\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9790",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Surgical Management of Head and Neck Pathologies",title:"Surgical Management of Head and Neck Pathologies",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The book is an introduction to concepts in head and neck surgical pathology that are both novel and proven. Chapters discuss the various anatomic, reconstructive, and esthetic considerations that are often unique to surgeries of the head, face, and neck. International cooperation was made to ensure that a wide range of perspectives is presented in this volume.",isbn:"978-1-83881-984-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-983-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-985-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87598",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"surgical-management-of-head-and-neck-pathologies",numberOfPages:190,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8ae195fe1164fd55b69b775d596f1e8a",bookSignature:"Ho-Hyun (Brian) Sun",publishedDate:"October 13th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9790.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2400,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 3rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 10th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 9th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 28th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 29th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"184302",title:"Dr.",name:"H. Brian",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",slug:"h.-brian-sun",fullName:"H. Brian Sun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/184302/images/system/184302.png",biography:"H. Brian Sun, DMD, MS is an oral and maxillofacial surgeon, a Clinical Assistant Professor at the Western University of Health Sciences, a Clinical Instructor at the University of Pacific, and a graduate alumnus of the UCLA Center for Oral/Head & Neck Oncology Research. His areas of interest include dentoalveolar surgery, orthognathic surgery, sleep surgery, trauma, pathology, and anesthesiology with a multitude of journal, textbook, and reference book authorships. He is a lifelong clinician, researcher, and educator with interests not only in the clinical but the scientific aspects of surgery who remains comfortable with both teaching and researching maxillofacial biology.",institutionString:"University of the Pacific",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of the Pacific",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"202",title:"Surgery",slug:"surgery"}],chapters:[{id:"73507",title:"Toward a Molecular Classification of the Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93982",slug:"toward-a-molecular-classification-of-the-head-and-neck-squamous-cell-carcinoma",totalDownloads:321,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The frequency of the squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck is constantly increasing, with over 550.000 new cases registered globally each year. The conventional histopathological diagnosis most commonly indicates the squamous cell carcinoma as tumor type and G2 as differentiation grade. Despite of this relative morphological uniformity, there is a great heterogeneity in the molecular profile, the therapeutic response and prognosis. Most probably, this entity includes many diseases, similar in basic morphologic features, but different in the biological behavior. Trying to answer this question and to show discrepancies when they exist, we have evaluated in this book chapter, our own results and data from the literature in terms of molecular profile at the protein level, including the spectrum of proliferation markers, growth factors and their receptors, stromal proliferation, angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis. These data will allow to identify some major criteria for a better stratification of cases, selected for gene analysis and personalized therapy as a future perspective and direction.",signatures:"Amalia Raluca Ceausu, Eugen Radu Boia, Eugen Sorin Boia, Anca Maria Cimpean and Marius Raica",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73507",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73507",authors:[{id:"324196",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugen Radu",surname:"Boia",slug:"eugen-radu-boia",fullName:"Eugen Radu Boia"},{id:"324459",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Amalia Raluca",surname:"Ceausu",slug:"amalia-raluca-ceausu",fullName:"Amalia Raluca Ceausu"},{id:"324962",title:"Prof.",name:"Anca Maria",surname:"Cimpean",slug:"anca-maria-cimpean",fullName:"Anca Maria Cimpean"},{id:"324963",title:"Prof.",name:"Marius",surname:"Raica",slug:"marius-raica",fullName:"Marius Raica"},{id:"325054",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugen Sorin",surname:"Boia",slug:"eugen-sorin-boia",fullName:"Eugen Sorin Boia"}],corrections:null},{id:"77962",title:"Pediatric Head and Neck Malignancies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98316",slug:"pediatric-head-and-neck-malignancies",totalDownloads:182,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Head and neck malignancies are a part of the differential diagnosis of head and neck masses seen in the pediatric age group. It is critical to make prompt diagnosis and employ proper treatment. We will review the most common malignant pathologies as well as their specific clinical presentations and management. Centers that are able to provide multidisciplinary care for pediatric patients with head and neck pathology can help achieve the best outcomes.",signatures:"Dustin A. Silverman, Ross Wanner, Patrick Walz, Matthew O. Old and Kris R. Jatana",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77962",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77962",authors:[{id:"173441",title:"Dr.",name:"Kris",surname:"Jatana",slug:"kris-jatana",fullName:"Kris Jatana"},{id:"419225",title:"Dr.",name:"Dustin A.",surname:"Silverman",slug:"dustin-a.-silverman",fullName:"Dustin A. Silverman"},{id:"419226",title:"Dr.",name:"Ross",surname:"Wanner",slug:"ross-wanner",fullName:"Ross Wanner"},{id:"419227",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",surname:"Walz",slug:"patrick-walz",fullName:"Patrick Walz"},{id:"419228",title:"Dr.",name:"Matthew O.",surname:"Old",slug:"matthew-o.-old",fullName:"Matthew O. Old"}],corrections:null},{id:"73654",title:"Reconstruction of Pharyngeal Defects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94191",slug:"reconstruction-of-pharyngeal-defects",totalDownloads:425,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The management of pharyngeal defects is one of the most challenging tasks for reconstructive surgeons. The reconstructive method is driven by the amount of tissue loss as well as patient-related factors. Since the advent of organ preservation strategies in the 1990s as described by the Department of Veterans Affairs Laryngeal Cancer Study, salvage surgery has become a common pharyngeal procedure to obtain local control when nonsurgical treatment fails. This chapter is divided into preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative phases of patient management. Each section will focus on particular aspects of management that are essential to achieve the best therapeutic outcome for patients who need pharyngeal reconstruction.",signatures:"Takako Yabe and Bruce Ashford",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73654",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73654",authors:[{id:"324985",title:null,name:"Bruce",surname:"Ashford",slug:"bruce-ashford",fullName:"Bruce Ashford"},{id:"324987",title:"Dr.",name:"Takako",surname:"Yabe",slug:"takako-yabe",fullName:"Takako Yabe"}],corrections:null},{id:"75904",title:"Commonly Utilized Non Vascularised Bone Grafts in Maxillofacial Reconstruction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96983",slug:"commonly-utilized-non-vascularised-bone-grafts-in-maxillofacial-reconstruction",totalDownloads:206,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Surgical defects created secondary to oncological resection are often debilitating for patients, both functionally and esthetically. Meticulous surgical planning and intricate knowledge of the vital anatomical structures are essential for understanding the biology of reconstruction in the craniofacial skeleton. Unlike reconstructive procedures in other areas where the functional components may be given priority, reconstruction of the face requires a delicate balance between the esthetic and functional units. Despite new developments, autogenous grafts have frequently remained a reliable alternative that withstood the test of time. Non-vascularized bone grafts are often a subset of autogenous grafts, where the graft solely depends on the recipient’s vascularity and is indicated in defect sizes of less than 6 cm.",signatures:"Manish Anand and Shreya Panwar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75904",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75904",authors:[{id:"338722",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish",surname:"Anand",slug:"manish-anand",fullName:"Manish Anand"},{id:"340173",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",surname:"Panwar",slug:"shreya-panwar",fullName:"Shreya Panwar"}],corrections:null},{id:"74368",title:"Principles of Anesthesia and Airway Management in Head and Neck Surgery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95029",slug:"principles-of-anesthesia-and-airway-management-in-head-and-neck-surgery",totalDownloads:482,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This topic aims to discuss key aspects of anesthetic and airway management for head and neck surgery. Airway management is a central part of patient care and management in Head and Neck Surgery. Common challenges in Head and Neck surgery are shared airway, distorted airway anatomy due to existing pathology; risk of airway obstruction, disconnection or loss of airway intra-operatively; risk of soiling of the airway due to bleeding and surgical debris; and the potential for airway compromise post-operatively. The option for airway management technique is influenced by patient’s factors, anesthetic needs, and surgical requirements. Intubation technique necessitating either a small or large cuffed tracheal tube with a throat pack provides the highest level of airway protection Non-intubation or open airway techniques involve mask ventilation, apneic techniques, and insufflation techniques, or the use of a laryngeal mask airway. Lastly, jet ventilation techniques may be conducted via a supraglottic, subglottic or transtracheal routes. It is essential to have clear airway management plans including rescue airway strategies that should be communicated with the surgeons and patients at the earliest opportunity.",signatures:"Muhammad Jaffar Khan, Tarek Tageldin, Muhammad Waqas Farooqi, Odai Qasim Khamash, Umair Shahid, Mohamed El-Fatih Abdul-Rahman, Mohamed Elarref and Jazib Hassan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74368",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74368",authors:[{id:"205194",title:"Dr.",name:"Jazib",surname:"Hassan",slug:"jazib-hassan",fullName:"Jazib Hassan"},{id:"321355",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Jaffar",surname:"Khan",slug:"muhammad-jaffar-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Jaffar Khan"},{id:"328542",title:"Dr.",name:"Tarek",surname:"Tageldin",slug:"tarek-tageldin",fullName:"Tarek Tageldin"},{id:"334028",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Waqas",surname:"Farooqi",slug:"muhammad-waqas-farooqi",fullName:"Muhammad Waqas Farooqi"},{id:"334029",title:"Dr.",name:"Odai Qasim",surname:"Khamash",slug:"odai-qasim-khamash",fullName:"Odai Qasim Khamash"},{id:"334031",title:"Dr.",name:"Umair",surname:"Shahid",slug:"umair-shahid",fullName:"Umair Shahid"},{id:"334032",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed El-Fatih",surname:"Abdul-Rahman",slug:"mohamed-el-fatih-abdul-rahman",fullName:"Mohamed El-Fatih Abdul-Rahman"},{id:"334033",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"El-Arref",slug:"mohamed-el-arref",fullName:"Mohamed El-Arref"}],corrections:null},{id:"76060",title:"Surgical Treatment of Velopharyngeal Insufficiency",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96560",slug:"surgical-treatment-of-velopharyngeal-insufficiency",totalDownloads:153,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) is a condition where the soft palate and posterior oropharynx fail to close adequately, leading to complications such as abnormal speech, nasal regurgitation and nasal emission. Although there exist many approaches to treating VPI depending on the shape and severity of the insufficiency, this chapter describes the three most frequently used and well-researched techniques: the Furlow Palatoplasty (double-opposing Z-palatoplasty), the creation and placement of a pharyngeal flap, and a sphincter pharyngoplasty. This chapter contains an introduction to VPI causes and treatment, a description of patient assessment methods, step-by-step instructions for the different operative procedures, and the recovery process.",signatures:"Nguyen Pham and Isabella Rodoni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76060",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76060",authors:[{id:"330030",title:"M.D.",name:"Nguyen",surname:"Pham",slug:"nguyen-pham",fullName:"Nguyen Pham"},{id:"339937",title:"Ms.",name:"Isabella",surname:"Rodoni",slug:"isabella-rodoni",fullName:"Isabella Rodoni"}],corrections:null},{id:"74581",title:"Diagnosis and Management of Obstructive Sleep Apnea",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95072",slug:"diagnosis-and-management-of-obstructive-sleep-apnea",totalDownloads:480,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) represents a major public health issue affecting over 10% of the general adult, more than 80% of the geriatric, and up to 11% of the pediatric populations. Numerous studies have demonstrated distinct associations between OSA and diabetes, daytime drowsiness, and cardiopulmonary compromise including myocardial infarction. Considering the estimated rate of underdiagnosis, OSA is expected to exert a significant unrealized toll on the global healthcare infrastructure with the number of diagnoses increasing each year. The diagnosis of OSA entails subjective and objective evaluations including sleep surveys and polysomnography. Accordingly, treatment of OSA also encompasses a large variety of conservative, pharmacologic, and surgical interventions. Treatment selection remains a difficult but critical part of intervention especially when multiple modalities are required. This chapter aims to describe not only the presentation of this head and neck airway pathology but the interprofessional management strategies employed.",signatures:"Ho-Hyun (Brian) Sun and Sally Sun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74581",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74581",authors:[{id:"184302",title:"Dr.",name:"H. Brian",surname:"Sun",slug:"h.-brian-sun",fullName:"H. Brian Sun"},{id:"325640",title:"Dr.",name:"Sally",surname:"Sun",slug:"sally-sun",fullName:"Sally Sun"}],corrections:null},{id:"78301",title:"Strategies for the Practice of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery during COVID-19 Pandemic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99692",slug:"strategies-for-the-practice-of-otolaryngology-and-head-and-neck-surgery-during-covid-19-pandemic",totalDownloads:152,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The appearance of a new coronavirus disease called COVID-19 at the end of 2019 and its pandemic expansion in the world has changed the usual practice of medicine, and has had great impact in the field of Otorhinolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery (OHNS). The aim of this document is to review the available evidence and propose strategies and recommendations for the medical-surgical practice of OHNS, which allow establishing the usual activity, adapting the safety and efficacy standards to the current pandemic situation. Therefore, it is required to identify and classify patients according to criteria of infectious-immunological status, and to establish recommendations for protection in consultations, hospitalization and the operating room, which avoid the transmission of the disease to other users and healthcare personnel, in the specific context of the development of our specialty. This document is the result of the collaboration of all the scientific commissions of Spanish OHNS society and therefore might help other OHNS to develop their work during COVID-19 pandemic.",signatures:"Juan Manuel Maza-Solano, Antonio Jiménez-Luna, Pablo Parente-Arias, Juan Carlos Amor-Dorado, Christian Calvo-Henriquez and Guillermo Plaza-Mayor",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78301",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78301",authors:[{id:"349387",title:"Prof.",name:"Guillermo",surname:"Plaza",slug:"guillermo-plaza",fullName:"Guillermo Plaza"},{id:"349912",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan",surname:"Maza-Solano",slug:"juan-maza-solano",fullName:"Juan Maza-Solano"},{id:"349913",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Parente",slug:"pablo-parente",fullName:"Pablo Parente"},{id:"416279",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",surname:"Amor-Dorado",slug:"juan-carlos-amor-dorado",fullName:"Juan Carlos 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\r\n\tBismuth-based nanostructured materials have received increasing research interest in the past decades, especially for their applications in photocatalysis and electrocatalysis. New bismuth-based nanostructured materials have been fabricated, and their optical and electronic structures can be fine-tuned via various synthetic approaches. These bismuth-based materials have been widely applied in photocatalysis (NOx removal, VOCs purification, CO2 reduction, water splitting, organic pollutants degradation, heavy metals reduction) and electrocatalysis (nitrogen fixation, CO2 reduction, water electrolysis, organic synthesis). The rapid development in this field needs a comprehensive summary to reflect the new advances in recent years. The aim of this project is to invite researchers worldwide to contribute to this field and promote the developments in the synthesis, characterization, structure-property relationship determination, and application of bismuth-based catalysts, proposing organized materials, challenges, and prospects to guide future works. The content of this book could attract broad interest from diverse fields of materials, catalysis, chemistry, environment, medicine, energy, and engineering.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-048-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-047-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-049-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"951c872d9d90e13cfe7d97c0af91845e",bookSignature:"Dr. William Wilson Anku",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11467.jpg",keywords:"Semiconductor, Synthesis, Morphology, Shape Control, Metal Doping, Surface Modification, Catalysis, Photocatalysis, Photoelectrochemical, Nitrogen Fixation, Energy Conversion, Environmental Remediation",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 12th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 29th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. William Wilson Anku is a Research Scientist at CSIR- Water Research Institute, Accra-Ghana. He has co-authored 37 papers in renowned peer-reviewed scientific publications with over 590 citations resulting in an H-index of 12.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"196465",title:"Dr.",name:"William Wilson",middleName:null,surname:"Anku",slug:"william-wilson-anku",fullName:"William Wilson Anku",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196465/images/system/196465.jpg",biography:'Curriculum Vitae\n of \nDr William Wilson Anku\n________________________________________\nCSIR- Water Research Institute,\nP. O. Box AH 38, \nAchimota-Accra, Ghana\n\nPrimary Email Address: williamanku85@gmail.com \nAlternate Email Address: williamanku@csir.org.gh \nMobile Numbers: +233547507987/+233577035326 \nGoogle Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=tK_Q8UQAAAAJ&hl=en\nORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5551-6130\nResearchGate: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/William_Wilson_Anku/research\n\nPersonal Information:\nSurname: Anku\nFirst Names: William Wilson\nGender: Male\nCitizenship: Ghanaian\nDate of birth: 20/12/1976\n\nResearch Interests:\n1. Design of nanoparticles with unique structural and physical properties, and the assessment of their structure-property relationships. \n2. Development and evaluation of photocatalytic, ion exchange, adsorption/filtration properties of metal oxide semiconductors and agro-industrial wastes-based nanomaterials for their practical application in water/wastewater treatment \n3. Water/wastewater treatment\t\n\nEducation:\n2015 – 2018: PhD Chemistry, University of Johannesburg, South Africa.\n2005 – 2008: MSc Environmental Science, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science &\n Technology, Ghana.\n1999 – 2003: BSc Chemistry, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Ghana\n1995 – 1997: Secondary School Certificate, Saint Augustine’s College, Cape Coast, Ghana. \n\nEmployment History:\n1.\tResearch Scientist (March 2019-present): CSIR-Water Research Institute, \nAccra-Ghana.\n2.\tPostdoctoral Research Fellow (February 2018 – January 2019): Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Johannesburg, South Africa \n3.\tTeaching Assistant/Tutor (June 2015 – November 2016): Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Johannesburg, South Africa \n4.\tChemistry Tutor (January 2007-September 2014): Effiduase Senior High School, Effiduase-Ashanti (Ghana Education Service).\n\nSupervision of junior researchers at the graduate and postgraduate level:\n1.\tPhD thesis supervision:\n(a) Student Name: Michael Kumi\nInstitution: Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Johannesburg (UJ), South Africa.\nThesis title: Integrated bone and biochar bed for contaminant removal from groundwater. (In progress).\n\n(b) Student Name: George Atongo Atia\n Institution: Department of chemistry, KNUST, Kumasi\n Thesis title: Fabrication of CNTs-metal oxide/polymer chemical sensors for gas sensor\n application and computational studies. (In progress).\n\n2.\tMSc Thesis supervision:\n(a) Student Name: Esther Acheampong \nInstitution: Department of Chemical Engineering, KNUST, Kumasi\n Thesis title: Synthesis of polysulphide intercalated layered double hydroxides for\n adsorption processes. (Completed).\n\n(b)\tStudent Name: Sechaba Menyadi\nInstitution: Department of Applied Chemistry, UJ, South Africa.\nThesis title: Improving the thermoelectric performance of zinc oxide with Al3+, In3+ \nand 2D materials through the formation of superlattice structures. (Completed).\n\n(c)\tStudent Name: Nokuthula Ndaba\nInstitution: Department of Applied Chemistry, UJ, South Africa.\n Thesis title: Isolation and characterization of Drimia delagoensis phytochemicals and\n their application in diabetic foot ulcer treatment. (Completed).\n\nExternal examination of PhD/MSc theses and proposal reviews:\n1.\tExternal examination of a PhD thesis from the Chemical Engineering Department of Vaal University of Technology, South Africa, 2021.\n2.\tExternal examination of PhD thesis from the Physics and Chemistry Departments of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, KNUST-Ghana, 2020.\n3.\tReviewer for the 2021-2022 Graduate Women in Science (GWIS) National Fellowship Program of the USA.\n\nScientific Reviewing Activities:\nServing as a reviewer for the following journals:\nACS Applied Materials and Interfaces, ACS Applied Nanomaterials, ACS Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, Journal of Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, Electroanalysis, Journal of Molecular Catalysis A, Inorganic and Nano-Metal Chemistry, Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing, Recent Innovations in Chemical Engineering, Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, Fibers and Polymers, Catalysis letters, Desalination and water treatment, Inorganic and Nano-Metal Chemistry.\n\nProfessional Associations:\n•\tResearch Scientist Association of Ghana\n•\tSouth African Chemical Institute (SACI)\n\nLeadership and volunteering activities:\n•\tVice President of Water Research Institute Branch of Research Staff Association (RSA) of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Ghana (2021-2022).\n•\tEditorial board member of RSA-CSIR, Southern Zone (2021/2022).\n•\tEnvironmental Science Department Representative of Graduate Students Association of Ghana: Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) branch (2005-2006).\n•\tVice President of Volta Region Students Association: KNUST branch (2002-2003).\n•\tNational Public Relations Officer of Ghana Students Chemical Society: KNUST branch (2002-2003).\n•\tGeneral Secretary of Volta Region Students Association: KNUST branch (2001-2002).\n•\tVolunteer Teacher at Asukawkaw Senior High School in the Volta Region of Ghana (May-August 2002)\n\nPrizes, awards, fellowships:\n•\tPostdoctoral research fellowship: Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, 2018.\n•\tPhD studentship: Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, 2015-2018.\n•\tStudents travel fund award: National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa, 2016.\n•\tBest poster presenter at the 5th UJ Cross Faculty Symposium held at UJ-Bunting Road Campus, South Africa on 13th October 2015.\n•\tSecond best poster presenter at the 3rd conference on “Emerging Frontiers for Sustainable Water” held at the Protea Hotel Wanderers, in Johannesburg, South Africa from 3-5 August 2015. \n\nPublication Record:\nA.\tBook Chapters\n1.\tOtun, Kabir Opeyemi, Idris Olayiwola Azeez, Onoyivwe Monday Ama, William Wilson Anku, Uyiosa Osagie Aigbe, Kingsley Eghonghon Ukhurebor, and Robert Birundu Onyancha. "Sensing the Presence of Inorganic Ions in Water: The Use of Electrochemical Sensors." In Modified Nanomaterials for Environmental Applications, pp. 65-89. Springer, Cham, 2022.\n2.\tAnku, William Wilson, Onoyivwe Monday Ama, Ikenna Chibuzor Emeji, Uyiosa Osagie Aigbe, Adelaja Otolorin Osibote, Peter Ogbemudia Osifo, and Suprakas Sinha Ray. “Functionalized nanomagnetic materials for environmental applications”. In Functionalized Nanomaterials Based Devices for Environmental Applications, pp. 127-145. Elsevier, 2021.\n3.\tKhoele, Khotso, Onoyivwe Monday Ama, Ikenna Chibuzor Emeji, William Wilson Anku, Suprakas Sinha Ray, David Jacobus Delport, and Peter Ogbemudia Osifo. “Dynamic Degradation Efficiency of Major Organic Pollutants from Wastewater”. Springer, Cham, In book: Nanostructured Metal-Oxide Electrode Materials for Water Purification, pp. 1-18, 2020.\n4.\tAnku, William Wilson, Onoyivwe Monday Ama, Suprakas Sinha Ray, and Peter Ogbemudia Osifo. “Application of Modified Metal Oxide Electrodes in Photoelectrochemical Removal of Organic Pollutants from Wastewater”. Springer, Cham. In book: Nanostructured Metal-Oxide Electrode Materials for Water Purification, pp. 151-166, 2020.\n5.\tWilliam W Anku, Ephraim M Kiarii, Sudheesh K Shukla, and Penny P Govender. “Photocatalytic degradation of pharmaceuticals using graphene based materials”. Springer, Cham. In book: A New Generation Material Graphene: Applications in Water Technology. pp 187-208, 2018.\n6.\tWilliam W Anku, Samuel OB Oppong and Penny P Govender. “Bismuth-based nanoparticles as photocatalytic materials”. InTechOpen. In book: Bismuth: Advanced Applications and Defects Characterization. pp 25-44, 2018.\n7.\tWilliam W Anku, Messai A Mamo and Penny P Govender. “Phenolic compounds in water: sources, reactivity, toxicity and treatment methods”. InTechOpen. In book: Phenolic Compounds-Natural Sources, Importance and Applications. pp. 420-443, 2017. \n\nB.\tPeer-Reviewed Journal Publications \n\n1. Ahiahonu, Elvis K., William W. Anku, Ashira Roopnarain, Ezekiel Green, Penny P. Govender, and Mahloro H. Serepa‐Dlamini. Bioresource potential of Tetradesmus obliquus UJEA_AD: critical evaluation of biosequestration rate, biochemical and fatty acid composition in BG11 media. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology (2021).\n2. Ahiahonu, Elvis Kodzo, William Wilson Anku, Ashira Roopnarain, Ezekiel Green, Penny Poomani Govender, and Mahloro Hope Serepa-Dlamini. Bioprospecting wild South African microalgae as a potential third-generation biofuel feedstock, biological carbon-capture agent and for nutraceutical applications. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery (2021): 1-16.\n3. Obiri, Samuel, Gloria Addico, Saada Mohammed, Wilson William Anku, Humphry Darko, and Okrah Collins. Water quality assessment of the Tano Basin in Ghana: a multivariate statistical approach. Applied Water Science 11 (2021): 1-8.\n4. Oppong, Samuel Osei-Bonsu, Francis Opoku, William Wilson Anku, and Penny P. Govender. Insights into the complementary behaviour of Gd doping in GO/Gd/ZnO composites as an efficient candidate towards photocatalytic degradation of indigo carmine dye. Journal of Materials Science 56 (2021): 8511-8527.\n5. Ama Onoyivwe Monday, Khotso Khoele, William Wilson Anku, Suprakas Sinha Ray, Peter Ogbemudia Osifo, and David Jacobus Delport. Synthesis and Application of MnO2/Exfoliated Graphite Electrodes for Enhanced Photoelectrochemical Degradation of Methylene Blue and Congo Red Dyes in Water. Electrocatalysis.11 (2020): 413-421.\n6. Anku, William Wilson, Eric Selorm Agorku, Samuel Osei-Bonsu Oppong, and Anthony Yaw Karikari. "MWCNTs attached neodymium doped-ZnO photocatalysts for efficient removal of dyes from wastewater. SN Applied Sciences. 5 (2020): 1-13.\n7. Karikari Anthony Yaw, Asmah Ruby, Anku, William Wilson, Amisah Steve, Agbo Nelson Wheatson, Telfer C Trevor, Ross, Glenn Lindsay. Heavy Metal Concentrations and Sediment Quality of a Cage Farm on Lake Volta, Ghana. Aquaculture Research. 5 (2020): 2041-2051.\n8. Manyedi, Sechaba, William W. Anku, Ephraim M. Kiarii, and Penny P. Govender. Thermoelectric, Electronic, and Optical Response of Nanostructured Al‐doped ZnO@ 2D‐TiC Composite. ChemistrySelect 5 (2020): 13144-13154.\n9. Renu Kumari, Adeniyi Olugbenga Osikoya Adeniyi Olugbenga Osikoya, Francis Opoku, William Wilson Anku, Sudheesh Kumar Shukla, and Penny Poomani Govender. Composite 2D Nanointerfaces for Electrochemical Biosensing: An Experimental and Theoretical Study. ACS Applied Biomaterials. 12 (2020): 8676-8687.\n10. Onoyivwe Monday Ama, William Wilson Anku, Suprakas Sinha Ray. Photoelectrochemical degradation of methylene blue dye under visible light irradiation using EG/Ag-ZrO2 nanocomposite electrodes. International Journal of Electrochemical Science. 14 (2019) 9982-10001. \n11. Onoyivwe Monday Ama, Khotso Khoele, William Wilson Anku, Suprakas Sinha Ray. Photoelectrochemical Degradation of 4-Nitrophenol using CuOZnO/exfoliated graphite Nanocomposite Electrode. International Journal of Electrochemical Science. 14 (2019) 2893 – 2905.\n12. Ndaba, Nokuthula, Marthe Carine Fotsing, William Wilson Anku, and Penny Poomani Govender. In vitro and in silico studies of the antifungal properties of the bulb and leaves extracts of Drimia delagoensis Baker (Jessop). Advances in Traditional Medicine, (2019): 1-7.\n13. Samuel Osei-Bonsu Oppong, Francis Opoku, William Wilson Anku, Ephraim\nMuriithi Kiarii, Penny Poomani Govender. Experimental and Computational Design of Highly Active Ce–ZrO2–GO Photocatalyst for Eosin Yellow Dye Degradation: The Role of Interface and Ce3+ Ion. Catalysis Letters. (2019) 1-18.\n14. Renu Kumari, Adeniyi Olugbenga Osikoya, Francis Opoku, William Wilson Anku, Sudheesh Kumar Shukla, Penny Govender. Hierarchically assembled Two-dimensional Gold-Boron Nitride-Tungsten Disulphide nanohybrid interface system for electrobiocatalytic applications. Materials chemistry and physics, 226 (2019) 129-140.\n15. Madima Ntakadzeni, William Wilson Anku, Penny Poomani Govender, Leelakrishna Reddy. Mo3S4 nanorod: An effective photocatalyst for the degradation of organic dyes in aqueous solution. Recent innovations in chemical engineering, 12 (2019) 61-9.\n16. Madima Ntakadzeni, William Wilson Anku, Neeraj Kumar, Penny Poomani Govender, Leelakrishna Reddy. Pegylated MoS2 nanosheets: A dual functional photocatalyst for photodegradation of organic dyes and photoreduction of chromium from aqueous solution. Bulletin of Chemical Reaction Engineering & Catalysis, 14 (2019) 142-152.\n17. S. O.B. Oppong, W. W. Anku, F. Opoku, S. K. Shukla, E. S. Agorku and P. P. Govender. Photodegradation of Eosin Yellow Dye in Water under Simulated Solar Light Irradiation using La-Doped-ZnO Nanostructure Decorated on Graphene Oxide as an Advanced Photocatalyst. ChemistrySelect 3 (2018) 1180-1188.\n18. W. W. Anku, S. K. Shukla and P. P. Govender. Graft gum ghatti caped Cu2O nanocomposite for photocatalytic degradation of naphthol blue black dye. Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic polymers and Materials (2018) 1540-1551.\n19. C.N. Peter, W. W. Anku, R. Sharma, G. M. Joshi, S. K. Shukla, P. P. Govender. N-doped ZnO/graphene oxide: a photo-stable photocatalyst for improved mineralization and photodegradation of organics dye under visible light. IONICS (2018) 327-339.\n20. C.N. Peter, W. W. Anku, S. K. Shukla, P. P. Govender. Theoretical studies of the Interfacial charge transfer and the effect of vdW correction on the interaction energy of non-metal doped ZnO and graphene oxide interface. Theoretical Chemistry Accounts 137 (2018) 75-84.\n21. Renu Kumari, Adeniyi Olugbenga Osikoya, William Wilson Anku, Sudheesh Kumar Shukla, Penny Poomani Govender. Hierarchically assembled two-dimensional hybrid nanointerfaces: A platform for bioelectronic applications. Electroanalysis. Electroanalysis 30 (2018) 2339-2348.\n22. W. W. Anku, S. O. B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E. S. Agorku, and P. P. Govender. Cobalt doped ZrO2 decorated multiwalled carbon nanotube: A promising nanocatalyst for photodegradation of indigo carmine and eosin Y dyes. Progress in Natural Science: Materials International 26 (2017) 354-361.\n23. S. O. Oppong, W. W. Anku, S. K. Shukla and P. P. Govender. Synthesis and characterisation of neodymium doped-zinc oxide–graphene oxide nanocomposite as a highly efficient photocatalyst for enhanced degradation of indigo carmine in water under simulated solar light. Research on Chemical Intermediates 43 (2017) 481-501.\n24. W W Anku, S. O. B. Oppong, S K Shukla and P P Govender.Comparative photocatalytic degradation of monoazo and diazo dyes under simulated visible light using Fe3+/C/S doped-TiO2 nanoparticles. Acta Chimica Slovenica 63 (2016) 380-391.\n25. W. W. Anku, S. O. B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E. S. Agorku, and P. P. Govender. Chitosan–sodium alginate encapsulated Co-doped ZrO2–MWCNTs nanocomposites for photocatalytic decolorization of organic dyes. Research on Chemical Intermediates 42 (2016) 7231–7245.\n26. W. W. Anku, S. O. B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E. S. Agorku, and P. P. Govender. Palladium-doped–ZrO2–multiwalled carbon nanotubes nanocomposite: an advanced photocatalyst for water treatment. Applied Physics A 122 (2016) 579-587.\n27. W W Anku, S. O. B Oppong, S K Shukla and P P Govender. Influence of ZnO concentration on the optical and photocatalytic properties of Ni-doped ZnS/ZnO nanocomposite. Bulletin of Materials Science 39 (2016) 1745-1752.\n28. S. O. B. Oppong, W. W. Anku, S. K. Shukla, E. S. Agorku and P. P. Govender. Photocatalytic degradation of indigo carmine using Nd-doped TiO2-decorated graphene oxide nanocomposites. Journal of Sol-Gel Science and Technology 80 (2016) 38–49.\n29. M. Mzoughi, W. W. Anku, S. O. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E. S. Agorku and P. P. Govender. Neodymium Doped ZrO2-graphene Oxide Nanocomposites: A Promising Photocatalyst for Photodegradation of Eosin Y Dye. Advanced Materials Letters 7 (2016) 946-950.\n30. S. O.B. Oppong, W. W. Anku, K. S. Shukla and P. P. Govender. Lanthanum doped-TiO2 decorated on graphene oxide nanocomposite: A photocatalyst for enhanced degradation of Acid Blue 40 under simulated solar light. Advance Materials Letters 8 (2016) 432-438.\n\nConference Presentations\n1.\tSession Co-chairs: William Wilson Anku and Saada Mohammed. Session Title: Innovative sample preparation and detection techniques for legacy and emerging pollutants in different environmental matrices. Virtual SETAC Africa 10th Biennial Conference held from 20-22 September 2021.\n\n2.\tW.W. Anku, S.O.B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E.S Agorku and P.P. Govender. Hetero-elements doped TiO2 for comparative photocatalytic degradation of monoazo and diazo dyes. SPEA9- 9th European Meeting on Solar Chemistry and Photocatalysis: Environmental Applications. Held in Strasbourg, France from 13th to 17th June 2016. \n\n3.\tW.W. Anku, S.O.B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E.S Agorku and P.P. Govender. Cobalt-doped ZrO2 decorated multiwalled carbon nanotube: A promising nanocatalyst for photodegradation of indigo carmine dye. 4th YWP-ZA Biennial Conference and 1st Africawide YWP Conference. Held at the CSIR-Pretoria, South Africa from 16th to 18th November 2015. (Won second best presenter award).\n\n4.\tW.W. Anku, S.O.B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E.S Agorku and P.P. Govender. Palladium doped-ZrO2-multiwalled carbon nanotubes nanocomposite as an advanced photocatalyst for water treatment. 5th UJ Cross Faculty Symposium. Held at UJ-Bunting Road Campus on 13th October 2015. (Won best presenter award).\n\n5.\tW.W. Anku, S.O.B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E.S Agorku and P.P. Govender. Cobalt-doped ZrO2 decorated multiwalled carbon nanotube: A promising nanocatalyst for photodegradation of indigo carmine dye. UJ Harvest festival. Held on 17 September 2015 in Perskor Building, DFC.\n\n6.\tW.W. Anku, S.O.B. Oppong, S. K. Shukla, E.S Agorku and P.P. Govender. Palladium doped-ZrO2-multiwalled carbon nanotubes nanocomposite as an advanced photocatalyst for water treatment. 3rd conference on Emerging Frontiers for Sustainable Water. Held at the Protea Hotel Wanderers, in Johannesburg, South Africa from 3-5 August 2015.\n\nReferences\n1. Prof Penny Govender\nDirector: Research Capacity Development (RCD)\nPostgraduate School: Research & Innovation, 101, Akanya Building\nAPK campus, University of Johannesburg, South Africa\nTel: 27845002689. Email: pennyg@uj.ac.za\n\n2. Dr. Anthony Yaw Karikari\nDeputy Director: \nCSIR-Water Research Institute, P.O. Box M38, Achimota-Accra, Ghana\nTel: 233208184215, E-mail: aykarikari@hotmail.com\n\n3. Dr Monday Onoyivwe Ama\nResearch Scientist: CSIR-National Centre for Nanostructured Materials,\nMeiring Naude Road Brummeria, Block 19B, Pretoria 0001, South Africa \nTel.: +27733300486, Email: onoyivwe4real@gmail.com',institutionString:"CSIR-Water Research Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:[{id:"82929",title:"Prediction of Solubility and Miscibility Parameters of Bismuth-Arsenic Complex and Amorphous Mineral Compounds Using Molecular Dynamics Simulation",slug:"prediction-of-solubility-and-miscibility-parameters-of-bismuth-arsenic-complex-and-amorphous-mineral",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:null,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440212",firstName:"Elena",lastName:"Vracaric",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440212/images/20007_n.jpg",email:"elena@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Churchill, Maja Dutour Sikirić, Božana Čolović and Helga Füredi Milhofer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8812.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"219335",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Churchill",slug:"david-churchill",fullName:"David Churchill"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6851",title:"New Uses of Micro and Nanomaterials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49e0ab8961c52c159da40dd3ec039be0",slug:"new-uses-of-micro-and-nanomaterials",bookSignature:"Marcelo Rubén Pagnola, Jairo Useche Vivero and Andres Guillermo Marrugo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6851.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"112233",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Marcelo Rubén",surname:"Pagnola",slug:"marcelo-ruben-pagnola",fullName:"Marcelo Rubén Pagnola"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"54355",title:"Surgical Management of Chronic Pulmonary Embolism",doi:"10.5772/67708",slug:"surgical-management-of-chronic-pulmonary-embolism",body:'Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH) is caused by a persistent obstruction of the pulmonary arteries after a pulmonary embolism (PE) that has not resolved despite 3 months of medical therapy with anticoagulants and is defined as a raised mean pulmonary artery pressure (at least 25 mmHg at rest), a pulmonary capillary wedge pressure of ≤ 15 mmHg and at least one (segmental) perfusion defect detected by lung scanning, multi‐detector computed tomographic angiography or pulmonary angiography [1, 2]. CTEPH is a form of pulmonary artery hypertension (PAH) characterized by the occlusion of the pulmonary arteries by organized fibrotic thrombi leading to increased pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR). The consequential effect is dyspnea, right heart failure and even death. CTEPH is classified as group IV according to the WHO classification of pulmonary hypertension [3]. Some patients may present symptoms and signs of CTEPH but no pulmonary hypertension; this presentation should be termed chronic thromboembolic disease, although the management of these patients does not differ to that of the classic CTEPH patients.
The most common cause of CTEPH is non‐resolving acute pulmonary embolism (PE) and can occur after one or multiple episodes. Occasionally, CTEPH may develop after in situ pulmonary artery thrombosis which could be associated with the inflammation of vessel walls [4].
CTEPH can be mistaken for PE; it is important to differentiate between these, in order to diagnose the chronic disease as early as possible. Once the diagnosis of CTEPH is made, careful patient selection in experienced centers is preferable in order to obtain the best results for these patients.
Because of its unique characteristics, CTEPH is the only form of PH that can be curable by pulmonary endarterectomy (PEA); although, this is a complicated surgery and not every patient may be fit to undergo such a procedure. The most benefited patients are those who present a proximal compromise [5].
CTEPH remains underdiagnosed and carries a poor prognosis. Medical and interventional treatment are options for patients that are not surgical candidates. In this chapter, the available information on the surgical treatment of CTEPH is summarized.
The first description of the CTEPH was made in 1928 by Dr Ljungdahl on two symptomatic patients with chronic obstruction of the pulmonary arteries who ultimately died of right heart failure [6]. The first successful embolectomies for recurrent pulmonary embolism were reported by Allison and colleagues in 1958 and by Snyder and colleagues in 1962 [7, 8]. Then, Cabrol et al. refined the technique using a lateral thoracotomy in order to obtain access to distal pulmonary branches [9]. In 1980, Daily et al. reported the use of cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) and hypothermic circulatory arrest, allowing the reduction of severe back bleeding and improving the visualization of the pulmonary arteries during endarterectomy [10]. This is the current preferred technique.
The process of the disease typically occurs in the proximal pulmonary arteries from trunk to sublobar levels. The distal vasculature remains patent. This presentation is the basis for the surgical approach of CTEPH. The disease may develop from a single embolic episode with non‐resolution of large thrombi or from repeated thromboembolic episodes [11]. The remaining unobstructed pulmonary arteries are exposed to high flow and eventually high pressure. Then, proximal patent pulmonary arteries enlarge, and the distal arterial vasculature develops changes of pulmonary hypertension such as intimal proliferation and medial hypertrophy. The characteristic diagnostic finding of primary pulmonary hypertension, the plexiform lesion, is also observed in CTEPH [12]. The occlusive process is usually central, incipient and unresponsive to antithrombotic or anticoagulant therapy when the thrombi become fibrotic and endothelialized. The thrombotic material has well‐organized fibrous tissues, penetrating blood vessels, elastic fibers and no endothelial cells. The arterial layers demonstrate intimal and medial hyperplasia. Infarction of the lung tissue is rarely observed [2]. These microvascular changes explain why CTEPH is a progressive disease even in the absence of recurrent thromboembolic events.
The estimated prevalence of CTEPH after acute pulmonary embolism is 0.1–4% after 2 years [2, 13–16]. The median age at diagnosis is 63 years, and both genders are equally affected [17]. The risk of developing CTEPH is increased in patients with recurrent venous thromboembolism, echocardiographic signs of pulmonary hypertension at the initial presentation and large perfusion defects. Common risk factors for venous thromboembolism (factor V Leyden, factor II mutation) are not associated with the development of CTEPH except for the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies, which predispose patients to acute venous thromboembolism and CTEPH [1, 18–20]. Different disorders considered to be risk factors include inflammatory bowel disease, splenectomy, myeloproliferative disorders, chronic osteomyelitis and the presence of permanent central venous lines, pacemakers or ventriculoatrial shunts [20–23]. These disorders are associated with chronic inflammation, an increased risk of repeated bloodstream infection or both, which may contribute to the non‐resolution of thromboembolic material [1]. C‐reactive protein is also implicated in the development of CTEPH [24]. Infection of thrombotic material by blood-borne pathogens could predispose to the development of CTEPH, specially in patients with permanent central venous lines, pacemakers or ventriculoatrial shunts [25].
It is relatively infrequent to find a complete resolution of pulmonary embolism. If adequate anticoagulation therapy has been done, more than 50% of patients have residual perfusion defects 6 months after the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism [26]. However, the majority of these patients do not develop florid chronic pulmonary hypertension; in fact, patients presenting signs of pulmonary hypertension during an episode of acute pulmonary embolism are unlikely to develop CTEPH, and most of these patients recover a stable phase of right ventricular functions within 40 days [13]. Some patients, however, present persistent pulmonary hypertension and others develop pulmonary hypertension after a symptom‐free interval that can last from months to years [14]. Hemodynamic deterioration may be the result of recurrent thromboembolism or in situ pulmonary artery thrombosis. Without intervention, survival is compromised and proportional to the degree of pulmonary hypertension at the time of diagnosis [27, 28]. To remind, pulmonary hypertension is not a feature of acute pulmonary embolism since the right ventricle (RV) is incapable of generating high pressures in early stages. In that order, any patient presenting with acute pulmonary embolism and elevated pulmonary resistances may already have CTEPH. In a study, the 5‐year survival rate was 30% among patients with a mean pulmonary pressure > 40 mmHg at time of diagnosis, and it dropped dramatically to 10% among those with a mean pulmonary pressure > 50 mmHg [29]. In another study, a mean pulmonary artery pressure of 30 mmHg marked the threshold for poor prognosis [30].
In general, symptoms do not develop until months or years after the embolic event [2]. They occur as a result of right ventricular failure or pulmonary hypertension. Progressive dyspnea on exertion is the predominant symptom of CTEPH [11]. Additionally, patients might present with fatigue, substernal chest pain with exercise, pleuritic pain and hemoptysis [11, 31].
Relevant physical findings are related to right heart failure: jugular venous distention, ascites, hepatomegaly and peripheral edema. The right ventricle may be enlarged and palpable near the lower left sternal border. The pulmonic second sound is accentuated and split. A murmur of tricuspid regurgitation might be heard in severe right heart failure.
CTEPH should be considered in all patients who have an evident history of acute pulmonary embolism. Despite 25% of the patients diagnosed as having CTEPH, there are no documented acute pulmonary embolism events [32]. Thus, CTEPH should be suspected in any patient with otherwise unexplained pulmonary hypertension.
The chest radiograph may demonstrate right ventricle enlargement and the prominence of central pulmonary arteries. The ECG frequently shows RV hypertrophy with strain, right axis deviation, ST depression, T‐wave inversion in the anterior precordial leads and occasionally right bundle branch block [31]. Transthoracic echocardiography provides the initial objective evidence for the presence of PAH. Findings in chronic thromboembolic and other forms of PAH include the enlargement of right cardiac chambers, tricuspid regurgitation as a consequence from this enlargement, the flattening or paradoxical motion of the interventricular septum and impaired left ventricular diastolic filling not caused by primary left ventricular diastolic dysfunction or valvular heart disease [33, 34]. Pulmonary function studies are necessary to exclude restrictive or obstructive pulmonary parenchymal disease as the cause of PAH.
Ventilation‐perfusion scanning is the preferred diagnostic tool because of its high sensitivity and a negative predictive value of almost 100% [35]. In that order, CTEPH is practically ruled out if the scan is normal [35]. A lung perfusion scan showing at least one segmental or larger defect is suggestive of chronic vascular obstruction [2]. Often, the scan underestimates the severity of an obstructive disease [36, 37]. Perfusion defects can also occur in other disorders such as pulmonary veno‐occlusive disease, pulmonary vasculitis, fibrosing mediastinitis or malignant disease [38–40]. CT scanning and MRI of the chest are important diagnostic tools and are being used with increasing frequency [41, 42]. If imaging suggests the presence of CTEPH, patients should be evaluated with right‐heart catheterization to measure the right ventricle and pulmonary artery pressures and to evaluate the presence of shunting at the atrial or ventricular level. Pulmonary angiography is safe in patients with chronic pulmonary hypertension [2, 43]. Typical findings include dilated proximal pulmonary arteries, varying degrees of obstruction of lobar arteries, filling defects, web or bands or thrombosed vessels suggesting the presence of organized thrombi [44]. In order to avoid repeat procedures, angiography should be done in a center that assesses the patient’s suitability for surgery. A general screening after acute pulmonary embolism is not recommended, given the low risk of developing CTEPH after such an event [45–47]. Care must be taken, however, in patients who show symptoms after an episode of acute pulmonary embolism. Echocardiography is widely used when suspecting pulmonary hypertension. A diagnostic approach that combines an electrocardiogram with no signs of hypertrophy in the right ventricle and a normal natriuretic peptide (N‐terminal‐pro‐brain‐type fragment) has a negative predictive value of 99% for CTEPH [48].
Angioscopy is an alternative tool adjunct to angiography, CT or MRI when these modalities cannot establish the diagnosis properly [49].
Patients diagnosed with CTEPH should have life‐long anticoagulation, even those who underwent successful PEA. The target international normalized ratio is 2.0 to 3.0. The use of filters in the inferior vena cava remains controversial [50]. Currently, the use of these filters is indicated when therapeutic anticoagulation is not feasible or when recurrent venous thromboembolism occurred despite sufficient anticoagulation [51]. Prospective studies on this matter are warranted.
The most important criterion that determines whether a patient with CTEPH might be a candidate for PEA is the presence of surgically accessible lesions. PEA should be considered in symptomatic patients who have hemodynamic or ventilatory impairment at rest or with exercise [52]. The decision to proceed with PEA in patients with CTEPH is difficult based on their preoperative pulmonary hemodynamic profile and the anticipated improvement in these hemodynamics postoperatively [27]. The basis for this concern is that the elevated vascular resistance not only arises from central (surgically accessible) vessels but also from secondary, small vessels with arteriopathy [27]. A preoperative approach should differentiate these two components and anticipate the postoperative hemodynamic outcome. This important issue remains relatively subjective. There is a high correlation between the postoperative level of pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) and mortality. In a study by Jamieson and colleagues including 500 consecutive operated patients with an overall mortality of 4.4%, 77% of deaths were related to residual high pulmonary artery pressures. Patients with a postoperative PVR > 500 dynes‐sec‐cm−5 had a mortality rate of 30.6% compared to 0.9% in patients with a postoperative PVR < 500 dynes‐sec‐cm−5 [53]. The majority of patients who undergo a PEA have a PVR > 300 dynes‐sec‐cm−5. Experienced centers report a range of preoperative PVR between 700 and 1100 dynes‐sec‐cm−5 [53–58]. Symptomatic patients at the lower end of these values include those with involvement limited to one pulmonary artery, those accustomed to a vigorous activity and those who live at high altitudes [52]. Operations should also be considered for patients with nearly normal pulmonary hemodynamics at rest but marked pulmonary hypertension induced by exercise. The only absolute contraindication to operation is the presence of severe underlying obstructive or restrictive lung diseases [52]. The most important risk factor for surgery is the presence of high pulmonary resistances without visible abnormalities by angiography [53]. Older patients and severe RV failure are associated with increased risk but do not preclude surgery.
This is the description of the current accepted and most widely used technique for PEA. Electroencephalographic recording is essential to ensure the absence of cerebral activity before circulatory arrest is induced. The patient\'s head is involved in a cooling jacket. Standard preparations for the establishment of cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) are made. A median sternotomy is performed. Cannulas are inserted into the ascending aorta and both venae cavae, which are encircled with tapes. Immediately after CPB starts, cooling is initiated (including the head jacket and the cooling blanket). This could take 45 minutes to 1 hour [59]. A venting catheter is placed in the left atrium through the upper right pulmonary vein. If the patient\'s condition allows it, autologous whole blood is withdrawn for later use. The deficit can be replaced with a crystalloid solution. The aorta is clamped and cold blood cardioplegia is given. Additional myocardial protection could be done by subsequent infusions of cold cardioplegic solution, every 15 to 20 minutes. During the cooling period, mobilization of the right pulmonary artery from the ascending aorta is made as well as the mobilization of the superior vena cava. Also, methylprednisolone (7 mg/kg) and thiopental (10–15 mg/kg) are administered to favor the neuroprotective effect of hypothermia. Mannitol (0.3–0.4 mg/kg) and furosemide (100 mg) are infused to preserve the renal function. Once the core temperature has reached 12–14°C and the electroencephalogram becomes isoelectric, circulatory arrest is established [60]. Both encircling tapes of superior and inferior vena cava are secured to ensure complete drainage and to avoid air embolization into the venous cannulae during circulatory arrest. An incision is made in the right pulmonary artery between the aorta and the superior vena cava (Figure 1), extending the incision toward the right lower lobe artery, a few millimeters farther from the takeoff of the middle lobe artery (Figure 2). Using a sharp dissector can help establish an endarterectomy plane (Figure 3). The intima and a portion of the media are removed. Establishment of the correct plane is essential—too deep will result in artery perforation, too shallow will result in an inadequate endarterectomy [61]. When the adequate plane is achieved, the layer will dismount easily. The core of the thrombus is dissected in a circumferential manner (Figure 4) and removed from each subsegmental branch and from the pulmonary artery (Figure 5). Gentle traction with forceps is applied to the core as well as opposite force to the pulmonary wall that will facilitate the removal of the specimen (Figure 6). The remaining core is removed from the proximal portion of the right pulmonary artery (Figure 7). The arteriotomy is closed with a continuous 5–0 or 6–0 polypropylene suture (Figure 8). If needed, a pericardial patch can be used that is sutured into place with a continuous 6–0 polypropylene suture. The period of circulatory arrest ranges from 20 to 25 minutes. Cold blood is reperfused for 8–10 minutes between these intervals. As for the left side, the incision begins in the pulmonary trunk and extends onto the left pulmonary artery to the level of the pericardial reflection (Figure 9). Endarterectomy of the left side mirrors that of the right pulmonary artery. The core is removed from the upper lobe artery and each subsegmental branch. The artery is closed in a continuous fashion or with an autologous pericardial patch. CPB begins and rewarming of the patient is established. If any other defects are present, such as patent foramen ovale or atrial septal defect, these are corrected to prevent the right‐to‐left shunting. If additional procedures are required, they are made during rewarming [62]. Right ventricle remodeling occurs within a few days, so, any tricuspid regurgitation rarely needs repair or replacement [61, 62]. Deariation maneuvers from cardiac chambers are performed, CPB is discontinued and the procedure is completed in the usual fashion.
An approach to pulmonary artery. View from left side. Superior vena cava is completely mobilized and retracted laterally, and aorta is retracted medially. The incision on pulmonary artery is done between these two vessels.
Exposure of distal right pulmonary artery between aorta and superior vena cava. Dashed line indicates line of incision.
Endarterectomy plane is facilitated with a sharp dissector.
Circumferential isolation of the core of the thrombus and extraction from upper lobe and distal pulmonary artery.
Extraction of the core of the thrombus.
Separation of core from proximal pulmonary artery.
Complete extraction of core specimen.
Arteriotomy is closed with a continuous 5–0 or 6–0 polypropylene suture.
Incision in left pulmonary artery (dashed line) begins in the pulmonary trunk and extends onto the left pulmonary artery.
An FiO2, high enough to maintain SaO2 > 95%, during mechanical ventilation, is preferred. PaCO2 should be ≤ 35 mmHg. An important postoperative problem is reperfusion of the pulmonary edema and occurs in approximately 10% of patients [61]. Lung injury can develop within the first 2 days of exhibiting hypoxemia and radiographic infiltrates in areas where endarterectomy has been done [63]. Treatment for this condition includes maintaining a SaO2 >90% and positive end‐expiratory pressures of 5–10 cm. Prostaglandin E1 at 0.01–1 mg/min and inhaled nitric oxide (20–40 parts per million) may be useful. Diuretics use is often required to reduce the incidence of pulmonary edema [64]. Since the reperfusion injury is neutrophil mediated, treatment with agents that block the selectin‐mediated adhesion of leucocytes to the endothelium (Cylexyn) could be useful [63]. Extracorporeal support has been used in selected patients with serious reperfusion injury [52]. Permanent anticoagulation with warfarin is started on the second postoperative day [60].
Experienced centers have a mortality that ranges from 4.4 to 21% [53, 64–68]. Risk factors commonly associated with mortality in the early postoperative period are RV failure related to residual pulmonary hypertension, reperfusion lung injury and CPB duration [10, 52, 53]. Survival rates are almost the same when comparing patients who underwent pulmonary endarterectomy alone with other patients with additional procedures (5.8 vs. 6.7%, respectively) [62]. In the largest study with patients undergoing pulmonary endarterectomy, the 6‐year survival rate was 75% (Figure 10) [69]. The most common causes of late death were recurrent pulmonary embolism and persistent pulmonary hypertension [69]. Hemodynamic outcomes after pulmonary endarterectomy for most patients are favorable [56, 64–67, 70–74]. The only long‐term study on hemodynamics after PEA observed persistent pulmonary hypertension in 24% of patients who had pulmonary vascular resistance of more than 500 dynes‐sec‐cm−5 after 4 years [75]. Dramatic reduction and, sometimes, normalization of the pulmonary artery pressure and pulmonary vascular resistance can be achieved. The mean reduction in pulmonary vascular resistance is approximately 65% [52]. Most patients are in New York Heart Association Functional Classification, class III or IV, before surgery; after the procedure, they can improve to class II or I and are able to resume normal activities [11, 69, 70]. Recurrent thromboembolism requiring a second endarterectomy has occurred in several patients in whom anticoagulation was discontinued or given improperly [76].
Survival after pulmonary thromboendarterectomy in 532 patients. Adapted from Archibald et al.
CTEPH is a life‐threatening complication of pulmonary embolism. There are notable differences in the treatment from that of other forms of pulmonary hypertension. A complete diagnostic assessment should be done in those patients with unexplained pulmonary hypertension. These studies should include a ventilation‐perfusion scintigraphy, right‐heart catheterization and pulmonary angiography. It is recommended though that the final diagnostic and therapeutic approach should be performed in experienced centers.
PEA is the preferred treatment and remains the only potentially curative approach. For patients in whom surgery is not an option, riociguat is the only approved drug that improves hemodynamics and exercise capacity. Balloon pulmonary angioplasty is yet to be proven effective in the treatment of these patients. An increased understanding of the prevalence of this condition and opportunities of surgical cure should benefit a larger volume of patients.
Actions for a noticeable increase in crop yields and food production over the last century have involved the use of pesticides and agrochemicals [1]. These chemical pesticides are used to provide protection to crops against weeds, fungi, insects, and other pests. Consequently, these chemical pesticides are potentially lethal to human and can exert both acute and chronic health effects, depending on the amount and the route of exposure.
World Health Organization reported that there are more than 1000 pesticides used around the world to ensure food is not damaged or destroyed by pests and each of these pesticides has different properties and toxicological effects. The cheaper and older and most likely the off-patent chemical pesticides, such as lindane and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) tend to remain for years in soil and water. Due to this, some of these chemicals have been banned by countries that signed the Stockholm Convention of 2001—an international treaty that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants.
The Stockholm Convention on the production and use of persistent organic pollutants mandates that each Party shall Prohibit, restrict and/or take the (i) legal and administrative measures necessary to eliminate the production and use of + chemicals as listed in the treaty; and (ii) it imports and export of the persistent chemicals as listed in the treaty and (b) it is the production and use of the chemicals as listed in the treaty. It also emphasized that each Party shall take measures to ensure that any chemical listed in the treaty is imported only for
the purpose of environmentally sound disposal
a use or purpose which is permitted for that Party under Annex A or Annex B of the treaty
Notwithstanding, the high increasing human population and the need for farmers to guarantee good value for farming has further expressed the need for enhanced agricultural yield towards achieving increased food production. This need is provoked by the intensive damage to agro-products caused by pest attacks and diseases triggered by viruses, fungi, and bacteria. These pest attacks and diseases are also seriously affecting crop yield. It is based on this provocation that the increasing use of chemical pesticides has to be the case. However, [2] report identified that agrochemical residues did spread in the environment and food causing significant contamination of terrestrial ecosystems and poisoning human foods.
Alternatives to the intensive use of crop protection chemicals achieved through a science-based process that promotes efficient food production, enhances food safety, and guarantees environmental protection, are thus the necessary direction in reducing or eliminating the increasing use of chemical pesticides in agriculture, thus ensuring food safety.
Chemical pesticides in agriculture usually referred to as agricultural chemicals cover a wide range of compounds including insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, nematicides, and others [3]. After the banning of some of these chemicals for use in agriculture by most technologically advanced countries in the 1960s, organophosphates insecticides, carbamates, pyrethroids, herbicides, and fungicides were introduced between 1970 and 1980 [3]. These chemicals are said to have contributed immensely to agricultural pest control and agricultural output.
The benefits of these chemical pesticides cannot be overemphasized as the consequences of their effects lead to the advantages anticipated from their use. In re-emphasizing the benefits of these chemical pesticides in food production, it is important to note that without crop protection, including pesticides, more than half of the world’s crops would be lost to insects, diseases, and weeds.
It is of importance to highlight that in the absence of pesticides, food production would be on the decrease, and increased cultivated farm areas would be necessary to produce the same amount of food, consequently impacting the wildlife habitat. The recurrent cultivation of the farm would be increase soil loss due to erosion, too. The other effects will include the decrease in agricultural production, rise in food prices, competitiveness for farmers in global markets would be less, and decrease in exports would drop, leading to many job losses.
Regardless of the benefits of pesticides, they can be harmful or hazardous to both humans and the environment. Innumerable chemicals are environmentally stable, toxic, and disposed to bioaccumulation. In some cases, pesticides can persevere in the environment and remain there for years. Contamination of the environment or increased occupational use can expose the general population to pesticides residues, including physical and biological degradation products present in the air, water, and food.
There is an ever-increasing global population and there has to be food to match the statistics. The United Nations Population Division estimates that there will be a tremendous increase on Earth emanating from developing countries by the year 2050 (9.7 billion people on Earth—around 30% more people than in 2017).
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimated that, in countries of dwindling economy, Population growth keeps pace with the required increases in food production. This availability of food is seen to be increasing by 80%, and these increases are anticipated to emanate from rise in produces and the frequency crops are grown on the same land per year. This new production of food projected at 20% is likely to come from an extension of farming land [4]. Pesticide usage is almost inevitable in agriculture to maintain high yields and profits.
Pesticides can prevent large crop losses and will therefore continue to play a role in agriculture. However, the effects on humans and the environment of exposure to pesticides are a continuing concern.
Between the years 1970s and 1990s, most governments encouraged the usage of pesticides. This is evident in the amendment of several policies resulting in lessening in input subsidies as well as less monitoring by the government. This further led to more inflow occurring from the informal channels causing enhanced usage of pesticides and, leading to an increased import value by 261% from 2000 to 2010 [5].
In continents like Africa, nearly 59% of the population makes their living from farming, this is because the economy is highly dependent on agriculture [6]. Despite that, the African continent influences 2–4% of the international market for chemical pesticides which also accounts for the lowermost rate of their usage in the world [6]. Owing to the growing population, the food demand was projected in 2005 to enhance at a rapid rate in the next three decades [7]. This projection after the last decade remains valid considering the increased demand for pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides.
In Africa, the regulatory mechanism for pesticides is inadequate resulting in the import of pesticides that are banned. The farmers also lack awareness which causes poor pesticide practices and the usage of those pesticides which fall under the WHO risk classification system. Also, the registration of pesticides in West Africa is a multi-national process called Comité Sahélien des Pesticides (CSP) [8]. The African market is unregulated and does not comply with the code of conduct laid out by the Food and Agriculture Organization due to which most of the pesticides used are untested leading to the enhanced risks.
According to reports showing a limited capacity of CSP in Niger, 44% of pesticide dealers are unlicensed. Also, the registered chemicals account for only 8%, while 38% of pesticides have incomplete labels and 6% are unlabeled [9]. In the same report, 27% of the tested pesticides did not stipulate the active ingredients and 30% was tagged to be of poor quality. There are myriads of issues associated with pesticides usage in Africa.
In Southeast Asia, the use of pesticides in agriculture is increasing rapidly. An annual increase in the import of pesticides is reported as 61% for Cambodia, 55% for Laos, and 10% for Vietnam [10]. In the past 50 years, China has become the major pesticide manufacturing country, and these pesticides are chiefly used for rice production [11]. The use of pesticides in China has increased from 0.76 million tonnes in 1991 to 1.8 million tonnes in 2011 [11]. In terms of use, Japan is also one of the largest pesticide users in the world and has the biggest pesticide market in Asia [12].
In a survey involving seven European countries including Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, the UK, Denmark, Finland, and Latvia on the usage of pesticides in the urban or non-agricultural amenities, it was observed that the infiltrate on of arable lands in Europe has occurred swiftly due to improved application of insecticides. This ultimately has resulted in the loss of biodiversity and heterogeneity of the arable lands and other landscapes [13, 14].
The European Union has developed definite imperative regulation regarding pesticides usage. These include:
Directive 2009/128/EC approved by European Parliament and Council in the year 2009: This directive is employed to manage methods and procedures to sustainably apply chemical pesticides;
A regulation for sustainability and maintenance of Products of Plant Protection on the Market. This in the year 2009 was proposed in the European Parliament and Council and termed Regulation (EC) No. 1107/2009, and
A regulation for monitoring the MRLs of chemical pesticides in food and its products, including plant-derived feeds and animals. This regulation was proposed by European Parliament and Council in the year 2005, and was termed Regulation (EC) No. 396/2005
As population size increases in the world, the industrialization of agriculture and the escalation of animal production to meet the growing demand for food creates both opportunities and challenges for food safety. These challenges put more responsibilities on food producers and handlers to guarantee food safety. Food safety is the prevention of food contamination before its being released to the consumer. Access to sufficient amounts of safe food is key to sustaining life and promoting good health. Unsafe food containing harmful contaminants including chemical substances causes diseases ranging from diarrhea to cancers. Chemical contaminations can lead to acute poisoning or long-term diseases, such as cancer. An estimated 600 million (almost 1 in 10 people) in the world fall ill after eating contaminated food inclusive of chemical contaminants and 420,000 die every year, resulting in the loss of 33 million healthy life years [15].
Of most health concern are industrial chemicals and environmental pollutants which can accumulate in the environment without the exception of food and further accumulates in the human body when ingested. Some of these chemicals are very toxic and can cause reproductive and developmental problems, damage to the immune system, interfere with hormones. They are also made up of heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, and mercury which can cause neurological and kidney damage [15]. The harmful effects on human health linked with pesticide usage are considered by numerous factors, such as the chemical class in which those compounds belong, dosage, time, and exposure route. Insecticides accumulated in food can be lethal to humans at high and/or even lower doses [16]. Several health effects can result from a prolonged exposure including the development of diseases such as cancer and neurodegenerative diseases, reproductive and developmental changes, and respiratory effects.
According to a study, an estimated 35% of all cases of cancer in the U.S. population originate from the diet, and the chemical pesticides present in foods are responsible [17]. Estrogenicity assays made by [18] show that pesticides of organochlorine origin usually act as endocrine disruption via more than one mode of mechanism, including agonist or antagonist effects of different receptors. Pre-emergent pesticides such as chloro-s-triazize which is popularly used in the world, have been generally considered as pesticides of low toxic potential for humans; nevertheless, there are many controversies on this issue. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), atrazine, for instance, was categorized as a chemical agent undoubtedly oncogenic to humans, even though the basis for this inference was only demonstrated in other animals [19]. This was also reported by the Development for Environmental Assessment Center of the United States, and Monographs of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Since atrazine induces mammary tumors in female Sprague-Dawley rats, the EPA Office of Pesticide Program (OPP) through its Peer Review Committee resolved after its deliberations that atrazine be categorized in the Group of “Possibly Carcinogenic to Humans”. Nevertheless, EPA has considered this chemical compound as most-likely non-carcinogenic to humans [2].
In certain studies, human exposure to high doses of atrazine can cause loss of body weight. Nevertheless, several epidemiological studies done with workers usually exposed to triazine indicate that these compounds show no potentials of been carcinogenic to the workers [20]. Furthermore, via analyses of different studies, it was observed that, though the chloro-s-triazine interferes in the endocrine responses of different species of mammals, their impending impact on humans seems to be primarily related to reproduction and development and not with human carcinogenesis [21]. An extensive list of epidemiological studies with the atrazine has described that the carcinogenic potential of this compound to humans is not conclusive [22], although there is a relationship between the high risk of prostate cancer and exposure to the insecticide [23].
The study by [24] evaluated the genotoxic and mutagenic effects of low concentrations of terbuthylazine, considered to be safe and, consequently accorded to possibly occur in occupational and residential exposures (ADI—Acceptable Daily Intake, REL—Residential Exposure Level, OEL—Occupational Exposure Level, and 1/100 and 1/16 LD50—Lethal Dose 50%—oral, rat), in human lymphocytes, with and without the use of metabolic activation (S9 fraction), using the FSH cytome assay and pan-centromeric DNA probes to evaluate the content of micronuclei and other chromatinic instabilities. The study showed that, treating terbuthylazine in the absence of metabolic activation indicated a dose-response escalation in the frequency of micronuclei of the lymphocytes exposed. The concentration of 0.0008 μg/mL (REL) tested was the basis of the significant data obtained. The hybridization of the micronuclei with the centromeric probe (C+) significantly occurred due to the concentrations ADI (0.00058 μg/mL), REL (0.0008 μg/mL) and OEL (0.008 μg/mL) of terbuthylazine. This was regardless of the presence or absence of S9, and nuclear buds containing centromeric signals, only in the presence of S9. Considering these outcomes, it was proposed that terbuthylazine presents a predominant aneugenic potential for the genetic material of human lymphocytes.
The chloro-s-triazine insecticide, which constrains the photosynthesis of weeds, by reaching photosystem II and impedes the effect of certain pests on crops has also being a serious food safety concern. It is a chemical used for a variety of crops, such as maize, sugarcane, olive, and pineapple. Since the banishment of atrazine in European countries in 2006, chloro-s-triazines like terbuthylazine were recommended as its substitute since it is suspect of causing diseases in humans, such as non-Hodgkin lymphoma and lung cancer. A study showing the effects of persistent exposure (14 days) to low concentrations of terbuthylazine (0.58 ng/ml and 8 ng/ml) in human lymphocytes, using the comet assay and the comet-FISH assay (with the c-Myc and TP 53 genes) was carried out [24]. Treatment with the compound induced the migration of fragments of DNA in a significant manner, only for the highest concentration treated. The results indicated an impairment in the structural integrity of c-Myc and TP 53, as a result of the prolonged exposure of human lymphocytes to terbuthylazine. For the fact many copies of TP53 were affected by the compound, it indicates the ability of terbuthylazine to interfere in the control of the cell cycle negatively. Nevertheless, it was concluded that a more comprehensive evaluation of the risk of cancer associated with the exposure to terbuthylazine, be evaluated for the impact of these insecticides on other housekeeping genes and markers.
Concerning insecticides, a study by [25] assessed the genotoxic potentials using the FISH and comet assay, and the oxidative damages, by the TBARS lipid peroxidation, of different concentrations of glyphosate in human lymphocytes. These concentrations of glyphosate are similar to those observed in residential and occupational exposures and related to LC50. At concentration of 580 μg/mL, results from the comet assay indicated a stimulation with significant increase in the tail length, while at concentration of 92.8 μg/mL an increase in the tail intensity was noticed, both concerning the control test. However, the addition of the S9 fraction increased the tail length significantly, for all the concentrations tested. In furthering the experiment, an increase in the frequency of micronuclei, nuclear buds, and nucleoplasmic bridges were identified when the lymphocytes were exposed to the three highest concentrations without S9. It was the consequence of the addition of a metabolic activation system that only promoted a significant increase of the nuclear instabilities for the highest concentration tested. It was clearly shown that the values of TBARS significantly increased with the increase of the concentrations tested, regardless of the presence or absence of the S9 fraction. Because dose-dependent effects for all the assays used were not observed, the authors concluded that these concentrations of glyphosate are not relevant for human exposure, since they did not present a significant risk for human health.
According to a study by [26], paraquat, the second most widely used insecticide in the world, selectively accrued in human lungs by causing oxidative injury and fibrosis, causing several individuals to mortality. Chronic exposure to this insecticide is also linked with kidney failure, Parkinson’s disease and hepatic lesions [27]. In the study by [26], they assessed the paraquat toxicity on BEAS-2B normal cells (human bronchial epithelial cells), which showed its dose-dependency resulting to death of lung cells exposed, damage of the mitochondria, oxidative stress, as well as production of pro-fibrogenic growth factors, cytokines, and transformation of myofibroblasts. In the study, the authors also demonstrated that polyphenolic phytoalexin naturally produced by several plants, resveratrol, to control bacteria and fungi, inhibited the production of reactive oxygen species, fibrotic reactions, and inflammations when induced by paraquat. This is as a result of the activation of the Nrf2 signaling (Nuclear Factor Erythroid-2), revealing a novel molecular mechanism for the intervention against oxidative damages as well as pulmonary fibrosis which resulted from the action of toxic chemical compound.
The study on the influence of a complex mixture of pesticides in workers exposed to them occupationally was carried out using the comet assay technique and standardly established cytogenetic methods (chromosome aberrations and micronucleus assay). This study indicated that DNA migration significantly increased (P < 0.001). This suggests that over exposure to or ingestion of the pesticide may affect damages in the genome of somatic cells and, therefore, would pose a potential risk to human health [26].
Pesticide use has been closely associated with human poisonings and their related illnesses and has been long seen as a severe public health problem. The potential toxicity in pesticides has caused both acute and chronic health effects, depending on the quantity and ways in which the person is exposed (Figure 1).
Sources of chemical pesticide contamination in human foods [
The tenacious and pervasive nature of several pesticides used in agriculture and other carbon-based pollutants has posed chaos to mankind as a result of their high toxicity and potentials to bio-accumulate [28]. These chemical pesticides are identified to impede the usual effectiveness of reproductive and endocrine systems in living organisms [29]. Several pesticides such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), chlordane, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, mirex, heptachlor, and hexachlorobenzene influence lethal effects on the health of human and the environment [28]. In the year 1990, a task force of the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that about one million unintentional pesticide poisonings occur naturally, leading to approximately 20,000 deaths. There are also an estimated 385 million cases of unintentional acute pesticide poisoning UAPP occur manually worldwide including 11,000 fatalities. This estimation depends on the quality and validity of data as well as the estimation procedure [30].
In most regions of the world, the condition is even worse. Approximately 80% of the pesticides produced per annum in the world are used in developed countries [12], but less than half of all pesticide-induced deaths occur in these countries [31]. Increased proportion of pesticide poisonings and mortality occur in developing countries where there are insufficient occupational safety standards and regulations in its use on foods; insufficient enforcement; poor labelling of pesticides; illiteracy; and deficient knowledge of pesticide [31]. Moreover, usual pesticide residue levels in food are often higher in developing countries than in the developed countries. For example, a study in Egypt reported that most of assayed milk samples, when tested for fifteen different pesticides, contained residue levels between 60% and 80% [32]. By way of contrast, 50% of the milk samples analyzed in a US milk study had pesticide residues, all in trace quantities well below EPA and FDA regulatory limits [33].
Detectable levels of chemical pesticide residues are seen in about 35% of the foods purchased by consumers possess [34, 35]. Between 1 and 3% of these foods possess chemical pesticide residue levels that are beyond the permissible tolerance level [34]. Considering the analytical methods used in the developing countries, the residue levels may even be higher due to the reasons that they may detect just about one-third of the chemical pesticides in use. The rate of contamination is undoubtedly higher for fruits and vegetables because these foods receive the highest dosage of pesticides. One USDA study has shown that some pesticide residue remains in fruits and vegetables even after they have been washed, peeled, or cored [36]. Consequently, there are many justifiable reasons why 97% of the public is concerned about pesticide residues in its food [31].
All over the world, apart from exposure via contaminated food, pesticide exposure at the highest levels are found in farm workers, pesticide applicators, and people who live adjacent or very close to heavily treated agricultural land. Due to the fact that farmers and farm workers directly handle 70–80% of the pesticides they use, they are at the greatest risk of exposure [31, 37]. The epidemiological evidence suggests a significantly higher rate of cancer incidence among farmers and farmworkers in the US and Europe than among non-farm workers in some areas [34, 38]. In these high-risk populations, there is strong evidence for associations between lymphomas and soft-tissue sarcomas as well as between lung cancer and exposure to organochlorine insecticides [27].
Consequently, both the acute and chronic health effects of pesticides warrant attention and concern especially as it was used in farm food production and its storage. While the acute toxicity of most pesticides is well documented [39], there is no sound information on chronic human illnesses such as cancer. Though based on animal studies, the International Agency for Research on Cancer found “sufficient” evidence of carcinogenicity in eighteen pesticides and “limited” evidence in an additional sixteen pesticides [28]. However, some studies found no significant difference in non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma mortality between farmers and non-farmers. In addition, [31] estimates that fewer than 1% of the human cancer cases in the US are attributable to pesticide exposure via food or otherwise. With the increasing number of cancer cases annually, [31, 40] assessment indicates that chemical pesticides causes less than 12,000 cases of cancer per year.
Studies with proven confirmation have also suggested that many severe and chronic conditions are linked with the use chemical pesticide [41]. For example, in an animal studies, dibromochloropropane (DBCP), the proscribed pesticide used for plant pathogen control, was found to cause testicular dysfunction [42] and was linked to infertility in human workers who had been exposed to the chemical [43]. Also, a large body of evidence obtained from animal studies suggests that pesticides can produce immune dysfunction [44]. In a study of women who had chronically ingested groundwater contaminated with low levels (mean of 16.6 ppb) of aldicarb, [44] reported evidence of significantly reduced immune response, although these women did not exhibit any overt health problems.
There is also growing evidence of sterility in humans and various other animals, particularly in males, due to various chemicals and pesticides they ingest through contaminated food and in the environment [45]. Sperm counts in Europe have reduced by about 50% and continue to decrease an additional 2% per year. In the study of [46], young male river otters in the lower Columbia River and male alligators in Florida’s Lake Apopka have smaller reproductive organs than males in unpolluted regions of their respective habitats.
Even though it is habitually challenging to evaluate the influence of individual chemical pesticides, the serious health issues associated with organophosphorus related pesticides which have basically substituted the proscribed organochlorines are of specific interest [39]. The malady Organophosphate Induced Delayed Polyneuropathy (OPIDP) is well studied, reported, documented and is manifested by irreversible neurological defects. The deterioration of memory, moods, and the capacity for abstract thought has been observed in some cases [47], while other cases indicate that persistent neurotoxic effects may result even after the termination of an acute organophosphorus poisoning incident [39].
Chronic conditions such as OPIDP constitute an important public health issue because of their potential cost to society. For example, the effect of pesticides on children has become a growing concern [48]. Children can be exposed to pesticides daily through the foods they eat [31]. Considering the increased understanding of the distinctive biological differences between children and adults, it has shown noticeably that the current chemical pesticide acceptability level and the system of regulation, as it concerns children, is sternly lacking. Majority of the regulations are based on adult acceptability level and tolerances. Biologically, it is known that children’s metabolic rates are higher than adults, and their capability to stimulate, detoxify, and excrete compounds that are xenobiotic in nature is dissimilar from that of adults. Also, considering of their slighter bodily size, children are exposed to increased levels of chemical pesticides per unit of body weight. Indication of this is seen in a study of [49] which reported that 50% of England and Wales pesticide poisonings involved children of or under the age of ten [49]. In general, the realization that children’s sensitivities to toxins are much different than those of adults has provided the impetus for the movement towards setting specific pesticide regulations especially the level of residues in food with children in mind [36].
Chemical pesticides are often applied to control and manage weeds, and insect pests in the agricultural practices. Water, soil and air serve as dynamic medium for the movement of chemical pesticides from a point to another. Among several types of chemical pesticides, organochlorine and its related pesticides are the utmost risky ones as a result to their slow rate of decomposition, long half-life and greater stability. In the upper trophic levels of the food chain, these pesticides can move and accumulate. In any ecosystem, contamination by chemical pesticide is stern problem due to the harm it causes to all associated organisms. Hence, to control pesticide usage, novel methodologies and techniques are needed in curtailing the effect of widespread use of pesticides on the ecosystem including food production (farm to storage) and efforts should be made to provide awareness among the public to minimize the application of harmful pesticides. The better alternative remains in the use of microbial and plant-based bio-pesticides in control of field and storage pests as part of the integrated pest management (IPM). Also, the adoption of plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs) as seen in plants genetically modified to resist pests should be encouraged over chemical pesticides.
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Quantum mechanics is established on the basis of the phenomenology and the lack of ontology builds the wall which blocks the causality. It is very difficult to reconcile the probability and the causality in such a platform. A higher dimension consideration may leverage this dilemma by expanding the vision. Information may seem to be discontinuous or even so weird if only be viewed from a part of the degree of freedoms. Based on this premise, we reexamined the microscopic world within a complex space. Significantly, some knowledge beyond the empirical findings is revealed and paves the way for a more detailed exploration of the quantum world. The random quantum motion is essential for atomic particle and exhibits a wave-related property with a bulk of trajectories. It seems we can break down the wall which forbids the causality entering the quantum kingdom and connect quantum mechanics with classical mechanics. The causality returns to the quantum world without any assumption in terms of the quantum random motion under the optimal guidance law in complex space. Thereby hangs a tale, we briefly introduce this new formulation from the fundamental theoretical description to the practical technology applications.",book:{id:"10076",slug:"quantum-mechanics",title:"Quantum Mechanics",fullTitle:"Quantum Mechanics"},signatures:"Ciann-Dong Yang and Shiang-Yi Han",authors:[{id:"158670",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciann-Dong",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"ciann-dong-yang",fullName:"Ciann-Dong Yang"},{id:"315900",title:"Dr.",name:"Shiang-Yi",middleName:null,surname:"Han",slug:"shiang-yi-han",fullName:"Shiang-Yi Han"}]},{id:"72922",title:"Analysis of Quantum Confinement and Carrier Transport of Nano-Transistor in Quantum Mechanics",slug:"analysis-of-quantum-confinement-and-carrier-transport-of-nano-transistor-in-quantum-mechanics",totalDownloads:637,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics that consists of laws explaining the physical properties of the nature of nano-particles and their characteristics on an atomic scale. The study of nano-particles significantly challenges our current perception of the universe and the fabric of reality itself. Quantum particles have both wave-like and particle-like characteristics. The fundamental equation that predicts the physical behaviour of a quantum system is the Schrödinger equation and the Poisson equation using Monte Carlo simulations. This gives rise to the wavefunction, electron and hole densities, energy levels and band structure of the system which contains all the measurable information about the particle such as time and position, where position is represented using probabilities. This is because particles do not have one definite position during the time before measurement. In fact, they exist as a fuzzy distribution of all possible states where the likelihood of finding the particle in some states is more probable than others. This is known as being in a superposition of all states. When the quantum system is observed, however, its wavefunction collapses so it consequently falls into one specific position. Moreover, in this chapter we present the simulation results of conduction band profile, electron density (classical and quantum mechanical), eigenstate and eigenfunctions for Si, SOI and III-V MOSFET structures at bias voltage 1.0 V using 1D Poisson-Schrödinger solver.",book:{id:"10076",slug:"quantum-mechanics",title:"Quantum Mechanics",fullTitle:"Quantum Mechanics"},signatures:"Aynul Islam and Anika Tasnim Aynul",authors:[{id:"316001",title:"Dr.",name:"Islam",middleName:null,surname:"Aynul",slug:"islam-aynul",fullName:"Islam Aynul"},{id:"325161",title:"BSc.",name:"Anika Tasnim",middleName:null,surname:"Aynul",slug:"anika-tasnim-aynul",fullName:"Anika Tasnim Aynul"}]},{id:"71547",title:"Dipolar Interactions: Hyperfine Structure Interaction and Fine Structure Interactions",slug:"dipolar-interactions-hyperfine-structure-interaction-and-fine-structure-interactions",totalDownloads:655,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The interaction between the nuclear spin and the electron spin creates a hyperfine structure. Hyperfine structure interaction occurs in paramagnetic structures with unpaired electrons. Therefore, hyperfine structure interaction is the most important of the fundamental parameters investigated by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. For EPR spectroscopy the two effective Hamiltonian terms are the hyperfine structure interaction and the electronic Zeeman interaction. The hyperfine structure interaction has two types as isotropic and anisotropic hyperfine structure interactions. The zero-field splitting term (electronic quadrupole fine structure), the nuclear Zeeman term, and the nuclear quadrupole interaction term are among the Hamiltonian terms used in EPR. However, their effects are not as much as the term of the hyperfine structure interaction. The zero-field splitting term and the nuclear quadrupole interaction term are the fine structure terms. The interaction of two electron spins create a zero-field splitting, the interaction between the two nucleus spins form the nuclear quadrupole interaction. Hyperfine structure interaction, zero-field interaction, and nuclear quadrupole interaction are subclasses of dipolar interaction. Interaction tensors are available for all three interactions.",book:{id:"10076",slug:"quantum-mechanics",title:"Quantum Mechanics",fullTitle:"Quantum Mechanics"},signatures:"Betül Çalişkan and Ali Cengiz Çalişkan",authors:[{id:"199110",title:"Dr.",name:"Betül",middleName:null,surname:"Çalişkan",slug:"betul-caliskan",fullName:"Betül Çalişkan"},{id:"208732",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali Cengiz",middleName:null,surname:"Çalişkan",slug:"ali-cengiz-caliskan",fullName:"Ali Cengiz Çalişkan"}]},{id:"73016",title:"Exactly Solvable Problems in Quantum Mechanics",slug:"exactly-solvable-problems-in-quantum-mechanics",totalDownloads:725,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Some of the problems in quantum mechanics can be exactly solved without any approximation. Some of the exactly solvable problems are discussed in this chapter. Broadly there are two main approaches to solve such problems. They are (i) based on the solution of the Schrödinger equation and (ii) based on operators. The normalized eigen function, eigen values, and the physical significance of some of the selected problems are discussed.",book:{id:"10076",slug:"quantum-mechanics",title:"Quantum Mechanics",fullTitle:"Quantum Mechanics"},signatures:"Lourdhu Bruno Chandrasekar, Kanagasabapathi Gnanasekar and Marimuthu Karunakaran",authors:[{id:"239576",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Karunakaran",slug:"marimuthu-karunakaran",fullName:"Marimuthu Karunakaran"},{id:"252354",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno Chandrasekar",middleName:null,surname:"L",slug:"bruno-chandrasekar-l",fullName:"Bruno Chandrasekar L"},{id:"325784",title:"Dr.",name:"K",middleName:null,surname:"Gnanasekar",slug:"k-gnanasekar",fullName:"K Gnanasekar"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"230",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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\r\n\tThis series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in business and management, economics, and marketing. Topics will include asset liability management, financial consequences of the financial crisis and covid-19, financial accounting, mergers and acquisitions, management accounting, SMEs, financial markets, corporate finance and governance, managerial technology and innovation, resource management and sustainable development, social entrepreneurship, corporate responsibility, ethics and accountability, microeconomics, labour economics, macroeconomics, public economics, financial economics, econometrics, direct marketing, creative marketing, internet marketing, market planning and forecasting, brand management, market segmentation and targeting and other topics under business and management. This book series will focus on various aspects of business and management whose in-depth understanding is critical for business and company management to function effectively during this uncertain time of financial crisis, Covid-19 pandemic, and military activity in Europe.
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His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/86.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vito Bobek works as an international management professor at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria. He has published more than 400 works in his academic career and visited twenty-two universities worldwide as a visiting professor. Dr. Bobek is a member of the editorial boards of six international journals and a member of the Strategic Council of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia. He has a long history in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. Dr. Bobek is also a co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia.",institutionString:"Universities of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Austria",institution:{name:"Universities of Applied Sciences Joanneum",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},editorTwo:{id:"293992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Horvat",slug:"tatjana-horvat",fullName:"Tatjana Horvat",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hXb0hQAC/Profile_Picture_1642419002203",biography:"Tatjana Horvat works as a professor for accountant and auditing at the University of Primorska, Slovenia. She is a Certified State Internal Auditor (licensed by Ministry of Finance RS) and Certified Internal Auditor for Business Sector and Certified accountant (licensed by Slovenian Institute of Auditors). At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. At the leading business newspaper Finance in Slovenia (Swedish ownership), she is the editor and head of the area for business, finance, tax-related articles, and educational programs.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Primorska",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"87",title:"Economics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jaime-ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",biography:"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments in several universities around the world. Dr. Ortiz has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters, and he has university-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. He has advised, among others, the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Organization of American States, Pre-investment Organization of Latin America and the Caribbean, Technical Cooperation of the Suisse Government, and the World Bank. Dr. Ortiz is the author, co-author, or editor of books, book chapters, textbooks, research monographs and technical reports, and refereed journal articles. He is listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Finance and Business, Who’s Who in Business Higher Education, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who Directory of Economists. Dr. Ortiz has been a Fulbright Scholar and an MSI Leadership Fellow with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. His teaching interests revolve around global economies and markets while his research focuses on topics related to development and growth, global business decisions, and the economics of technical innovation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Houston",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"88",title:"Marketing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/88.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"203609",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hanna",middleName:null,surname:"Gorska-Warsewicz",slug:"hanna-gorska-warsewicz",fullName:"Hanna Gorska-Warsewicz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSD9pQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-14T11:58:32.jpeg",biography:"Hanna Górska-Warsewicz, Ph.D. is Associate Professor at Warsaw University of Life Sciences and Head of Department of Food Market and Consumption Research. She specializes in the subject of brands, brand equity, and brand management in production, service, and trade enterprises. She combines this subject with marketing and marketing management in both theoretical and practical aspects. Prof. Hanna Górska-Warsewicz also analyzes brands in the context of trademarks, legal regulations and the protection of intangible. She is an author or co-author of over 200 publications in this field, including 8 books. 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Samim Al Azad and Slimane Ed-dafali",hash:"86a6d33cf601587e591064ce92effc02",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Leadership in a Changing World - A Multidimensional Perspective",editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038UqSfQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-13T10:39:03.jpg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Mohiuddin is an Associate Professor of International Business at Laval University, Canada. He has taught at Thompson Rivers University, Canada; University of Paris-Est, France; Osnabruck University of Applied Science, Germany; and Shanghai Institute of Technology and Tianjin University of Technology, China. He has published research in Research Policy, Applied Economics, Review of Economic Philosophy, Strategic Change, International Journal of Logistics, Sustainability, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Global Information Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, M@N@GEMENT, and more. He is a member of CEDIMES Institut (France), Academy of International Business (AIB), Strategic Management Society (SMS), Academy of Management (AOM), Administrative Science Association of Canada (ASAC), and Canadian council of small business and entrepreneurship (CCSBE). He is currently the director of the Research Group on Contemporary Asia (GERAC) at Laval University. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"