/system/12002.jpg",biography:"Reccab Manyala is currently an Associate Professor of Physics at the University of Zambia where he lectures in Physics and carries out research and consultancy in New and Renewable Energy and Renewable Energy Technologies. He obtained his PhD. in Renewable Energy and Renewable Energy Technologies from Maseno University (Kenya) in 2009. Prof. Manyala holds a Master degree in Theoretical Physics (Plasma Physics and Mathematical Physics) from University of Nairobi (Kenya) as well as a Master degree in Experimental Physics (condensed Matter Physics) from University of Arkansas (USA). He is editor of 2 InTechOpen books and has published extensively in several refereed journals. He has research and teaching experience in many areas of Physics spanning over thirty years in Kenya and abroad.",institutionString:"University of Zambia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Zambia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Zambia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"117",title:"Energy Engineering",slug:"engineering-energy-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"65008",title:"Quest for Lead-Free Perovskite-Based Solar Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83360",slug:"quest-for-lead-free-perovskite-based-solar-cells",totalDownloads:1260,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Today, the perovskite solar cells (PSCs) are showing excellent potentials in terms of simple processing, abundance of materials, and architectural integration, as well as very promising device’s power conversion efficiencies (PCEs), rocketed from 3.8% in 2009 to 23.3% in 2018. However, the toxic lead (Pb) element containing the chemical composition of typically used organic-inorganic halide perovskites hinders the practical applications of PSCs. This chapter starts with a general discussion on the perovskite crystal structure along with the serious efforts focused on Pb replacement in these devices. Section 2 will elaborate the fundamental features of tin (Sn)-based perovskites together with their performance in the PSCs. Other alternative elements, such as copper (Cu), germanium (Ge), bismuth (Bi), and antimony (Sb), will be discussed in Section 3. The end will summarize the challenges and opportunities based on the chapter contents.",signatures:"Sajid Sajid, Jun Ji, Haoran Jiang, Xin Liu, Mingjun Duan, Dong Wei, Peng Cui, Hao Huang, Shangyi Dou, Lihua Chu, Yingfeng Li, Bing Jiang and Meicheng Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65008",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65008",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66888",title:"Thermoelectric Energy Harvesting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85670",slug:"thermoelectric-energy-harvesting-1",totalDownloads:1170,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Thermoelectricity can be used to generate electrical power from temperature gradients or differences in naturally occurring geothermal heat and rocks, or from waste heat in man-made equipment and industrial processes. Thermoelectric energy harvesting systems are finding commercial applications to replace or recharge batteries in low power electronic systems. This chapter provides the fundamental thermoelectric theory related to power generation, including the theoretical analysis and numerical calculations required to calculate the thermoelectric efficiency and electrical power generated when a single thermoelectric couple, and a 127 couple thermoelectric module, are subject to different temperature gradients. A thermoelectric energy harvesting system, incorporating a low power boost converter and DC to DC converter, coupled with electrical energy storage in supercapacitors, is presented and enables a thermoelectric energy harvesting system to provide sufficient electrical power to operate low power electronic components and systems. The short-term challenge for thermoelectric energy harvesting is to become a cost effective and practical solution to replace batteries, and to be scaled to provide sufficient power to operate electrical rotating machines such as low power motors and pumps. The long-term challenge is to improve the efficiency, power output, and cost of thermoelectric modules and energy harvesting systems, and to develop from low power to low-to-medium power applications.",signatures:"Chris Gould",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66888",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66888",authors:[{id:"3552",title:"Dr.",name:"Chris",surname:"Gould",slug:"chris-gould",fullName:"Chris Gould"}],corrections:null},{id:"67097",title:"Energy Harvester Based on Magnetomechanical Effect as a Power Source for Multi-node Wireless Network",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85987",slug:"energy-harvester-based-on-magnetomechanical-effect-as-a-power-source-for-multi-node-wireless-network",totalDownloads:1066,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This work is focused on the development of new kind of energy harvesters that could be used in various applications including industrial, aerospace, or customer markets. The main aspect to consider is transformation of different sources of energy (that in normal conditions is wasted such as temperature, vibration, shock, etc.) into the usable electric power. The goal was to prepare wireless subsystem based on energy-harvesting technology which will aid different areas. The energy-harvesting devices are shown as small harvesting devices with power output from 10 mW up to 5 W. Proposed solutions might be used in applications such as low-power microprocessor systems, ultrasonic continuous power supply for low-power wireless network systems, and multi-node harvester systems that allow to collect more electrical power for critical structural health monitoring (SHM) applications. The main purpose was to obtain from harvesters the sufficient values for supplying the chosen 32-bit microcontroller systems. Additionally possible application in mechanic for the other than magneto-based solid harvesters is described.",signatures:"Jerzy Kaleta, Rafał Mech and Przemysław Wiewiórski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67097",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67097",authors:[{id:"220028",title:"MSc.",name:"Przemysław",surname:"Wiewiórski",slug:"przemyslaw-wiewiorski",fullName:"Przemysław Wiewiórski"},{id:"233089",title:"Prof.",name:"Jerzy",surname:"Kaleta",slug:"jerzy-kaleta",fullName:"Jerzy Kaleta"},{id:"233090",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafał",surname:"Mech",slug:"rafal-mech",fullName:"Rafał Mech"}],corrections:null},{id:"65412",title:"Small-Scale Energy Harvesting from Environment by Triboelectric Nanogenerators",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83703",slug:"small-scale-energy-harvesting-from-environment-by-triboelectric-nanogenerators",totalDownloads:2585,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The increasing needs to power trillions of sensors and devices for the Internet of Things require effective technology to harvest small-scale energy from renewable natural resources. As a new energy technology, triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) can harvest ambient mechanical energy and convert it into electricity for powering small electronic devices continuously. In this chapter, the fundamental working mechanism and fundamental modes of a TENG will be presented. It can harvest all kinds of mechanical energy, especially at low frequencies, such as human motion, walking, vibration, mechanical triggering, rotating tire, wind, moving automobile, flowing water, rain drops, ocean waves, and so on. Such variety of energy harvesting methods promises TENG as a new approach for small-scale energy harvesting.",signatures:"Jie Wang, Linglin Zhou, Chunlei Zhang and Zhong Lin Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65412",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65412",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"65618",title:"RF Energy Harvesting System and Circuits for Charging of Wireless Devices Using Spectrum Sensing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84526",slug:"rf-energy-harvesting-system-and-circuits-for-charging-of-wireless-devices-using-spectrum-sensing",totalDownloads:1598,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recently, lots of works have been done on the optimal power management of wireless devices. This leads to the main idea of ambient energy harvesting. Among various energy harvesting approaches, one is to use radio waves existing in the ambient environment for battery charging, called RF energy harvesting. In this chapter, in order to improve the RF energy harvesting performance, we utilize spectrum sensing to allow the wireless devices to select the frequency band with maximum power that exceeds a predefined threshold to charge the device (this power threshold can be determined according to battery type and its required charging power) and the device can use this power for battery charging. Also, a novel voltage multiplier circuit is proposed. By means of simulations and experimental tests, it can be seen that after detection of our desired 1 mW RF signal, system output power is about 532μ W and 450μ W in simulation and practical situations respectively.",signatures:"Naser Ahmadi Moghaddam and Alireza Maleki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65618",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65618",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"67336",title:"Thousand kW High-Temperature Solar Furnace in Parkent (Uzbekistan) – Energetical Characteristics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83411",slug:"thousand-kw-high-temperature-solar-furnace-in-parkent-uzbekistan-energetical-characteristics",totalDownloads:933,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter presents a method of calculation of the energetical characteristics of the large solar furnace with a capacity of 1000 kW (LSF) taking into account its real optical parameters. The technical characteristics of the LSF are presented. The possible energy characteristics of the LSF based on numerical calculations are analyzed. The energy characteristics of the total system with different inaccuracies of the reflecting surfaces, energy contributions of certain shelves and groups of heliostats, and the contributions of certain heliostats and shapes of their focal spot are determined. Empirical formulas are proposed to describe the obtained numerical results. The problem of implementing the possible energy modes of the LSF with and/or without the inclusion of certain shelves and groups of heliostats is analyzed. The problem of a day changes in the energy density distribution in the focal spot of the LSF is considered.",signatures:"Akbarov Rasul",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67336",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67336",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3676",title:"Solar Collectors and Panels",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"solar-collectors-and-panels--theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Reccab Manyala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3676.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12002",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Reccab",surname:"Manyala",slug:"reccab-manyala",fullName:"Reccab Manyala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited 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He is the leading lecturer in the Specialist Computer Training Center (Moscow), a visiting professor at the Global Business School Barcelona, and an active consultant and startup mentor. Dr. Dintsis is the author of more than 80 publications (including monographs, 5 publications in the IEEE proceedings, and several IntechOpen publications) in the field of computer science. His main area of specialization is fuzzy logic and stochastic graph models. Practical applications of Dr. Dintsis’s research are in the area of lifelong learning methods and systems. 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Modeling the wear rate is a complex process. The several possibilities of chemical, physical and mechanical changes at the interface are the most probable reasons for this [1]. In this manner, it is reasonable to consider the wear rate as a stochastic process [2, 3], and indeed this approach was taken into account by Archard [4], when he formulated his well-known model. Since then, the majority of available models are based on his proposition, independent on the characteristics of mechanical system. Considering a sharp contact, both Torrance [5] and Yi-Ling & Zi-Shan [6] for sliding and rolling abrasion, respectively, modified Archard’s equation based on elastic effects, and the ratio of the hardness (H) to the Young’s modulus (E) was the main parameter of the models. In a tribological system with dissimilar materials, for example a ceramic abrading a metal, one material can experience the yielding and the other the brittle failure. This difference in the mechanical behaviors can be decisive for the final performance to wear.
The use of Young’s modulus to model the wear resistance was applied for coatings [7]; it appeared in other modifications of Archard’s equation [8], and even in empirical relationships between the wear rate and the mechanical properties [9]. Eventually, in all cited cases, the elastic modulus was not the reduced one (Er), as will be treated here.
A selection of parameters involving hardness and elastic moduli can be summarized (Table 1) [9-11]. All of them have physical meanings that possess some interest for abrasion resistance of materials. The last parameter presented in Table 1, H3/E2, is proportional to the load that defines the transition between elastic to plastic contact in a ball-on-plane system, applying the analytical solutions provided by Hertz in Contact Mechanics [12], where the reduced modulus is already taken into account.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
H/E | \n\t\t\tDeformation relative to yielding [9] | \n\t\t
(H/E)2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tTransition on mechanical contact – elastic to plastic [9] | \n\t\t
H2/2E | \n\t\t\tModulus of resilience [9] | \n\t\t
H/Er\n\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tResistance to the plastic indentation [10] | \n\t\t
H3/E2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tResistance to the plastic indentation [11] | \n\t\t
Parameters based on the hardness and elastic moduli, used as indicators of abrasion resistance and their physical meanings
Using some of the abovementioned solutions, a case study will be presented. For two tribological pairs with known wear coefficients, the ratio of hardness to reduced modulus works well than the single property of the worn material (E). The expectation regarding the H/Er ratio is confirmed also by other aspects used to characterize abrasion, especially the cutting efficiency.
In 1980 Torrance [5] published a model for abrasive wear rate based on the elastic recovery after scratching, supposing that the abrasive particle has a conical geometry. This choice is suitable, because there is an analytical model to describe the changes at the recovered surface [13]. Some years later, another paper [6] adopted the same physical basis but here the application occurred to systems where the abrasive particles roll, instead of slide. The key similarities and differences of both manuscripts will be discussed below.
First of all, it is important to see the main definition presented in [13], because it was the basis for the referred models. This reference presents an equation that relates the reduced modulus with the amount of elastic recovery, he (indicated in Figure 1), considering a conical indenter:
In Equation 1 the term Er is the reduced modulus, defined as:
where,
Er is the reduced modulus;
Ei is the Young’s modulus of conical indenter;
νi is the Poisson’s ratio of conical indenter;
E is the Young’s modulus of tested material, and;
ν is the Poisson’s ratio of tested material.
Elastic recovery during an indentation process. Symbology - a: indentation radius, he: elastic recovery; hP: final depth; h: the maximum depth; hC: contact depth and hS: deflected depth. Adapted from ISO 14577-1 [
A modern definition for the term E/(1-ν2) can be found in ISO/FDIS 14577-1 standard [14], and it is called as ‘indentation modulus’, using the symbol EIT. Exactly this term was used by references [5] and [6]. In this way, the mechanical properties of abrasive particle were discarded in both cases. It is notable that this aspect has not been ruled out by Stilwell and Tabor [13] in 1961.
A great difference between the Torrance’s paper [5] and the Yi-Ling and Zi-Shan one [6] is with respect to the volume of wear. In the former, it was taken as directly proportional to h2, and for the latter, related to hP2, following the symbology of Figure 1. The latter can be considered as more appropriate because it takes into account the elastic effects at a worn surface, so that the final formulation provided by [6] will be presented. Thus, an equation for wear rate, Q (m3/m), can be written as:
where,
W is the applied load;
H is the hardness of worn material;
C is a constant and;
KP will be called here as partial wear coefficient, based on elastic effects during indentation, defined as
In order to differentiate the use of elastic modulus to the reduced one, another symbology will be considered for the latter case, where KP’ is introduced:
where,
k is a constant.
To define the constant C, Yi-Ling and Zi-Shan [6] made use of nine constants to fit the experimental results. The constant k of term KP varies with many variables of tribosystem. On the other hand, although Torrance [5] has not make use of constants to fit experimental results obtained by others [15-17], he chose a material as reference (a steel of 401 HV hardness), and all cases were then compared with this material (Equation 5). In this way, he only needed to calculate the constant k (=10), finding a very interesting result, as can be seen in Figure 2.
Relative wear resistance (βi) as a function of relative partial wear coefficient (βi*), as defined in [
Figure 2 shows a linear relationship between the relative wear resistance βi and the relative partial wear coefficient, defined in [4] as βi* (Equation 5). The experimental points used to build this curve included pure metals and heat-treated steels. These groups of materials do not present the same behavior when they are abraded by hard particles (Figure 3).
In other words, a pure metal with similar hardness of heat-treated steel presents a higher abrasion resistance. This implies that steels present a different slope on a wear resistance curve when it is put as a function of hardness. Using the ratio of the hardness to the Young’s modulus, Torrance [5] put in the same curve these referred groups of materials, which present, a priori, different behaviors. This kind of result was also described in reference [19], but based on a different approach. This research made use of the abrasion factor (fab) definition (Equation 6 and Figure 4 [20]) to describe the wear resistance. It is a parameter related with the cutting efficiency, i.e., when this factor is equal to unity only the micro-cutting would be the wear mechanism, while for values correspondent to zero no removal of material would be detected. The experimental results obtained in [19] are shown in Figure 5.
Schematic representation of the wear resistance (Q’ = 1/Q) produced by hard particles as a function of hardness, considering pure metals and heat-treated steels. Adapted from reference [
where,
A1 is the cross section area relative to pileup produced by a single scratch and;
A2 is the cross section area relative to the groove produced by a single scratch.
Abrasion factor definition (areas A1 and A2 defined in
Abrasive wear resistance (Q’) produced by flint particles as a function of wear debris hardness-to-fab ratio. Adapted from reference [
Again, in Figure 5 both pure metals and steels are put in the same curve, showing that the hardness alone, in some cases, is not a complete descriptor of the wear resistance. The similarity between the results presented in Figure 2 and Figure 5 opens a possibility to the abrasion factor to be described as a function of the hardness-to-elastic modulus ratio.
Although in reference [19] the elastic effects have not been incorporated to the model, there are results in the literature relating the pileup formation (Figure 6, [21]) with the mechanical properties [22]. In this case, it is possible to consider that the pileup formation (hc/h) works for static (hardness test) and kinetic cases (scratch test), being the higher the pileup, the smaller the cutting efficiency.
Physical parameters extracted from a residual profile of a spherical indentation. Notation:
In reference [22] an equation that correlates the pileup formation with the H/E ratio, based on results obtained in scratch tests conducted with a Berkovich indenter (Figure 7) can be found:
Important evidence was detected in [23] that the application of Equation (7) was dependent on the level of applied load.
Relation between the pileup (hc/h) and the ln(E/H), obtained after scratch tests with Berkovich indenter. Adapted from reference [
Two tribological pairs were studied, also considered in a previous investigation [24]. Their wear rates are known: glass abrading a quenched and tempered (Q&T) 52100 steel [25], and alumina wearing a hard metal [26]. The mechanical properties, determined from instrumented indentation testing, used to calculate the partial wear coefficients, KP and KP’ (Equations 3 and 4), are presented in Table 2. To calculate the reduced modulus (Equation 2), Poisson’s ratios were extracted from [27].
As seen in the previous item, due to the similarity of Figures 2 and 5, the partial wear coefficient can be well related to the abrasion factor (cutting efficiency), fab. An indirect way to know the fab factor is found in reference [28], which defined it as the ratio between the wear coefficient K (Archard’s definition) and the ploughing fraction of friction coefficient (μp). The cutting efficiency values, following this definition, are 0.106 for glass abrading bearing steel and 0.079 for alumina wearing hard metal, a difference of 34%. As the constant KP’ can vary along a broad range (Figure 8), we select a value so as to the difference is also 34%, and for this purpose it is 8.25.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\n\t\t | \n\t\n\t\t | \n
Soda-lime glass | \n\t4.07 | \n\t69 | \n\t53.24 | \n\t0.080 | \n\t0.103 | \n
Q&T steel | \n\t5.5 | \n\t180* | \n\t0.023 | \n\t0.076 | \n|
Alumina | \n\t19.6 | \n\t376.1 | \n\t222.43 | \n\t0.052 | \n\t0.088 | \n
Hard metal (grade K) | \n\t11 | \n\t480 | \n\t0.023 | \n\t0.049 | \n
Mechanical properties of selected tribological pairs. *Obs.: Q&T steel is a wire-drawing, which implies in a reduction of elastic modulus due to the work-hardening effect
An example of variation in KP’ value with k factor is presented in Figure 8, for the tribological pairs considered in Table 2. Another pair was added (calcite-fluorite) in this figure, in order to help the discussion with their differences.
Variation of KP’ wear coefficient with factor k for three cases
The resulting values of partial wear coefficients, using 8.25 as k factor, are presented in Table 3.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
Glass - Q&T steel | \n\t\t1.41 | \n\t\t2.66 | \n\t
Alumina – Hard metal | \n\t\t1.41 | \n\t\t1.98 | \n\t
Partial wear coefficient values for selected tribological pairs
Table 3 shows that the KP values were similar for the studied pairs, while the KP’ did not follow this trend. The wear coefficients of tribological pairs (K values) determined using sliding abrasion tests were 0.014 and 0.008, for glass against steel [25] and alumina against hard metal [26], respectively. Visibly this difference in wear rates is only reflected by the KP’ values, which is a direct result of the ratio of hardness to the reduced modulus.
Another observation for the KP values is that the similarity presented in Table 3 is not affected by the variation of the k factor. On the contrary, KP’ is strongly dependent on this factor, as can be seen in Figure 8.
One can ask about the good agreement with experimental data found in [5] and [6] when they used only the Young’s modulus in wear model. The key point for that is the superiority of abrasive hardness in relation to the worn surface. All experimental results in these cases were performed using abrasives much harder than the tested materials, such that the mechanical properties of them can be considered as unaltered along the tests. An investigation [29] showed significant changes in glass particles when they abraded steel surfaces, even for non heat-treated ones. The same thing was demonstrated in [30] for different abrasives wearing WC-Co thermal sprayed coatings. When the abrasive particle is relatively soft to the abraded material, their mechanical properties play a key role during the wear process, and an extensive discussion on it can be found in [31].
In addition, in reference [24] these tribological pairs were separated using the difference in the plasticity index, δH, defined in [32] (Equation 8), being the smallest difference related to the calcite-fluorite, and the largest for glass-steel pair within the materials analyzed in [24]. This aspect seems to be important again when one observes Figure 8. When the difference is insignificant, as in the case of calcite-fluorite, the variation of KP’ with k factor is minor, and on the other hand, for the case of the glass-steel pair, for a notable difference in the plasticity index, a great variation of KP’ with the k factor occurs.
A brief discussion of the k factor is instructive. Following [6], this factor is especially associated to the particle geometry. As stated, a hypothetical KP’ of calcite-fluorite pair would be less affected by the variation on k factor. Therefore, one can imagine a small fragment of mineral used in Mohs scale [33] and, considering the previous assertive, conclude that its geometry would not be important. Probably, this is not the case. The k factor should be understood in a broad manner, i.e., all variables of a system can alter its value. Thus, slight changes in tribological variables could bring higher alterations in the wear coefficient for the pair glass-steel than for the other described cases. At this moment, no experimental result is available to corroborate this hypothesis, but it is an interesting field to be explored further.
Finally, a discussion concerning the Equation (7) and the values presented in Table 2 is valuable. If the values of H/E ratio for steel and alumina were applied in Equation (7), the results would be similar. A similar height of pileup for these materials obviously is not a reasonable result, taking into account the experimental values obtained for wear and friction coefficients for them. Nevertheless, applying the reduced modulus in the place of E in that equation, one can find fewer tendencies to form pileup after abrasion of steel by glass, which means a higher cutting efficiency in this case, meeting with the values described before. Consequently, it is more a case of successful application of reduced modulus to predict changes at the mechanical contact.
The viability of the use the hardness-to-reduced modulus ratio to model the wear coefficient for abraded materials was demonstrated. Previous models were developed taking into account only the Young’s modulus of worn surface, discarding the properties of abrasive material. These cases work only for pairs where the abrasive particle is harder than the abraded material and it was demonstrated that they fail when the abrasive hardness is relatively low.
In addition, other questions were discussed and they open some possibilities to carry out future research. First, the model of wear coefficient treated here involves higher requirements, because a constant is needed. This constant seems to affect more the wear coefficient of some pairs than the others, and the reason for that is not clear. Finally, an extensive work could be made exploring the relation between cutting efficiency (abrasion factor) and H/Er ratio, computing a large variation of the applied load and the abrasive (indenter) properties. Probably, an investigation based on these aspects should supply answers to the improvement of a wear model containing the H/Er ratio.
Financial support for this study was provided by CNPq under project no. 306727/2011-0.
A1 and A2 Cross section areas used in the definition of abrasion factor
C Constant
E Young’s modulus
Ei Young’s modulus of indenter
Er Reduced modulus
fab Abrasion factor or cutting efficiency
h Maximum depth at applied load
hC Contact depth
he Elastic recovery
hP Final depth
hS Deflected depth
K Wear coefficient
KP Partial wear coefficient, defined as
KP’ Partial wear coefficient calculated with Er instead of E
k Constant
Q Wear rate
Q’ Wear resistance (= 1/Q)
W Applied load
βi Relative wear resistance
βi* Relative partial wear coefficient
μp Ploughing fraction of friction coefficient, taken as 0.2
ν Poisson’s ratio of the worn material
νi Poisson’s ratio of the indenter
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) consists of a large group of man-made chemicals available worldwide in many different fields since the 1940’s [1]. The numerous applications of PFCs in different areas relies on their distinctive physical and chemical characteristics (water and oil repellence, thermal and chemical stability, surfactant behaviour, low polarity, weak intermolecular interactions, and reduced surface tension), [1, 2, 3] highly fomented by the fluor-carbon moiety [1, 2, 3]. These compounds are widespread in consumers life through plastics, fire retardants, dyes, surfactants, polymers, and pharmaceuticals, among others [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Benign PFCs have been used in the development of biomedical applications, such as emulsions, [7, 8] imaging agents, [9, 10] biocompatible lubricants, [11] oxygen therapeutics, [12] pulmonary delivery agents, [13] and theranostic agents [14]. On the other hand, perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAs) and fluorinated greenhouse gases (F-gases) belong to a class of persistent chemicals, widely used in industrial and commercial products [1, 2, 5, 6]. Due to their high global warming potential (GWP), long atmospheric lifetime, persistency, and mobility, these compounds have been found in several contaminated sites, [2, 15] including water, soils, biota and food [16, 17, 18]. Major concerns about their toxicity and bioaccumulation limit their use and encourages their replacement [1, 2, 5].
In the last decades ionic liquids (ILs) have emerged as new engineering solvents. The application of these compounds has aroused in many different subjects, including catalysis, electrochemistry, extraction and separation processes, pharmaceutical and biomedical applications [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. This massive use of ILs is supported by their unique thermophysical properties and limitlessness combinations between anions and cations [19, 26, 27]. Their title of “green solvents” is corroborated by an almost negligible vapour pressure at room temperature and reduced flammability [19, 26]. Additionally, the increased research about the cytotoxicity and environmental toxicity of these compounds reinforces that their possible harmful behaviour is dependent on the cation-anion tested combination [28]. Due to their complexity and variety, ILs have been categorized in several families according either to their properties or to their applications [29].
This chapter is focused on the use of a less explored ILs family, the fluorinated ionic liquids (FILs), defined as ILs with fluorine tags equal or longer than four carbon atoms [30, 31, 32, 33]. The fluorinated tags can create one nanosegregated domain distinct from polar and apolar (hydrogenated) [32, 33]. FILs combine the exceptional properties of conventional ILs (high thermal stability, negligible vapour pressure, reduced flammability, and greener potential) with the greatest properties of traditional PFCs (chemical and biological inertness, reduced surface tension and increased surfactant behaviour). In contrast to the low solubility and toxicity intrinsic to many highly fluorinated compounds, some novel FILs have been designed with completely water miscibility [34, 35] and negligible toxicity, [30, 36, 37] furthering its use in more green engineering processes and biomedical applications. In spite of these outstanding properties, scarce information is available in literature and research is mainly focused on their synthesis and characterization, [38] electrochemical properties, [39] gas solubilities [40] and application as reaction media [38, 41].
This chapter covers the main assets of these FILs, namely their thermophysical and structural properties, aggregation and surfactant behaviour, cytotoxicity, acute ecotoxicity and biodegradation. Additionally, a more detailed approach throughout the application of FILs as task-specific materials in several areas comprise the analysis of a series of works. It is evidenced the progress of FILs either in biomedical applications, or in engineering separation processes.
The characterization of FILs properties and the influence of the different cation/anion combinations on these properties is still critical to head these specific materials to the potential applications. FILs have enhanced properties due to the nanosegregated structuring into three different domains, one polar and two apolar (hydrogenated and fluorinated), making them an alternative solvent with new improved mechanisms of solubilization of different compounds (see Figure 1) [31, 32, 33]. The manipulation of the nanosegregation behaviour and intra- and inter- molecular interactions of FILs allows the control of thermal and thermophysical properties, toxicity, solubility capacity or hydrophobicity of FILs.
Formation of three nanosegregated domains of [C2C1Im][CF3SO3], [C2C1Im][C4F9SO3] and [C6C1Im][C4F9SO3] FILs. The red and blue sticks represent negative and positive charges, indicating the segregated polar network in the three ILs. The green space-filled areas represent the fluorinated domains. The grey space-filled areas indicate the hydrogenated moieties segregated. Adapted from [
In this section, it is emphasized how the formation of the new fluorinated domain and the structural features influence the properties of FILs. The properties of FILs, such as melting point, thermal stability, density, viscosity, refractive index, ionic conductivity and surface tension [30, 33, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50] are discussed along with the FILs self-aggregation behaviour in aqueous solutions [34, 35, 50, 51, 52]. A close sight on the biocompatibility of FILs by examining their toxicological and biodegradability properties is also included for discussion [30, 36, 37].
The phase behaviour of pure FILs is determined by the melting, solid–solid and glass transitions while the thermal stability is defined by the decomposition temperature. These properties are determinant to define the liquid range of application, allowing a wisely choice of a fluid to a specific task. Several works include the thermal characterization of the FILs depicted in Table 1 [30, 33, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 50]. In the case of FILs where the formation of three domains occurs, due to long enough hydrogenated (up to 6 carbons) and fluorinated (up to 4 carbons) chains (Figure 1), a rich phase behaviour is found, with a high number of solid–solid transitions. This indicates the ability of FILs domains to rearrange into different structures until the complete melting, proving the high influence of the nanosegregation [33, 46].
Structure and nomenclature of the ions constituting the FILs and of the F-gases studied for absorption in FILs and in deep eutectic solvents, prepared with the illustrated perfluorinated acids.
The different structural features of FILs can impact the melting and decomposition temperatures, and much work has been done to find trends to design FILs with tuned thermal properties [30, 42, 45, 47, 50]. The melting and decomposition temperatures of several FILs can be found in the Table 2. In the case of [CnC1Im][C4F9SO3] FILs family, it was found that the increment of the cationic hydrogenated chain increases the melting temperature and decreases the decomposition temperature [42, 47]. The increase of the anionic fluorinated chain also rises the melting point. However, the thermal stability is maintained constant at a considerable high temperature [42, 47]. Moreover, FILs based on [CnF2n + 1SO3]− anions have a much higher thermal stability than ILs conjugated with [CnF2n + 1CO2]− anions [42, 45, 50]. The type of cation and its functionalization also has a great influence in both thermal properties, and a carefully analysis must be performed when choosing a FIL for a specific ending [30, 33, 42, 45, 46, 50].
K | K | g·cm−3 | m·Pas−1 | mN·m−1 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[CnC1Im][C4F9SO3] | |||||
n = 2 | 293 [42] | 627 [42] | 1.547 [42] | 163.0 [42] | 25.14 [43]* |
n = 4 | 286 [47] | 638 [47] | 1.460 [47] | 307.3 [47] | 22.83 [43]* |
n = 6 | 297 [30] | 627 [30] | 1.392 [30] | 401.7 [30] | 21.36 [43]* |
n = 8 | 308 [30] | 621 [30] | 1.338 [30] | 374.6 [30] | 20.57 [43]* |
n = 10 | 307 [47] | 627 [47] | 1.310 [47] | 597.1 [47] | 22.05 [43]* |
n = 12 | 311 [42]* | 617 [42]* | 1.247 [42]* | 280.9 [42]* | 23.42 [43]* |
[C4F9SO3]− | |||||
[C2C1py]+ | 278 [30] | 629 [30] | 1.515 [30] | 201.8 [30] | 26.35 [45] |
[N4444]+ | 327 [30] | 587 [30] | 1.234 [30] | 15319 [30] | 22.77 [45]** |
[C4C1pyr]+ | 364 [46] | 632 [46] | |||
[N1112(OH)]+ | 436 [45] | 609 [45] | |||
[C2(OH)C1Im]+ | 251 [50] | 559 [50] | 1.620 [50] | 831.6 [50] | |
[C4F9CO2]− | |||||
[C2C1Im]+ | 278 [42] | 392 [42] | 1.487 [42] | 107.5 [42] | |
[C8C1Im]+ | 297 [42] | 399 [42] | 1.292 [42] | 307.9 [42] | |
[C2(OH)C1Im]+ | 295 [50] | 433 [50] | 1.541 [50] | 712.8 [50] | |
[C2C1py]+ | 275 [45] | 392 [45] | 1.454 [45] | 147.1 [45] | 26.83 [45] |
[C8F17SO3]− | |||||
[N4444]+ | 255 [30] | 385 [30] | 1.317 [30] | 6690 [30] | 21.98 [45] |
[C2C1Im]+ | 368 [42] | 616 [42] | |||
[N(C4F9SO2)2]− | |||||
[C2C1pyr]+ | 428 [45] | 619 [45] | |||
[C4C1pyr]+ | 371 [45] | 639 [45] | |||
[N1112(OH)]+ | 303 [45]* | 622 [45]* | 1.674 [45]* | 947.1 [45]* | 25.04 [45]* |
Thermophysical and thermodynamic properties of fluorinated ionic liquids at 298.15 K and atmospheric pressure: melting temperature,
Experimental data obtained * at 313.15 K and ** at 333.15 K.
The FILs based on long fluorinated chains (e. g. [N(C4F9SO2)2]−) have a very high melting temperature, automatically reducing the liquid operating range. Eutectic mixtures of FILs can be the solution to solve this handicap. The evaluation of the solid–liquid phase behaviour of binary mixtures of FILs showed a high decline of the melting temperature to values close or below room temperature [44]. This does not only increase the liquid range of FILs, but also expands the tuneability of neat FILs.
Density, transport, free volume, and surface tension properties have high relevance in the biomedical field as well as in the separation and extraction processes for industrial proposes [30, 53]. The structural features of FILs can determine their density, [30, 42, 45, 47, 50] as can be seen in Table 2. While the increment of the fluorinated chains increases FILs density, [30, 42, 45] the opposite behaviour is found for the increment of hydrogenated side chain [30, 42, 45, 47]. The carboxylate anions show a lower density comparing with the sulfonate anions [30, 45, 50]. The functionalization of imidazolium cation with a hydroxyl group has shown an increment on density [50]. The cation nature widely affects the density, and each family must be analysed case by case to infer on the applicability of each FIL [30, 42, 45].
The characterization of FILs viscosity, and consequently of their fluidity, was studied in several works, [30, 42, 45, 47, 50] and some of the results can be found in Table 2. The results indicate that FILs with longer aliphatic and fluorinated chains increase the viscosity [30, 42, 45, 47]. The FILs composed by [CnF2n + 1SO3]− anions also present high viscosity comparing with the [CnF2n + 1CO2]− anions [30, 42, 45]. The nature of the FIL cation affects tremendously the viscosity. In the case of bulkier cations, a lower fluidity is found [30, 42, 45]. The addition of a hydroxyl group in imidazolium cations increases the cohesive forces resulting in more viscous fluids [50].
The ionic conductivity has great importance, especially when correlating the molar conductivity with the fluidity obtaining the ionicity of FILs [30, 42]. The ionicity is evaluated by the Walden plot where FILs are classified depending on the distance to an ideal electrolyte [54]. From the ionicity can result information on the formation of aggregates between ions due to low mobility [54]. The analysis of the results shows that the increment of the cationic aliphatic and of the anionic fluorinated chains decrease the ionicity, diverging from the ideal behaviour [30, 42, 45, 47].
The free volume has a high relevance to FILs suitability as enhanced solvents of gases or other compounds with low molecular weight [55]. The relation between refractive index and density allows the calculation of molar free volume effects, evaluating the available space for dissolution of gases [30, 42, 45, 47, 50]. Therefore, the increase of both hydrogenated and fluorinated chain and bulkier cations rise the molar free volume values [30, 42, 45, 47, 50].
The surface tension of FILs is the property that most differs from the conventional ILs, in which the cation’s nature has a predominant influence on this property [43, 45, 56]. The values of surface tension for some FILs can be found in Table 2. The surface tension of [CnC1Im][C4F9SO3] family showed the lowest values existing in the overall ILs literature [43]. The increment of the hydrogenated chain decreases the surface tension up to the lowest value, found for the [C8C1Im][C4F9SO3]. The further increase of FILs aliphatic chain resulted in higher values of surface tension, revealing a global behaviour marked by a bowl-shaped trend [43]. The addition of a fluorinated domain in FILs induces a competition with the aliphatic domain to protrude the interface, which dramatically changes the values of surface tension [43]. As long as the hydrogenated chain increases to [C8C1Im]+, a rearrangement in the organization between the non-polar domains happens, allowing both to protrude through the top layer. After [C8C1Im]+, the aliphatic chain is much larger than the fluorinated chain, and occupies more space at the interface, increasing the values of surface tension [43]. In the case of quaternary ammonium-based FILs it was shown that they have lower values of surface tension comparing with pyridinium cation. In FILs based on ammonium, the increment of the fluorinated chain deeply decreases the surface tension [45].
The FILs properties can be tuned by choosing the cation, anion, length of side chains and functionalization of cation, increasing the possibilities of designing the best task-material. The complete determination of these properties is a complex assignment, requiring a lot of costs and time. To ease this task, theoretical models can be applied to predict their characteristics. An effort has been done in this direction obtaining several models that accurately reproduces the FILs properties of the neat FILs and of the mixtures with gases and aqueous solutions [47, 48, 49, 50].
The behaviour of FILs in aqueous solutions is enhanced in comparison with the PFCs and conventional ILs [34, 35, 50, 51, 52]. The selection of nontoxic FILs based on imidazolium, pyridinium (with short aliphatic chains) and cholinium cations conjugated with the [C4F9SO3]− anion were used to study the self-aggregation behaviour. These compounds are completely miscible in water at all range of concentrations studied in the conductivity profile [34]. The same behaviour was later found for imidazolium-FILs functionalised with a hydroxyl group [50] and some examples are represented in Figure 2a. The Liquid + Liquid equilibria of binary systems FIL + water was also analysed to study the solubility of water [35, 52]. The increment of the aliphatic chain in [CnC1Im][C4F9SO3] family increases the solubility of water in the FIL-rich phase [35, 52].
(a) Complete conductivity profile of FILs in water at 298.15 K and (b) the values of critical micellar concentrations of PFCs (grey bars) and hydrogenated (black bar) surfactants [
The water-rich region was selected to determine the critical aggregation concentrations (CACs) of several FILs [34, 35, 50, 52]. [C2C1Im][C4F9SO3] showed three different transitions related to the formation of distinct aggregates. These aggregates were evaluated and associated to different self-assembled structures [34]. These stable self-assembled structures can be the greatest contribution to the full miscibility of FILs in water. Figure 2b represents the values of the first CAC, so-called critical micelle concentration (CMC) of FILs [34, 35, 50, 52] and conventional surfactants [57, 58, 59]. All the FILs show much lower CMC and FILs with only four carbon atoms have greater aggregation power than the conventional surfactants with eight carbon atoms. The increment of the hydrogenated chain in the [CnC1Im][C4F9SO3] family decreases the CMC value, promoting the formation of more, bulkier and better packed structures [35, 52]. The longer fluorinated chains also decrease the CMC values. However, the growth of both nonpolar chains hinders the solubility in water [34, 35, 52]. The pyridinium and tetrabutylammonium cations show slightly lower CMC values comparing with imidazolium, cholinium or pyrrolidinium cations [19, 20, 22].
The FILs behaviour in water was also inferred in the FIL-rich phase by investigating the hydrogen-bonding ability and polarizability through Kamlet-Taft parameters [51]. The results indicate that increasing the fluorinated chain restricts the impact of adding water into ILs, keeping the hydrogen bond acceptance ability constant. This result indicates that the rich aggregation of FILs promotes the aggregation of water in a bulky polar network. The water aggregates expand and drive to the proximity of the polar nanosegregated domains of the FILs due to the higher repulsion of the fluorinated counterparts [51].
Cytotoxicity, partition properties, acute ecotoxicity and biodegradation are key parameters to assess the health and environmental risks of these FILs. Knowledge about structure-toxicity relationships is of great interest for the design of biocompatible and greener FILs. The design of these new compounds aims to surpass the persistency, bioaccumulation, and toxicity drawbacks of PFCs [1, 2, 5, 6].
This section provides a critical review of the cytotoxicity in different human cell lines: human colon carcinoma cells (Caco-2), human hepatocellular carcinoma cells (HepG2), human umbilical vein cell line (EA.hy926), and spontaneously immortalized human keratinocyte cell line (HaCaT), representing the risks associated to different routes of biomedical administration [30, 37]. Cytotoxicity screenings, with 4 h [30] and 24 h [37] exposure, were performed in these cell lines. For short-chain based-FILs, such as [C2C1Im][C4F9SO3] and [C2C1py][C4F9SO3], the overall reduced toxicity can be justified by their high hydrophilicity and surfactant performance [30, 34, 35, 37, 52]. In HaCaT cells, higher EC50 values were obtained for both FILs mentioned before and these results can be associated to the intrinsic properties of this cell line [37]. A higher biocompatibility was attained with the cholinium cation conjugated with the [C4F9SO3]− anion, due to the non-aromaticity and symmetry of this cation, which is also an essential nutrient for cell growth [25, 37, 60]. A similar behaviour was reported for several cholinium alkanoates [61, 62]. The non-aromatic and symmetric [N4444]+ as well as the alicyclic pyrrolidinium cations, conjugated with the [C4F9SO3]− anion, maintain the cellular viability in Caco-2, HepG2 and EA.hy926 cells [30, 37]. The elongation of the imidazolium hydrogenated alkyl chain length from [C2C1Im]+ up to [C12C1Im]+ prompts the decrease of the cellular viability in the Caco-2 cell line, as depicted in Figure 3a [37]. This effect on cellular viability can be due to the presence of delocalized charges or due to the increment of lipophilicity which enhance the disruption of the cell wall [37, 63]. A more pronounced decay on the cellular viability is observed with the increment of the anionic fluorinated side chain length [30, 37]. This effect was noticed for the variation of [C4F9SO3]− to [C8F17SO3]− or [N(C4F9SO2)2]− anions, combined with imidazolium, cholinium and ammonium-based cations [30, 37]. The fluorinated elongation on carboxylate-based anions also engenders a significant reduction of the cellular viability in different cell lines [62]. The increment of the fluorinated domain also enhances the FILs lipophilicity and the charges delocalization, which is traduced in a higher permeation of the cell membranes [37, 64]. Inside the cell compartment, free fluoride ions are formed by hydrolytic cleavage, which can interfere with the cellular mechanisms leading to cell death [37, 64].
(a) Cellular viability for imidazolium-based FILs with the increment of hydrogenated and fluorinated alkyl side chain length; (b) Effect of the hydrogenated and fluorinated alkyl side chain length on the 1-octanol/water partition coefficient (Po/w) of imidazolium based FILs. Adapted from [
The increment of the lipophilicity as result of the elongation of both hydrogenated and fluorinated alkyl side chain was confirmed through the 1-Octanol/water partition coefficients (P
An environmental hazard assessment is also essential in the context of sustainability and green chemistry. An ecotoxicological screening to evaluate the impact of FILs in aquatic environment was performed in marine bacterium
The microbial degradation of some FILs showed that short chain-based imidazolium FILs are highly resistant to biodegradation, even with the incorporation of hydroxyl groups. A certain biodegradability occurred in the short chained pyridinium-based FIL, associated to the oxidation of the alkyl side chain [36, 67, 68]. However, some variability is associated to the biodegradation of these cation that must be associated to the differences in microbial compositions involved in the degradation process [67, 68]. The higher degrees of biodegradation obtained with the cholinium-based FILs is only related to the cation core degradation that retains 75% of the oxidizable carbon [36]. To overcome the highly resistance associated to these compounds, removal or degradation alternative routes must be studied. According to these published results a proper combination between cations and short chained fluorinated anions may result in biocompatible FILs with potential to be biodegradable by alternative routes. These biocompatible FILs can support the fields of FILs as task-specific materials in a broad range of fields, from biomedical to reaction media in industrial processes.
The need of new products to replace the blood transfusions appeared in the beginning of the 21th century as a consequence of cross-infections derived from the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) [4, 69]. The lack of safety and trust allied with the severe shortages and increased demand of blood supplies have contributed to the search of an ideal artificial gas carrier (AGC) [4, 69]. PFCs-based emulsions are among the substances under clinical trials used to substitute the red blood cells in critical situations such as acute blood loss [4]. However, the PFCs have several handicaps that can restrict their usage as AGCs, such as high vapour pressures and poor solubility in water. With the aim to solve these limitations, FILs appeared as a solution to replace the PFCs fully or partially in AGC emulsions. Different works have been developed to infer on this prospect [34, 35, 49, 50, 70, 71]. The results show the possibility to design FILs with complete water miscibility, which solves one of the greatest handicaps [34, 35, 50]. The study of phase equilibria between FILs and two PFCs, perfluorodecalin and perfluorooctane, indicated that the enthalpic contributions are larger than the entropic contributions, which results in a favourable process of solvation of PFCs by FILs [70]. The high surfactant behaviour of FILs is also a huge advantage because it enables the stabilization of AGC emulsions, which can be favourable to reduce the usage of excipients and to enhance the solubilization of the respiratory gases [34, 35, 50]. The reduced cytotoxicity and ecotoxicity determined for FILs with the characteristics above mentioned strengths the possible use of these compounds in the biomedical field [30, 36, 37]. The greatest aspect that spurs the use of FILs as potential substitutes of PFCs in AGC emulsions is their higher ability to solubilize oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen, compared to the conventional fluorine-containing ILs and with PFCs [49, 71]. However, the formulation of an emulsion with high efficacy and the implementation of tests on the physiological safety and other health studies must be carried out before applying FILs.
Although there are several studies dealing with ILs for the solubilisation and stabilization of proteins, [23, 72] dissolution of low soluble active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), [23, 24] and development of drug formulations and delivery systems, [23, 24, 25, 73] the application of FILs in this field of pharmaceutical development is quite unexplored. Our research group initiated a pioneering research line to use FILs as drug delivery systems (DDSs) [74, 75, 76]. These novel biocompatible carriers can overcome the problems associated to proteins administration (e.g. sensibility to environmental conditions, short-half lives in blood stream, structural conformation and hydrophobic/hydrophilic nature that hamper the
The application of FILs as DDSs and stabilizing agents was firstly evaluated for two different model proteins, lysozyme, and bovine serum albumin (BSA) [74, 75]. Lysozyme is a protein with antiviral, antitumor and immunological properties, [80] whereas BSA is involved in organism homeostasis and in the transport of several components essential for several vertebrates’ body functioning [81]. For these applications, FILs based on imidazolium, pyridinium and cholinium cations, conjugated with [C4F9SO3]− and [C4F9CO2]− anions were selected due to biocompatibility and improved surfactant behaviour [30, 31, 34, 35, 36, 37]. The tested FILs concentrations cover values above and below their CMCs values (Figure 2b) [34, 52]. Concentrations above CMC were chosen due to their ability for self-assembling in micellar structures that can be used to protect, encapsulate, and deliver the therapeutic proteins [34, 52]. The stability of both proteins in the presence of FILs was determined based on the variations observed in the melting temperature of the biomolecules [74, 75]. The stability of lysozyme is not significantly affected by the incorporation of FILs, and only a slight decrease was achieved with [C2C1py][C4F9CO2] with a minor reduction of 2% in the melting temperature of the protein [74]. However, for BSA the melting temperature increases for all tested FILs concentrations, suggesting a stabilization of the protein [75]. These distinct results indicate a specific interaction between FILs and each tested protein [74, 75]. The differences among the interactions of the two biomolecules with FILs were also supported by structural studies. Both circular dichroism (CD) and fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy results suggest no substantial lysozyme structural modifications in the presence of cholinium and [C2C1Im][C4F9SO3] FILs, respectively [74]. For BSA, a slight increment on molar ellipticity and α helical content, followed by a β sheet and random coil reduction, observed in CD results, indicate a stabilization of the secondary structure, and a more compact state of the protein with [N1112(OH)][C4F9SO3] [75, 82]. Furthermore, in the presence of FILs, the biological activity of lysozyme increased, even at concentrations where the encapsulation of the protein inside the micelles occurs [74]. Although there are differences in the interactions between the two different proteins and the FILs, the stability, activity and secondary structure of biomolecules are not negatively impacted by the selected fluorinated compounds [74, 75].
The aggregation behaviour of different FILs was analysed in the protein medium. No significant variations were achieved in the FILs self-aggregation process in aqueous solutions [34, 74, 75]. To prove the encapsulation of lysozyme in the aggregates of FILs, the self-assembled structures were studied through dynamic light scattering (DLS) [74]. As illustrated in Figure 4a, an encapsulation of the protein at a concentration approximately twice the FILs CMC (1.2% v/v) is expected based on the disappearance of the intensity peak of lysozyme ( ̴ 4 nm) [74]. This encapsulation is driven by the fluorinated surfactant core of the FILs since the lysozyme characteristic peak remains present for the non-surfactant ILs [74]. This encapsulation was indorsed spectrophotometrically with the concentration of lysozyme in solution being reduced with the addition of 1.2% v/v [C2C1Im][C4F9SO3] [74]. Moreover, the FIL-protein aggregates became more stable after 24 h and a maximum stabilization was verified after 96 h [74]. The lysozyme encapsulation in [C2C1Im][C4F9SO3] was also evidenced, illustrated in Figure 4b and c [74]. Figure 4b depicts the solution of lysozyme with 1.2% v/v of [C2C1Im][C4F9SO3] analysed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), where an external darker counter surrounding the aggregates of FILs is associated to the heavier elements present in the anion, in contrast to the lighter grey shades of the lysozyme [74]. Moreover, the micellar sizes obtained by TEM are similar to the hydration diameters measured by DLS. A qualitative analysis through scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Figure 4c, reveals an external surface of the solution containing lysozyme with 1.2% v/v of [C2C1Im][C4F9SO3] similar to the FILs blank solution depicted in [74].
(a) DLS spectra of lysozyme in buffered medium upon the addition of [C2C1Im][C4F9SO3] at several concentrations; (b) TEM image of [C2C1Im][C4F9SO3] 1.2% v/v with lysozyme; (c) SEM image of [C2C1Im][C4F9SO3] 1.2% v/v with lysozyme. Adapted from [
The interaction and the encapsulation between [C2C1Im][C4F9SO3] and BSA was proved through isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) [75]. BSA interacts with the [C2C1Im][C4F9SO3] monomers causing conformational changes, as well as hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions [75]. The aggregation of [C2C1Im][C4F9SO3] in buffer determined by conductimetry was also supported by the ITC measurements. However, ITC indicates that the interaction between BSA and FIL is stronger than the FIL self-aggregation [75]. A different interaction between BSA and the FIL aggregates, not identified in the conductivity measurements, strongly supports the encapsulation of this protein inside the FILs aggregates [75].
After the first proof of concept dealing with the encapsulation of lysozyme inside the FIL aggregates, the optimal incubation temperature of the protein during 24 h was determined at 4 °C without a significant loss of protein activity [76]. The encapsulation efficiencies of lysozyme in both [C2C1Im][C4F9SO3] and [C2C1py][C4F9SO3] at 1.8% v/v (3 times higher than CMC) range from 69.4 to 83.4%, values similar or higher than the obtained with other traditional platforms [76]. This lysozyme remains encapsulated up to 12 h post-incubation at 4 °C, without significant losses of biological activity [76]. This longer retention of the biomolecule inside the FILs aggregates can be caused by the high stability of the fluorinated counterpart of the IL, as well as by the interaction between FIL and protein [76]. Furthermore, the biomolecule release was accomplished after the application of several external stimuli [76]. With the increment of temperature up to 37 °C, simulating the average body temperature, lysozyme is completely released from the aggregated structures after 6 h [76]. This complete release was also achieved after the exposure to an ultrasound bath with a frequency of 80 kHz during 1 h [76]. This approach can be applied for a site specific and controlled delivery of therapeutic proteins through FILs based DDS. Furthermore, within the same time frame at 42 °C the protein released range from 57% and 39% to [C2C1Im][C4F9SO3] and [C2C1py][C4F9SO3] based DDS, respectively, suggesting that under a pathological condition the protein can be released at some relevant extent after 1 h post administration [76]. The biological activity of the released protein remains above 50% for all the tested scenarios, except for the release after 12 h at 37 °C [76]. Then, biocompatible FILs can be designed to encapsulate different therapeutic proteins with good levels off encapsulation efficiencies promoting a site specific and thermo responsive release under different external stimuli. The differences among the effect of FILs in both lysozyme and BSA support the need to further study the interactions of these fluorinated compounds with other therapeutic biomolecules prior the design of the DDS.
Currently, there is a great interest in the development of technologies to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere. F-gases, including hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), PFCs, and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), are major contributors to GWP with long atmospheric lifetime. The most predominant F-gases used in refrigeration include 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (R-134a) and difluoromethane (R-32), alone or in blends with other F-gases, such as pentafluoroethane (R-125). In order to accomplish the international goals to reduce the emissions of GHGs, new refrigerants with lower GWP are being investigated and great research efforts are being made aiming to develop technologies to selective separate value-added F-gases from depleted refrigerants. These technologies lead to a reduction of gas emissions and promote the use of recycled F-gases. However, the separation of F-gases faces a major challenge, particularly in the cases of gas blends with an azeotropic or near-azeotropic behaviour. R-410A is widely used in the refrigeration sector but has a high GWP. Therefore, this refrigerant is one of the focus of the EU HFC phase-down [83]. This blend is a near-azeotropic system of R-32 and R-125 and therefore the separation of its individual components is hampered [83]. Consequently, there is a growing interest in the search for new efficient, low-energy, and sustainable separation processes.
The solubilization of F-gases in FILs is a poorly explored area. Most work has been done with imidazolium-based ILs composed of the [N(CF3SO2)2]−, tetrafluoroborate ([BF4]−) or hexafluorophosphate ([PF6]−) anions for the solubilization of different HFCs [84, 85, 86, 87]. Gas solubility in ILs is an interplay of different phenomena with: (i) the enthalpic contribution of the intermolecular interactions between gas molecules and the absorbent and; (ii) the entropic contribution of the accommodation of gas molecules in the cavities of the absorbent. A positive correlation is found between the degree of fluorination of the ILs and the solubilization of HFCs [87, 88]. Additionally, the fluorination of the cation was shown to play a major role in the solubilization of PFCs [89] and HFCs [90] in 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium based ILs. The structures and the fluorination degree of the gases also strongly affect their solubilization into ILs. Solubilities of a variety of F-gases in [C2C1Im][N(CF3SO2)2] have been evaluated experimentally, and by modeling with soft-SAFT equation. These studies demonstrated the importance of the establishment of hydrogen bonds between the gas molecules and the absorbent. Both entropic effects, resulting from higher chain length/volume, and enthalpic effects, resulting from higher dipole moment, are suggested to increase gas solubility [91].
FILs present particular properties that distinguish them from mere fluoro-containing ILs, such as the ones with the [N(CF3SO2)2]−, [BF4]−, and [PF6]− anions. Their ability to form three nanosegregated domains with different behaviours and the existence of countless cation/anion combinations increase the range of possible interactions (van der Waals, coulombic, and hydrogen bonding), making them ideal three-in-one solvent for the separation of F-gases [33].
When evaluating the absorption capacities of traditional ILs and of FILs for the selective capture of R-32 (Table 1), a positive relation between the fluorination degree of the anion and the solubilization of this gas was reported [91]. This behaviour is similar to what is observed when the size of the hydrogenated alkyl chain in the cation of fluoro-containing imidazolium-based ILs increases, [86, 88, 92, 93] and can be explained by the entropic contribution of the accommodation of gas molecules in the cavities of absorbents with higher molar volume. Moreover, when the absorption of R-125 and R-134a in the abovementioned ILs was studied, a higher solubility capacity of FILs in comparison to mere fluoro-containing ILs was observed [83]. This demonstrates the relevance of the FILs nanosegregated domains for gas solubility, either by increasing the free volume for the accommodation of gas molecules or by increasing the number of possible gas-absorbent interactions. Lower solubilities have been obtained in mere fluoro-containing and in FILs to R-125 in comparison to R-134a. This has been explained by the decrease in the number of interactions with the absorbent as a consequence of the reduced number of hydrogen atoms in R-125, [89] or by a decrease in the flexibility of R-125, as consequence of a higher number of fluorine atoms [91]. By playing with the different factors involved in the solubilization of F-gases in ILs, namely the constitution of the cations and anions of the IL, temperature, pressure and others, it is possible to develop processes where the solubilization of one gas is favored in relation to other gas, or gases, present in the same mixture [91]. In this way, while the separation of the binary mixtures R-134a + R-125 and R-32 + R-125 was demonstrated to be improved using fluoro-containing ILs, lacking an alkyl fluorinated chain, the separation of the mixture R-134a + R-32 might be improved by utilizing FILs.
The increased solubility of F-gases in FILs supports the use of these absorbent as an alternative to conventional ILs with longer hydrogenated chains, which present higher toxicity [83]. Other study focused on evaluating the viability and costs of an absorption technology in near-industrial conditions for the capture of R-32 and R-134a (with HFC recoveries above 90%) from a dilute gas stream, using FILs or mere fluoro-containing ILs as absorbents. In this study a COSMO-based/Aspen Plus methodology was applied to evaluate the influence of ILs structure, HFC partial pressure, operating temperature, and FIL/IL mass flow on the recovery of HFCs [94].
The development of separation processes based on ILs may face some obstacles due to the unfavorable properties of some of these compounds, such as the toxicity of those with long fluorinated alkyl side chains, poor biodegradability, high viscosity, high-cost production, and high melting temperature. As aforementioned, the solubility of F-gases is favored when the number of fluorine atoms in ILs is increased, but this is also associated with higher melting temperature and to a decrease in the range of temperatures in which FILs can be operated at the liquid state. In this sense, deep eutectic solvents (DESs) are emerging as a versatile alternative to ILs, with low vapour pressure, nonflammability, high tuneability, and improved properties for application at process level. DESs are systems in which the charge delocalization occurring through hydrogen bonding between a hydrogen bond acceptor (HBA) and a hydrogen bond donor (HBD) is responsible for decreasing the melting point of the mixture relatively to the individual components. Experimental studies regarding the solubility of refrigerants in DESs are scarce [95, 96, 97, 98]. The solubility of R-134a in DES prepared by combining the IL [C2C1Im][Cl] as hydrogen-bond acceptor (HBA) and 4-carbon perfluoroalkyl acids as hydrogen-bond donors (HBDs), was studied using both experimental solubility data and a theoretical model based on the soft-SAFT equation of state [89]. Additionally, the solubilization of F-gases was studied in DESs prepared by mixing high melting temperature FILs with perfluoropentanoic acid or nonafluoro-1-butanesulfonic acid (Table 1) [99]. The selected FILs were composed of different cations (cholinium, imidazolium, or a tetrabutylammonium cation) and anions with 4-carbon or 8-carbon perfluoroalkyl chains (Table 1). The melting temperatures of the prepared eutectic mixtures were significantly lower than the one of the neat FILs, which allowed to take advantage of the properties of FILs for the selective separation of F-gases, in a wider liquid range for F-gases solubilization [99].
In this chapter, the application of FILs as task-specific materials was fully described to be employed in both biomedical and engineering separation processes. The characteristic fluorinated domain and the different ions structural features prove to have a dominant effect on thermophysical and thermodynamic properties of FILs. Moreover, FILs have great surfactant behaviour and complete miscibility in water systems. The design of biocompatible and eco-friendly FILs without comprimising their surfactant behaviour was demonstrated which ultimate the applicability of FILs as enhanced materials comparing with PFCs and conventional fluorinated ILs.
The applicability of biocompatible FILs for biomedical applications was demonstrated by their great power to solubilize respiratory gases, supporting their use as artificial gas carriers. Additionally, the interaction and the encapsulation of different proteins in FIL aggregates, without comprimising the biological features of the biomolecules, also represents an advance in the application of FILs to pharmaceutical development. Finally, FILs exhibit great ability to be used individually, or in the development of materials to be further applied on the separation and recovery of F-gases, essentially due to their great free volume and gas-FIL enhanced interactions. To conclude, the discussion offered by this chapter highlights the identification of FILs as a novel and endless tool for the design of materials and processes whereas their fluorinated nanosegregated domain in combination with their ionic nature can provide unique features.
Authors acknowledge financial support from FCT/MCTES (Portugal), through grant SFRH/BD/130965/2017 and project PTDC/EQU-EQU/29737/2017. This work was also supported by the Associate Laboratory for Green Chemistry - LAQV which is financed by national funds from FCT/MCTES (UIDB/50006/2020).
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These physiological events occur smoothly in normal healthy individual and/or under normal conditions. However, in certain cases, these molecular events are retarded resulting in hard-to-heal or chronic wounds arising from several factors such as poor venous return, underlying physiological or metabolic conditions such as diabetes as well as external factors such as poor nutrition. In most cases, such wounds are infected and infection also presents as another complicating phenomenon which triggers inflammatory reactions, therefore delaying wound healing. There has therefore been recent interests and significant efforts in preventing and actively treating wound infections by directly targeting infection causative agents through direct application of antimicrobial agents either alone or loaded into dressings (medicated). These have the advantage of overcoming challenges such as poor circulation in diabetic and leg ulcers when administered systemically and also require lower amounts to be applied compared to that required via oral or iv administration. This chapter will review and evaluate various antimicrobial agents used to target infected wounds, the means of delivery, and current state of the art, including commercially available dressings. Data sources will include mainly peer-reviewed literature, clinical trials and reports, patents as well as government reports where available.",book:{id:"5290",slug:"wound-healing-new-insights-into-ancient-challenges",title:"Wound Healing",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - New insights into Ancient Challenges"},signatures:"Omar Sarheed, Asif Ahmed, Douha Shouqair and Joshua Boateng",authors:[{id:"183108",title:"Dr.",name:"Joshua",middleName:null,surname:"Boateng",slug:"joshua-boateng",fullName:"Joshua Boateng"},{id:"183399",title:"Dr.",name:"Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Sarheed",slug:"omar-sarheed",fullName:"Omar Sarheed"},{id:"188082",title:"Mr.",name:"Asif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"asif-ahmed",fullName:"Asif Ahmed"},{id:"188083",title:"Ms.",name:"Douha",middleName:null,surname:"Shouqair",slug:"douha-shouqair",fullName:"Douha Shouqair"}]},{id:"51825",doi:"10.5772/64611",title:"Roles of Matrix Metalloproteinases in Cutaneous Wound Healing",slug:"roles-of-matrix-metalloproteinases-in-cutaneous-wound-healing",totalDownloads:3629,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:"Wound healing is a complex process that consists of hemostasis and inflammation, angiogenesis, re-epithelialization, and tissue remodeling. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play important roles in wound healing, and their dysregulation leads to prolonged inflammation and delayed wound healing. There are 24 MMPs in humans, and each MMP exists in three forms, of which only the active MMPs play a role in the pathology or repair of wounds. The current methodology does not distinguish between the three forms of MMPs, making it challenging to investigate the roles of MMPs in pathology and wound repair. We used a novel MMP-inhibitor-tethered affinity resin that binds only the active form of MMPs, from which we identified and quantified active MMP-8 and active MMP-9 in a murine diabetic model with delayed wound healing. We showed that up-regulation of active MMP-9 plays a detrimental role whereas active MMP-8 is involved in repairing the wound in diabetic mice. These studies identified MMP-9 as a novel target for therapeutic intervention in the treatment of chronic wounds. A selective inhibitor of MMP-9 that leaves MMP-8 unaffected would provide the most effective therapy and represents a promising strategy for therapeutic intervention in the treatment of diabetic foot ulcers.",book:{id:"5290",slug:"wound-healing-new-insights-into-ancient-challenges",title:"Wound Healing",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - New insights into Ancient Challenges"},signatures:"Trung T. Nguyen, Shahriar Mobashery and Mayland Chang",authors:[{id:"183405",title:"Prof.",name:"Mayland",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"mayland-chang",fullName:"Mayland Chang"},{id:"191152",title:"Mr.",name:"Trung",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"trung-nguyen",fullName:"Trung Nguyen"},{id:"191153",title:"Prof.",name:"Shahriar",middleName:null,surname:"Mobashery",slug:"shahriar-mobashery",fullName:"Shahriar Mobashery"}]},{id:"63675",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81208",title:"Wound Healing: Contributions from Plant Secondary Metabolite Antioxidants",slug:"wound-healing-contributions-from-plant-secondary-metabolite-antioxidants",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Plants by their genetic makeup possess an innate ability to synthesize a wide variety of phytochemicals that help them to perform their normal physiological functions and/or to protect themselves from microbial pathogens and animal herbivores. The synthesis of these phytochemicals presents the plants their natural tendency to respond to environmental stress conditions. These phytochemicals are classified either as primary or secondary metabolites. The secondary metabolites have been identified in plants as alkaloids, terpenoids, phenolics, anthraquinones, and triterpenes. These plant-based compounds are believed to have diverse medicinal properties including antioxidant properties. Plants have therefore been a potential source of antioxidants which have received a great deal of attention since increased oxidative stress has been identified as a major causative factor in the development and progression of several life-threatening diseases, including neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases and wound infection. Consequently, many medicinal plants have been cited and known to effect wound healing and antioxidant properties. This chapter briefly reviews antioxidant properties of medicinal plants to highlight the important roles medicinal plants play in wound healing.",book:{id:"7046",slug:"wound-healing-current-perspectives",title:"Wound Healing",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - Current Perspectives"},signatures:"Victor Y.A. Barku",authors:[{id:"261027",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor Y. A.",middleName:null,surname:"Barku",slug:"victor-y.-a.-barku",fullName:"Victor Y. A. Barku"}]},{id:"66793",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85020",title:"The Impact of Biofilm Formation on Wound Healing",slug:"the-impact-of-biofilm-formation-on-wound-healing",totalDownloads:1434,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Chronic wounds represent an important challenge for wound care and are universally colonized by bacteria. These bacteria can form biofilm as a survival mechanism that confers the ability to resist environmental stressors and antimicrobials due to a variety of reasons, including low metabolic activity. Additionally, the exopolymeric substance (EPS) contained in biofilm acts as a mechanical barrier to immune system cells, leading to collateral damage in the surrounding tissue as well as chronic inflammation, which eventually will delay healing of the wound. This chapter will discuss current knowledge on biofilm formation, its presence in acute and chronic wounds, how biofilm affects antibiotic resistance and tolerance, as well as the wound healing process. We will also discuss proposed methods to eliminate biofilm and improve wound healing despite its presence, including basic science and clinical studies regarding these matters.",book:{id:"7046",slug:"wound-healing-current-perspectives",title:"Wound Healing",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - Current Perspectives"},signatures:"Rafael A. Mendoza, Ji-Cheng Hsieh and Robert D. Galiano",authors:[{id:"253607",title:"M.D.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza",slug:"rafael-mendoza",fullName:"Rafael Mendoza"},{id:"254018",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Galiano",slug:"robert-galiano",fullName:"Robert Galiano"},{id:"271116",title:"Mr.",name:"Ji-Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Hsieh",slug:"ji-cheng-hsieh",fullName:"Ji-Cheng Hsieh"}]},{id:"63086",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80215",title:"Medicinal Plants in Wound Healing",slug:"medicinal-plants-in-wound-healing",totalDownloads:2901,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Wound healing process is known as interdependent cellular and biochemical stages which are in trying to improve the wound. Wound healing can be defined as stages which is done by body and delayed in wound healing increases chance of microbial infection. Improved wound healing process can be performed by shortening the time needed for healing or lowering the inappropriate happens. The drugs were locally or systemically administrated in order to help wound healing. Antibiotics, antiseptics, desloughing agents, extracts, etc. have been used in order to wound healing. Some synthetic drugs are faced with limitations because of their side effects. Plants or combinations derived from plants are needed to investigate identify and formulate for treatment and management of wound healing. There is increasing interest to use the medicinal plants in wound healing because of lower side effects and management of wounds over the years. Studies have shown that medicinal plants improve wound healing in diabetic, infected and opened wounds. The different mechanisms have been reported to improve the wound healing by medicinal plants. In this chapter, some medicinal plants and the reported mechanisms will be discussed.",book:{id:"7046",slug:"wound-healing-current-perspectives",title:"Wound Healing",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - Current Perspectives"},signatures:"Mohammad Reza Farahpour",authors:[{id:"253340",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammadreza",middleName:null,surname:"Farahpour",slug:"mohammadreza-farahpour",fullName:"Mohammadreza Farahpour"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55736",title:"Haemodynamic Monitoring in the Intensive Care Unit",slug:"haemodynamic-monitoring-in-the-intensive-care-unit",totalDownloads:3369,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Monitoring is a cognitive aid that allows clinicians to detect the nature and extent of pathology and helps assessment of response to therapy. The cardiovascular system is the most commonly monitored organ system in the critical care setting. It helps identify the presence and nature of shock and guides response to resuscitation by detection of cardiac rate and rhythm, evaluation of volume state, cardiac contractility and systemic vascular resistance. Newer technologies allow greater assessment of oxygen delivery to vulnerable tissues. We discuss the nature, history, modalities and interpretation of the most commonly available haemodynamic monitoring methods in clinical use currently.",book:{id:"5756",slug:"intensive-care",title:"Intensive Care",fullTitle:"Intensive Care"},signatures:"Mainak Majumdar",authors:[{id:"86678",title:"Dr.",name:"Mainak",middleName:null,surname:"Majumdar",slug:"mainak-majumdar",fullName:"Mainak Majumdar"}]},{id:"51825",title:"Roles of Matrix Metalloproteinases in Cutaneous Wound Healing",slug:"roles-of-matrix-metalloproteinases-in-cutaneous-wound-healing",totalDownloads:3628,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:37,abstract:"Wound healing is a complex process that consists of hemostasis and inflammation, angiogenesis, re-epithelialization, and tissue remodeling. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play important roles in wound healing, and their dysregulation leads to prolonged inflammation and delayed wound healing. There are 24 MMPs in humans, and each MMP exists in three forms, of which only the active MMPs play a role in the pathology or repair of wounds. The current methodology does not distinguish between the three forms of MMPs, making it challenging to investigate the roles of MMPs in pathology and wound repair. We used a novel MMP-inhibitor-tethered affinity resin that binds only the active form of MMPs, from which we identified and quantified active MMP-8 and active MMP-9 in a murine diabetic model with delayed wound healing. We showed that up-regulation of active MMP-9 plays a detrimental role whereas active MMP-8 is involved in repairing the wound in diabetic mice. These studies identified MMP-9 as a novel target for therapeutic intervention in the treatment of chronic wounds. A selective inhibitor of MMP-9 that leaves MMP-8 unaffected would provide the most effective therapy and represents a promising strategy for therapeutic intervention in the treatment of diabetic foot ulcers.",book:{id:"5290",slug:"wound-healing-new-insights-into-ancient-challenges",title:"Wound Healing",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - New insights into Ancient Challenges"},signatures:"Trung T. Nguyen, Shahriar Mobashery and Mayland Chang",authors:[{id:"183405",title:"Prof.",name:"Mayland",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"mayland-chang",fullName:"Mayland Chang"},{id:"191152",title:"Mr.",name:"Trung",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"trung-nguyen",fullName:"Trung Nguyen"},{id:"191153",title:"Prof.",name:"Shahriar",middleName:null,surname:"Mobashery",slug:"shahriar-mobashery",fullName:"Shahriar Mobashery"}]},{id:"63086",title:"Medicinal Plants in Wound Healing",slug:"medicinal-plants-in-wound-healing",totalDownloads:2898,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Wound healing process is known as interdependent cellular and biochemical stages which are in trying to improve the wound. Wound healing can be defined as stages which is done by body and delayed in wound healing increases chance of microbial infection. Improved wound healing process can be performed by shortening the time needed for healing or lowering the inappropriate happens. The drugs were locally or systemically administrated in order to help wound healing. Antibiotics, antiseptics, desloughing agents, extracts, etc. have been used in order to wound healing. Some synthetic drugs are faced with limitations because of their side effects. Plants or combinations derived from plants are needed to investigate identify and formulate for treatment and management of wound healing. There is increasing interest to use the medicinal plants in wound healing because of lower side effects and management of wounds over the years. Studies have shown that medicinal plants improve wound healing in diabetic, infected and opened wounds. The different mechanisms have been reported to improve the wound healing by medicinal plants. In this chapter, some medicinal plants and the reported mechanisms will be discussed.",book:{id:"7046",slug:"wound-healing-current-perspectives",title:"Wound Healing",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - Current Perspectives"},signatures:"Mohammad Reza Farahpour",authors:[{id:"253340",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammadreza",middleName:null,surname:"Farahpour",slug:"mohammadreza-farahpour",fullName:"Mohammadreza Farahpour"}]},{id:"67217",title:"Nursing Implications in the ECMO Patient",slug:"nursing-implications-in-the-ecmo-patient",totalDownloads:2528,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Effective care and positive outcomes of the extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) patient necessitate optimal interdisciplinary management from the healthcare team, including expert care from specially trained registered nurses (RNs). It is incumbent upon the RN caring for the ECMO patient to excel in both time management and assessment skills, as this population often demands care delivery at the pinnacle of intensive care unit (ICU) acuity. Astute and nuanced monitoring of neurological status, bleeding risk with potential (often massive) transfusions, poor hemodynamics, and integrity of the ECMO pump itself are only the few specialized areas of focus that must share priority with traditional nursing considerations involving the critically ill, such as prevention of pressure injuries and bloodstream infections. These high-intensity medical foci must be balanced with ethical considerations, as the ultimate goal of returning the patient to their normal life is not always possible. These demands highlight the dynamic proficiency of the RN caring for the ECMO patient. The following chapter will highlight the importance of specialized nursing care in the critically ill patient supported with ECMO.",book:{id:"7878",slug:"advances-in-extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-volume-3",title:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",fullTitle:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation - Volume 3"},signatures:"Alex Botsch, Elizabeth Protain, Amanda R. Smith and Ryan Szilagyi",authors:[{id:"298623",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Botsch",slug:"alexander-botsch",fullName:"Alexander Botsch"}]},{id:"66239",title:"Echocardiography Evaluation in ECMO Patients",slug:"echocardiography-evaluation-in-ecmo-patients",totalDownloads:2184,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is a special form of organ support for selected cases of cardiovascular and severe respiratory failure. Echocardiography is a diagnostic and monitoring tool widely used in all aspects of ECMO support. The pathophysiology of ECMO, and its distinct effects on cardiorespiratory physiology, requires an echocardiographer with high skills to understand the interaction between the ECMO and the patient. In this chapter, we present the main application of echocardiography in ECMO patients and some general concepts on the ECMO working. ECMO, such as the standard cardiopulmonary bypass employed in cardiac surgery, V-V (veno-venous), can support the insufficient respiratory system by oxygenating and removing carbon dioxide from the blood. VA-ECMO (venous-arterial) can support haemodynamics by providing mechanical circulatory assistance. Today, ECMO can be used as bridge to decision, waiting for the development of the clinical conditions to support with other devices the evolution of cardiorespiratory failure or stop the assistance. Echocardiography (transthoracic (TTE) or transoesophageal (TOE)) can be used primarily to take decisions regarding appropriateness of ECMO support, therefore to control cannula insertion and confirm final position, to modify number and position of the cannulae in case of malfunctioning of these, and, finally, to assess clinical progress and suitability for weaning from ECMO.",book:{id:"7878",slug:"advances-in-extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-volume-3",title:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",fullTitle:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation - Volume 3"},signatures:"Luigi Tritapepe, Ernesto Greco and Carlo Gaudio",authors:[{id:"284893",title:"Prof.",name:"Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Tritapepe",slug:"luigi-tritapepe",fullName:"Luigi Tritapepe"},{id:"294005",title:"Prof.",name:"Ernesto",middleName:null,surname:"Greco",slug:"ernesto-greco",fullName:"Ernesto Greco"},{id:"294006",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlo",middleName:null,surname:"Gaudio",slug:"carlo-gaudio",fullName:"Carlo Gaudio"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"173",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:332,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:142,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. 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