Geothermal energy potential in Europe for different temperature ranges of heat sources [19].
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5747",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Nanowires - New Insights",title:"Nanowires",subtitle:"New Insights",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"One-dimensional nanostructures, such as nanowires, have drawn extensive research interests in the recent years. The smaller size brings unique properties to the nanowires due to the finite size effect (quantum confinement effects). The unique geometrical features of the nanowires bring their utilization in many practical applications in the recent advanced technology. This book provides an updated review on fabrication, properties, and applications of various nanowires. This book is aimed to provide solid foundation of nanowires to the students, scientists, and engineers working in the field of material science and condensed matter physics.",isbn:"978-953-51-3284-4",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3283-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4762-6",doi:"10.5772/65179",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"nanowires-new-insights",numberOfPages:264,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"dde280ae9a6cf4036de089d63738a409",bookSignature:"Khan Maaz",publishedDate:"July 5th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5747.jpg",numberOfDownloads:17763,numberOfWosCitations:31,numberOfCrossrefCitations:26,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:42,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:99,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 13th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 4th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 31st 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 31st 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 30th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"107765",title:"Dr.",name:"Maaz",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"maaz-khan",fullName:"Maaz Khan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/107765/images/system/107765.png",biography:"Dr. Maaz Khan is working as Deputy Chief Scientist (Professor) at PINSTECH, Pakistan. He has done Ph.D. and post doctorate in the field of Material Science (Nanoscience). His research interests include fabrication of nanomaterials and their structural, optical, magnetic, and electrical characterizations. He has authored more than 100 research articles and published 10 books. Presently, he is the Editor-in-Chief of ‘Journal of Materials, Processing and Design\\' and \\'The Nucleus\\'. He is also the Executive Editor of \\'International Journal of Nano Studies and Technology\\'. Dr. Maaz also serves as the editorial board member of several journals of Material Science.",institutionString:"Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"9",institution:{name:"Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1169",title:"Condensed Matter Physics",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science-condensed-matter-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"54582",title:"Synthesis and Application of Copper Nanowires and Silver Nanosheet-Coated Copper Nanowires as Nanofillers in Several Polymers",doi:"10.5772/67782",slug:"synthesis-and-application-of-copper-nanowires-and-silver-nanosheet-coated-copper-nanowires-as-nanofi",totalDownloads:1893,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A large amount of copper (Cu) nanowires was synthesized through the reduction of Cu(OH)2 by hydrazine in an aqueous solution containing NaOH and ethylenediamine. Besides, Cu nanowires coated by silver nanosheet (denoted as Cu@Ag nanowires) were prepared with a facile transmetalation reaction method. In the meantime, the as‐prepared Cu and Cu@Ag nanowires were used as the nanofillers of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), ultra‐high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) and epoxy resin (EP), and their effects on the thermal properties and mechanical properties as well as friction and wear behavior of the polymer‐matrix composites nanocomposites were examined. Results indicate that the as‐prepared Cu@Ag nanowires consist of Cu nanowires core and Ag nanosheet shell. The Ag nanosheet shell can well inhibit the oxidation of the Cu nanowires core, thereby providing the as‐prepared Cu@Ag nanowires with good thermal stability even at an elevated temperature of 230°C. As compared with Cu nanowires, Cu@Ag nanowires could effectively increase the thermal stability of the PVC matrix composites. Moreover, due to the special morphology and microstructure, the as‐prepared Cu@Ag nanowires can effectively improve the mechanical properties and wear resistance of PVC, UHMWPE, and EP.",signatures:"Ningning Zeng, Shuguang Fan, Jingyi Ma, Yujuan Zhang,\nShengmao Zhang, Pingyu Zhang and Zhijun Zhang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54582",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54582",authors:[{id:"181746",title:"Prof.",name:"Shengmao",surname:"Zhang",slug:"shengmao-zhang",fullName:"Shengmao Zhang"},{id:"185695",title:"Dr.",name:"Yujuan",surname:"Zhang",slug:"yujuan-zhang",fullName:"Yujuan Zhang"},{id:"185696",title:"Dr.",name:"Pingyu",surname:"Zhang",slug:"pingyu-zhang",fullName:"Pingyu Zhang"},{id:"204777",title:"Ms.",name:"Ningning",surname:"Zeng",slug:"ningning-zeng",fullName:"Ningning Zeng"},{id:"204778",title:"Ms.",name:"Shuguang",surname:"Fan",slug:"shuguang-fan",fullName:"Shuguang Fan"},{id:"204779",title:"Mr.",name:"Jingyi",surname:"Ma",slug:"jingyi-ma",fullName:"Jingyi Ma"},{id:"204780",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhijun",surname:"Zhang",slug:"zhijun-zhang",fullName:"Zhijun Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"54909",title:"Second Harmonic Generation in ZnO Nanowires",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68150",slug:"second-harmonic-generation-in-zno-nanowires",totalDownloads:1616,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Second harmonic generation (SHG) is one of the most researched nonlinear material properties and finds applications in many fields ranging from laser projection to cancer detection to future optical switches for molecular devices. Studying SHG in ZnO nanostructures started few years ago and there is a long way to go to compete with the existing nonlinear crystals. Information gathered over the past few years in research on SHG of ZnO nanowires (NWs) is summarized in this chapter. Recent advancement in the growth techniques for various types of ZnO NWs used for SHG studies is also discussed. We present an extensive analysis and discussion on some key parameters that directly modify the efficiency of SHG in ZnO NWs. The key parameters considered for discussion are aspect ratio of NWs, doping, and external strain. At the end, current standing on the reported values of nonlinear coefficients and future outlook are presented.",signatures:"Soumen Dhara and Stephen A. Lynch",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54909",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54909",authors:[{id:"196334",title:"Dr.",name:"Soumen",surname:"Dhara",slug:"soumen-dhara",fullName:"Soumen Dhara"}],corrections:null},{id:"54046",title:"Electrical Manipulation of a Single Nanowire by Dielectrophoresis",doi:"10.5772/67386",slug:"electrical-manipulation-of-a-single-nanowire-by-dielectrophoresis",totalDownloads:1597,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nanowires (NWs), due to their unique highly anisotropic characteristics, hold a great promise to be used in wide technological fields, such as building blocks for data storage and memory, advanced scanning probes, and biotechnological applications. In addition, given the high sensitivity to their environment, NWs can be used as sensor for a number of applications. The fabrication and electrical characterization of NW‐based devices can be achieved after proper placing of NWs between electrodes, which represents one of the major challenges in this field. The dielectrophoresis (DEP) method can be used to trap electrically neutral NWs by the application of an alternating electric field between a pair of electrodes. Here, we present a systematic study of DEP parameters as well as electrodes geometry for NW deposition. This method presents a suitable protocol for deposition in a useful and coherent fashion of post‐growth electrodeposited NWs and further electrical characterization. This can be used for investigation of the fundamental transport properties of individual NWs and fabrication of NW‐based devices, such as sensors and field‐effect transistors.",signatures:"Marcos Vinicius Puydinger dos Santos, Fanny Béron, Kleber Roberto\nPirota, José Alexandre Diniz and Stanislav Moshkalev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54046",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54046",authors:[{id:"180153",title:"Prof.",name:"Fanny",surname:"Béron",slug:"fanny-beron",fullName:"Fanny Béron"},{id:"180851",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",surname:"Puydinger Dos Santos",slug:"marcos-puydinger-dos-santos",fullName:"Marcos Puydinger Dos Santos"},{id:"203879",title:"Prof.",name:"Kleber",surname:"Roberto Pirota",slug:"kleber-roberto-pirota",fullName:"Kleber Roberto Pirota"},{id:"203880",title:"Prof.",name:"José",surname:"Alexandre Diniz",slug:"jose-alexandre-diniz",fullName:"José Alexandre Diniz"},{id:"203881",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislav",surname:"Moshkalev",slug:"stanislav-moshkalev",fullName:"Stanislav Moshkalev"}],corrections:null},{id:"54298",title:"ZnO Nanowires for Dye Sensitized Solar Cells",doi:"10.5772/67616",slug:"zno-nanowires-for-dye-sensitized-solar-cells",totalDownloads:1656,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter provides a broad review of the latest research activities focused on the synthesis and application of ZnO nanowires (NWs) for dye‐sensitized solar cells (DSCs) and composed of three main sections. The first section briefly introduces DSC‐working principles and ZnO NW application advantages and stability issues. The next section reviews ZnO NW synthesis methods, demonstrating approaches for controlled synthesis of different ZnO NW morphology and discussing how this effects the overall efficiency of the DSC. In the last section, the methods for ZnO NW interface modification with various materials are discussed, which include ZnO core‐shell structures with semiconductive or protective layers, ZnO NW hybrid structures with other materials, such as nanoparticles, quantum dots and carbon nanomaterials and their benefit for charge and light transport in DSCs. The review is concluded with some perspectives and outlook on the future developments in the ZnO nanowire application for DSCs.",signatures:"Simas Rackauskas, Nadia Barbero, Claudia Barolo and Guido\nViscardi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54298",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54298",authors:[{id:"195783",title:"Dr.",name:"Simas",surname:"Rackauskas",slug:"simas-rackauskas",fullName:"Simas Rackauskas"},{id:"196425",title:"Prof.",name:"Nadia",surname:"Barbero",slug:"nadia-barbero",fullName:"Nadia Barbero"},{id:"196426",title:"Prof.",name:"Guido",surname:"Viscardi",slug:"guido-viscardi",fullName:"Guido Viscardi"},{id:"196427",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Barolo",slug:"claudia-barolo",fullName:"Claudia Barolo"}],corrections:null},{id:"55286",title:"Solution-Processable Nanowire Field-Effect Transistors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68800",slug:"solution-processable-nanowire-field-effect-transistors",totalDownloads:1543,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Solution-processable single-crystalline inorganic semiconducting nanowires are excellent building blocks for printable electronics requiring high performance of semiconducting components. Excellent charge carrier mobilities of crystalline nanowires combined with solvent-based nanowire processing open up possibilities for low-cost nanowire electronics targeting a variety of applications ranging from flexible circuits to chemical and biological sensors. Nanowire field-effect transistors are key devices for most of such applications. Recent developments in controllable nanowire positioning and orientation on the substrates and electrical property selection provide the necessary technological breakthroughs enabling the fabrications of reproducible nanowire transistors. In this chapter, we discuss the nanowire assembly methods and high-spatial-resolution scanning probe microscopy techniques towards scalable fabrication of high-performance printable nanowire field-effect transistors.",signatures:"Maxim Shkunov, Grigorios Rigas and Marios Constantinou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55286",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55286",authors:[{id:"201493",title:"Dr.",name:"Maxim",surname:"Shkunov",slug:"maxim-shkunov",fullName:"Maxim Shkunov"},{id:"205561",title:"Mr.",name:"Grigorios",surname:"Rigas",slug:"grigorios-rigas",fullName:"Grigorios Rigas"},{id:"205562",title:"Mr.",name:"Marios",surname:"Constantinou",slug:"marios-constantinou",fullName:"Marios Constantinou"}],corrections:null},{id:"54187",title:"Semiconductor Nanowire MOSFETs and Applications",doi:"10.5772/67446",slug:"semiconductor-nanowire-mosfets-and-applications",totalDownloads:2286,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Semiconductor nanowires have aroused a lot of scientific interest and have been regarded as one of the most promising candidates that would make possible building blocks in future nanoscale devices and integrated circuits. Employing nanowire as metal‐oxide‐semiconductor field‐effect transistor (MOSFET) channel can enable a gate‐surrounding structure allowing an excellent electrostatic gate control over the channel for reducing the short‐channel effects. This chapter introduces the basic physics of semiconductor nanowires and addresses the problem of how to synthesize semiconductor nanowires with low‐cost, high‐efficiency and bottom‐up approaches. Effective integration of nanowires in modern complementary metal‐oxide‐semiconductor (CMOS) technology, specifically in MOSFET devices, and non‐volatile memory applications is also reviewed. By extending the nanowire MOSFET structure into a universal device architecture, various novel semiconductor materials can be investigated. Semiconductor nanowire MOSFETs have been proved to be a strong and useful platform to study the physical and electrical properties of the novel material. In this chapter, we will also review the investigations on topological insulator materials by employing the nanowire field‐effect transistor (FET) device structure.",signatures:"Hao Zhu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54187",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54187",authors:[{id:"195870",title:"Prof.",name:"Hao",surname:"Zhu",slug:"hao-zhu",fullName:"Hao Zhu"}],corrections:null},{id:"55398",title:"Silicon Quasi‐One‐Dimensional Nanostructures for Photovoltaic Applications",doi:"10.5772/67749",slug:"silicon-quasi-one-dimensional-nanostructures-for-photovoltaic-applications",totalDownloads:1399,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Thanks to the silicon abundance, stability, non-toxicity and well known electronic properties, Si based solar cells have represented the leading actors in the photovoltaic market and future projections confirm this predominance. However, half of the module cost is due to the material consumption and processing. In order to decrease the costs, a cut in the Si consumption must be operated, with consequent decrement in the optical absorption, generated current and device efficiency. To keep the performance level, a proper Si surface design with the objective to trap the light, has been developed. One of the most popular approaches is to use silicon nanowires embedded in the solar cell emitter where they play the role of optically and electrically active layer, thanks to their excellent optical absorption properties. However, also another material has been the terminus of the light-trapping materials, the silicon nanoholes. Their mechanical robustness is superior, making their integration inside the cell easier and cost-effective. The review will bring about all of the most common methods to fabricate these two types of nanostructures when used for solar cells applications, their optical properties and some critical aspects related to their high surface to volume ratio which modify the recombination processes.",signatures:"Rosaria Anna Puglisi, Valentina Lombardo and Sebastiano Caccamo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55398",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55398",authors:[{id:"197197",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosaria",surname:"Puglisi",slug:"rosaria-puglisi",fullName:"Rosaria Puglisi"}],corrections:null},{id:"55033",title:"Opportunities of Scanning Probe Microscopy for Electrical, Mechanical and Electromechanical Research of Semiconductor Nanowires",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68162",slug:"opportunities-of-scanning-probe-microscopy-for-electrical-mechanical-and-electromechanical-research-",totalDownloads:1373,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, three types of phenomena (electrical, mechanical, and electromechanical) that can be investigated in individual III–V semiconductor nanowires with scanning probe microscope are presented. Transport measurements in GaAs nanowires based on stable electric connection provided opportunity to study individual vertical freestanding nanowires under gentle precisely controlled force. Latter approach appears superior to studies of horizontally fixed nanowires because studying vertical as‐grown nanowires avoids charge leakage into the substrate and impact of defects caused by breakage of nanowires. Principles of thermionic emission theory are used to characterize electrical effects in individual as-grown nanowires. Effects of SiO2 protective layer, surface passivation layers, illumination, and influence of sweeping rate of current‐voltage recording are analyzed. Elastic studies are performed for individual InP nanowires affixed at one end. Bending of the tapered nanowires with diameters of a narrow free end either 10 or 20 nm was performed under different loading forces. It allowed calculation of flexibility coefficient profiles along the nanowires’ axes. Improved numerical model for tapered nanowires leads to the finding of Young’s modulus of wurtzite InP material in nanowires. Piezoelectric measurements permitting registration of reverse piezo effect with opportunities of direct piezo response recording for individual wurtzite GaAs nanowires are briefly described.",signatures:"Pavel Geydt, Mikhail S. Dunaevskiy and Erkki Lähderanta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55033",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55033",authors:[{id:"197072",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Pavel",surname:"Geydt",slug:"pavel-geydt",fullName:"Pavel Geydt"},{id:"205202",title:"Dr.",name:"Mikhail",surname:"Dunaevskiy",slug:"mikhail-dunaevskiy",fullName:"Mikhail Dunaevskiy"},{id:"205204",title:"Prof.",name:"Erkki",surname:"Lähderanta",slug:"erkki-lahderanta",fullName:"Erkki Lähderanta"}],corrections:null},{id:"55814",title:"Diluted Magnetic DNA Nanowires",doi:"10.5772/67921",slug:"diluted-magnetic-dna-nanowires",totalDownloads:1425,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"DNA, as a natural biological nanowire, could be modified by inorganic atoms, either conducting or semi‐conducting ones, to render feasible for technological applications and sequencing. Magnetic phase transition of modified DNA (M‐DNA) nanowire, similar to diluted magnetic semiconductor (DMS) materials, occurs by changing parameters such as temperature and doping ratio having critical values. Tuning such parameters provide a pleasant control about determination of the magnetic property of M‐DNA, particularly room‐temperature soft ferromagnetism. In this chapter, a fundamental theory for anti‐ferromagnetic Cr3+‐doped M‐DNA nanowire named as diluted magnetic organic structures (DMOS) is tried to figure out the interactions representing the exotic behaviour of these type of organometallics. However, authors detailed preparation of nanowire as a global input and overall procedure of simulation based on Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) method.",signatures:"Caner Değer, Vahap Eldem and İzzet Paruğ Duru",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55814",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55814",authors:[{id:"196604",title:"Dr.",name:"Paruğ",surname:"Duru",slug:"parug-duru",fullName:"Paruğ Duru"},{id:"201305",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahap",surname:"Eldem",slug:"vahap-eldem",fullName:"Vahap Eldem"},{id:"204708",title:"Dr.",name:"Caner",surname:"Değer",slug:"caner-deger",fullName:"Caner Değer"}],corrections:null},{id:"54251",title:"Recent Trends in Plasmonic Nanowire Solar Cells",doi:"10.5772/67617",slug:"recent-trends-in-plasmonic-nanowire-solar-cells",totalDownloads:1502,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Light trapping is crucial for low-cost and highly efficient nanowire (NW) solar cells (SCs). In order to increase the light absorption through the NWSCs, plasmonic materials can be incorporated inside or above the NW design. In this regard, two novel designs of plasmonic NWSCs are reported and analyzed using 3D finite difference time domain method. The geometrical parameters of the reported designs are studied to improve their electrical and optical efficiencies. The ultimate and power conversion efficiencies (PCE) are used to quantify the conversion efficiency of the light into electricity. The first design relies on funnel shaped SiNWs with plasmonic core while the cylindrical NWs of the second design are decorated by Ag diamond shaped. The calculated ultimate efficiency and PCE of the plasmonic funnel design are equal to 44% and 18.9%, respectively with an enhancement of 43.3 % over its cylindrical NWs counterpart. This enhancement can be explained by the coupling between the three optical modes, supported by the upper cylinder, lower cone and plasmonic material. Moreover, the cylindrical SiNWs decorated by Ag diamond offer an ultimate efficiency and short-circuit current density of 25.7%, and 21.03 mA∕cm2, respectively with an improvement of 63% over the conventional cylindrical SiNWs.",signatures:"Mohamed Hussein, Mohamed Farhat Othman Hameed and Salah S.\nA. Obayya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54251",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54251",authors:[{id:"195512",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Hameed",slug:"mohamed-hameed",fullName:"Mohamed Hameed"},{id:"195741",title:"Prof.",name:"Salah",surname:"Obayya",slug:"salah-obayya",fullName:"Salah Obayya"},{id:"195747",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Hussein",slug:"mohamed-hussein",fullName:"Mohamed Hussein"}],corrections:null},{id:"54371",title:"A Comparative Study of Nanowire Arrays for Maximum Power Transmission",doi:"10.5772/67447",slug:"a-comparative-study-of-nanowire-arrays-for-maximum-power-transmission",totalDownloads:1478,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we present a comparative study of nanowire arrays for the purpose of transmitting electromagnetic energy to long distances with minimum loss. Silver nanowires at an infrared frequency are considered as a case study, using an accurate simulation environment based on the surface-integral equations and the multilevel fast multipole algorithm (MLFMA). Reliable numerical results are obtained by considering arrays as three-dimensional structures with finite sizes in all dimensions. Nanowires with different cross sections are compared in alternative array configurations to assess and compare their transmission properties. While there are no significantly varying performances for the arrays of few elements, large discrepancies occur as the number of nanowires increases. We show that arrays involving nanowires with hexagonal cross sections in hexagonal arrangements can provide significantly better power transmissions in comparison to others. We also present the superiority of a particular case, where the nanowires and gaps between them, both with hexagonal cross sections, are equally distributed, leading to a honeycomb structure. This type of structures demonstrates high-quality transmissions that can be useful in diverse application areas, such as optical coupling, subwavelength imaging, and energy harvesting.",signatures:"Hasan Aykut Şatana, Barışcan Karaosmanoğlu and Özgür Ergül",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54371",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54371",authors:[{id:"195936",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ozgur",surname:"Ergul",slug:"ozgur-ergul",fullName:"Ozgur Ergul"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6552",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:"Fabrication, Characterization and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fa35924b88365602189440c335634a77",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-fabrication-characterization-and-applications",bookSignature:"Khan Maaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6552.jpg",editedByType:"Edited 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He is currently an adjunct professor at the Center for the Sustainable Development for Semiarid (CDSA), Federal University of Campina Grande (UFCG), Brazil. He has experience with population genetics, bioinformatics, molecular docking, and modeling and molecular dynamics of proteins. He works in science and biology education. Dr. Maia also leads the Computational and Theoretical Biology (CTB) and Education in Sciences and Biology (ESB) research groups.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Federal University of Campina Grande",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"265397",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnólia De Araújo",middleName:null,surname:"Campos",slug:"magnolia-de-araujo-campos",fullName:"Magnólia De Araújo Campos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265397/images/system/265397.jpg",biography:"Magnólia A. Campos is a biologist with a master’s degree in Agronomy/Plant Breeding from the Federal University of Pelotas, Brazil, and a Ph.D. in Biological Sciences/Molecular Biology from the University of Brasília. She has five years of experience in genomic sciences as a postdoctoral researcher at the Federal University of Lavras/Agronomic Institute (IAC), Brazil. Since 2008, she has been a professor at the Federal University of Campina Grande (UFCG), Brazil. 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Increasing of population growth [1] and escalating process of electricity are mostly due to emission gases from the industry, vehicles, deforestation and others. In the aerospace industry, engineers continuously search for new methods to upgrade the efficiency of the engines. Recovery waste heat could increase the engine efficiency [2]. Although society undergoes global issues, social problems or economy crisis, this does not stop aerospace industry from expanding which leads to increase in demand on aircraft. This results in increasing of fuel price since more conventional fuel is needed and causes pollution into the environment [3]. Still, the price in this development is used to optimize the engine. In each flight, greater revenue could be achieved when the number of passengers is greater. And to have more passengers, lighter aircraft is needed. It is important to note that weight is very crucial in changing aircraft engines as it connects linearly with the amount of fuel used in every unit of force powered by engine (specific fuel consumption). Waste heat recovery (WHR) is one of the most important solutions found to lower the emission and fuel consumption [4]. Waste heat or low- grade waste heat is heat energy produced in the atmosphere through internal combustion. However, these low-grade waste heat are not sufficient enough to generate power due to insufficient low temperature. Thus, to recover these waste heat, organic Rankine cycle (ORC) system is one of the beneficial exhaust heat recovery technologies which is widely utilized in the applications of low grade heat recovery rather than conventional Rankine cycle [5]. By combining an ORC with energy system, for instance in power plants, organic fluid of low boiling point is utilized to change heat into electricity. The organic fluids or refrigerants used in air conditioning systems accumulates (collect) heat from a volume of air and release it to different type of heat exchanger which increases the expansion of high vapor pressure in expander. The heat accumulated is transformed into mechanical power or electricity and therefore will help to increase the thermal efficiency and the overall performance of the engine. Thus, higher thrust could be obtained as less electrical power is needed from aircraft engine resulting lower engine bleed air [2, 5, 6]. Because of its thermodynamic properties, organic fluid is the best selection for low quality heat sources with temperatures below than 100°C [2]. By selecting proper working fluid for low waste heat recovery system and modeling an optimum design of heat exchanger configurations, the waste energy recovered through this ORC system could be maximized. Thus, designing a fuel-efficient and cheaper heat exchanger, ORC power plant can effectually utilize the economic and environmental issues especially in aerospace industry.
Based on second law of thermodynamics, the efficiency of a process would not be 100% as there is no process that can entirely transform all amount of heat into work. The energy that is not used to produce work is being dissipated as heat at different temperatures, levels streams. On aircraft, half of the fuel energy lost through this way. Nevertheless, these sources of waste heat are everywhere; from this lost energy, only a part of it can be used to produce mechanical work or other purposes, where around 30% of the total waste heat could be changed to useful work. As the demand of aircraft is increasing vastly, the aviation industry has been the world center of attraction as new technologies are needed and maximum exploitation of fuel is a must. The conversion of heat energy to mechanical or electrical power depends on the characteristics of the source. Let say in an air conditioning system, an external hose is two or three degrees above the ambient temperature, it is a waste to recover that little amount of energy, however, this power leak will be an irreversibility process together with other similar leaks will decrease the thermal efficiency. This is called as waste heat and is an unused heat energy produced as a by-product of process of energy transformation, as a natural consequence on any non-adiabatic process from the thermodynamics law. Most of the available waste heat is low waste heat that can be used by an ORC which utilizes low boiling point organic fluid as working fluid, for example, toluene, hexane or pentane. Presently, there has not been any waste heat recovery (WHR) system added to an aircraft. Nevertheless, researchers suggest on adding WHR system to future engines and propose to make changes in current engines. However, it is a hassle to change the actual design of the engine as more expenses will be used in research, tests and certifications and a lot of heat source needs to be taken into account. Pasini et al. [7] analyzed the possibilities of heat recovery results in overall efficiency of an aircraft engine. A waste heat recovery system is modeled in a jet engine and a turbo propeller engine. Their project takes into account the nozzle works in off design state. The heat emitted influences greatly in the system performance. They also developed a numerical thermodynamic code to evaluate the positive impacts of waste heat recovery in a turboprop, a turbofan and a turbojet. The turbofan engine is of great interest due to large fraction of thrust is provided by cold flow, whilst gas generator supplies needed power. The authors then concluded that the enthalpy level ahead of exhaust nozzle of gas generator could be decreased without losing a lot of thrust. From the results of the calculations, it was found an increase of thermal efficiency about 4% when heat recovery was done (efficiency of regeneration was 0.5). At the same time, if the efficiency was 0.7, an increase of 10% was achieved. From the numerical simulations, the best place for heat recovery is from hot gas before entering nozzle. Another research done by Li et al. [8] was to study the small-scale ORC system performance with low grade heat sources to provide electricity in various working state. The experiment setup includes normal ORC system components, for instance, turboexpander with high speed generator, finned tube condenser, ORC pump and plate evaporator. Results found that the turbine power and condenser heat output, ORC pump power and evaporator heat input, turbine isentropic, overall efficiencies and system thermal efficiencies rises when heat source temperature rises too. The fluid of ORC during superheat and pressure at turbine inlet were two crucial variables that kept constant with temperature heat source and pump speed of ORC.
ORC utilizes organic compound instead of water as a working fluid, generally, a refrigerant, a hydrocarbon such as pentane, butane, perfluorocarbon or silicon oil. The organic fluid’s boiling point is much lesser compared to water and enable heat recovering at lesser temperatures instead of the steam Rankine cycle [9]. ORC’s first commercial applications with medium-scale power plants for geothermal and solar applications were developed in the 9 late 1970s and 1980s. These days, over 200 ORC power plants are recognized with more than 1800 MWe installed and the technologies keep on increasing day by day [10]. Mostly, the plants were installed in biomass CHP application, geothermal plants and plants of WHR followed. The layout of ORC is much simpler compared to the steam cycle as there is no water vapor attached to the boiler, and a single heat exchanger could be utilized for the three processes of evaporation including preheating, vaporizing and superheating. ORC is able to use low grade heat sources than steam Rankine cycle. Since it could be utilized in lower temperature at the turbine inlet and reduce thermal stresses in the boiler. In regular steam plant systems, the performance cycle is at risk damage due to gaseous infiltrations that occur in sub atmospheric condensing pressure. In steam-based cycle, the usage of a single tube for evaporation is abstained due to large density difference that exists in between liquid and vapor phases. However, some organic fluids have condensation pressure higher than the atmospheric pressures and this avoids the infiltration of non-condensable gases in the condenser. The small differences in density organic fluid phase of liquid and vapor also enables the use of once-through boilers. This led to avoidance of using stream drums and simplified the operation of the whole plant. A simple plant system can be developed and less cost is needed when uses organic fluid compared to steam based cycle. In ORC, usage of deaerator is unnecessary but that is not the case for steam base cycle. Due to presence of oxygen, water deaerator or water treatment must be added to avert erosion. Because of low fluid density in the cycle low-pressure part, steam cycle also needs large turbines, heat exchangers and hydraulic diameter for pipes. Meanwhile, since organic fluid has higher density fluid, usage of compact appliances is allowed, especially in marine application, the available space for recovery plant of waste heat is restricted. Other than that, the enthalpy drop in ORC is much lower compared to steam cycle. The process in ORC can be done in a single stage with much simpler turbine compared to steam cycle which requires turbine with some expansion stages. ORC normally operated at much lower pressure levels and rarely exceeding 30 bars. Thus, ORC is beneficial in low to medium power range due to its cycle simplicity, less cost and stress level needed at boiler, easier to control and simpler usage of components [11].
Traditional steam Rankine Cycle utilizes water and higher pressure vapor as the main flow fluid in the cycle and mainly used in high temperature more than 500°C. However, ORC uses organic pure less boiling point or working fluid mixture mostly used in lower temperature process less than 500°C. Thus, ORC is more advantageous in recovering less temperature heat energy for various temperature ranges. Although steam Rankine cycle is the most common technology used in recovering heat process that converts heat into electricity, it is unfit for conditions of low temperature and pressure. This results from the need for high temperature and pressure in operation. If exhaust temperature and pressure are similar, the SRC exhaust steam enthalpy is greater and the heat from the cold sources increases [12].
Based on the Figure 1 which is the T-s diagram above, two important differences could be found. Firstly, the curve of the organic fluid is abundantly vertical, meanwhile, water has negative curve of saturated vapor slope. Hence, when process of expansion finish, the limitation of vapor quality invisibles in ORC cycle and superheating vapor is unnecessary before the turbine inlet. Second, the gap in entropy between saturated liquid and saturated vapor for organic fluids is lesser. Thus, the enthalpy vaporization is lesser. The organic working fluid mass flow rate should therefore be greater than water to absorb equal thermal power in the evaporator, resulting in more pump consumptions [13].
T-s diagram of the water saturation curves of water and a few typical ORC organic fluids applications [
ORC can be operated in a subcritical or supercritical cycle. In supercritical cycle, the working fluid evaporation ends in supercritical area and the heat rejection in condenser occurs in the subcritical area. Many studies have been performed on the supercritical ORC. Figure 2 provides the temperature and entropy changes of supercritical ORC.
Supercritical ORC temperature and entropy change [
Yagli et al. [14] modeled subcritical and supercritical ORC to recuperate exhaust gas waste heat of biogas fuelled CHP engine. Comparing with subcritical condition, supercritical ORC shows greater performance. At constant pressure, supercritical ORC performance rise as turbine inlet temperature rises. The most excellent performed cycle net power, thermal efficiency and exergy efficiency are evaluated as 79.23 kW, 15.51 and 27.20% for subcritical and 81.52 kW, 15.93 and 27.76% for supercritical ORC, respectively. Guo et al. [15] studied the subcritical and transcritical ORC performance in regards to the evaporator pinch point locations. Found that transcritical ORCs gives higher performance as the heat source outlet temperatures lessen. Ran et al. [16] studied the impact of big transformation in the thermophysical properties of pseudocritical region. Utilizing network output, thermal efficiency and total vapor area an optimization method was found. The results showed that in transcritical ORC’s, the thermophysical properties of the working fluid work at supercritical coefficient and logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD). Moloney et al. [17] analyzed the pressure effect to optimize the first law efficiency, second law’s efficiency and net power of a supercritical ORC with 170–240°C turbine inlet temperature suitable for geothermal reservoirs of medium temperature. Found that supercritical cycle is much more efficient than subcritical cycle to optimize the plant efficiency. Chowdury et al. [18] presented an ORC simulation with different source of heat from the actual vehicle exhaust in supercritical state. The simulation shows that the key in transforming the operating temperature at the evaporator outlet is to modify the mass flow rate.
The ORC technology has been utilized broadly and applied in various industrial activities especially in biomass and geothermal application. Nevertheless, ORC technology has been increasing in solar thermal system and heat recovery applications from industrial waste heat.
There is widespread use of agricultural or industrial processes such as lumber or agricultural waste in biomass due to low energy density than the fossil fuels and availability of heat and electricity, where biomass is suitable on off-grid case or unreliable grid connection. Local generation results in smaller power plants that exclude traditional steam cycles that in this power range are not profit-making.
Figures 3 and 4 define the working principle of such cogeneration system, at a temperature from 150 to 320°C, heats from combustion is transmitted from the flue gases to the heat transfer fluid in two heat exchangers. When temperature lowers a little bit below 300°C, heat transfer fluid (thermal oil) is sent to the ORC loop to evaporate the working fluid. Then, the evaporated fluid expands, to preheat the liquid using recuperator and when temperature reached 90°C, the fluid condensed to produce hot water.
Energy flows in a CHP system of biomass [
Biomass CHP ORC system working principle [
ORC efficiency is lesser compared to traditional steam cycles and gradually reduces for small scale units. To raise the overall energy conversion efficiency of plant, heat demand is needed and could be met through space heating or industrial processes (wood drying). Load of plant could be managed through on- site heat request or maximize power generation which includes additional wasting heats but increases, the full load operating hours per year.
From Figure 3, even though the CHP system’s electrical efficiency is somewhat less (18%), the overall system efficiency is 88% greater than centralized power plants where most residual heat is lost. These gases need to be cooled to the least possible value, so that acid dew point could not be achieved and to lower the losses in flue gases. Two heat transfer loops are utilized to achieve this point (high and low temperature). The lower temperature loops are installed after the high flue temperature to lower the outlet temperature. Competitive technology in generating electric out of solid biofuels is biomass gasification where biomass changes into an organic gas mainly consisting H2, CO, CO2 and CH4. In order to remove solid particles, this synthetic gas is treated and filtered and finally burned in an ICE or in a gas turbine. Contrasting Biomass CHP’s technology and costs with an ORC with gasification, gasification yields higher investment costs (75%), higher maintenance costs (200%) and more power-to-thermal ratio, where utilization is increase profit-making. ORC is an established technology meanwhile gasification plants are normally used as prototype in operation.
Geothermal heat sources ranges from 10 to 300°C. The actual lower technological limit to generate electricity is about 80°C, and became less efficient with temperature less than 80°C and causes uneconomical geothermal plants. The potential of geothermal energy in Europe is shown in Table 1 and indicates that low temperature sources have higher potential.
Temperature | MWth | MWe |
---|---|---|
65–90°C | 147,736 | 10,462 |
90–120°C | 75,421 | 7503 |
120–150°C | 22,819 | 1268 |
150–225°C | 42,703 | 4745 |
225–350°C | 66,897 | 11,150 |
Geothermal energy potential in Europe for different temperature ranges of heat sources [19].
For better production and injection, boreholes need to be drilled in the ground (Figure 5) to recover heat at an acceptable temperature. Then, the hot brine is pumped out of the first one and injected at a lower temperature in the second. Boreholes might be few thousand meters deep which results in working continuously for few months depend on the configuration of the geology and causes increasing share of drilling for geothermal plant cost investment (up to 70%) [19]. High auxiliary consumption is also characterized by low geothermal ORC: the pumps ingest 30–50% of the gross power output [20]. The brine pump together with a significant flow rate has to circulate the brine over large stances is the primary consumer. Working fluid of pump consumption is greater than higher temperature cycles, as the ratio of pump consumption to turbine output power (‘back work ratio’) rose as evaporation temperature lowered. Geothermal heat sources temperature (>150°C) allow for CHP, where the condensing temperature is restricted to a higher temperature such as 60°C, enabling district heating uses cooled water. Thus, the overall efficiency of energy recovery rises with lower electrical efficiency expenses.
Geothermal ORC system working principle [
Solar power concentration is the best technology on a linear or punctual collector that tracks and reflects the sun, transferring heat to high temperature fluid. Electricity is generated as heat is transmitted to a power cycle; electricity is generated. The three primary technologies of concentration are the parabolic platform, solar tower and the parabolic trough. Punctual concentrating technologies consist of parabolic dishes and solar towers, results in more concentration factor and greater temperatures. For solar towers, the Stirling engine (small-scale plants), the steam cycle or even the combined cycle is the best suited power cycles. Parabolic troughs operate at lesser temperature (300–400°C). Till today, they were combined to traditional steam Rankine cycles to generate electricity [21]. Geothermal or biomass power plants for example, steam cycles need higher temperatures, pressure and installed power to be more cost- effective. Organic Rankine cycle is a favorable technology that could lower the small scale of investment costs by working at lesser temperatures and reduce total installed power to kW scale. The working principle of the system is shown in Figure 6. As Fresnel linear technology need lower investment costs [22], they are suitable for ORCs but operate at lesser temperature.
Solar ORC system working principle [
Till recently, only a few of CSP plants with ORC are accessible on the market:
In 2006, at Arizona, a 1MWe solar concentration of ORC power plant was accomplished. The ORC module utilizes n-pentane as the working fluid with 20% efficiency. On design point, the overall solar energy efficiency is 12.1% [23].
Few small-scale for the applications of remote-off grid were studied. The only proof of concept obtained is that 1KWe system installed for rural electrification in Lesotho by “STG International”. To produce and integrate small size solar thermal technology with medium temperature collectors and an ORC to acquire economics equivalent to big installation of solar thermal is the objective of this project. This design intended to change or adding diesel generators in developing countries at off-grid areas through generating clean power at lesser costs.
At low temperature, most of the application in manufacturing industry reject load. Normally, the heat is enormous in large-scale plants, and could not be used again for on-site district heating. The heat then discharged into the atmosphere and results in two types of pollution [24]:
Health/Environmental issues results from pollutants (CO2, NOX, SOX, HC) of flue gases.
Unbalance of aquatic equilibrium and negative effector biodiversity due to rejection of heat.
These two types of pollution could be diminished by waste heat recovering. Moreover, it could provide on-site electricity to be consumed or sent it back to the grid. Normally, waste heat is recuperated through an intermediate heat transfer loop in such a system and used to evaporate the cycle’s working fluid. In USA, power generation from industrial waste heat sources is approximately about 750 MWe [25]. Some industries have greater potential in recovery of waste heat. One of it, the cement industrial loses 40% of flue gas heat. These flue gases are placed at a temperature of 215–315°C after the preheater of limestone or in the clinker cooler [26]. CO2 released from the cement industry is 5% of the world’s total CO2 emissions, half of the results from fossil fuels combustion in kilns [24]. Further possible industries include iron and steel industries (for example, 10% of CO2 emissions in China), refineries or chemical industries. Although their potential is higher and cost-effective (1000–2000 €/kWe), ORC recovery waste heat cycles have only 9–10% of the world’s installed ORC plants compared to biomass CHP and geothermal units [10].
Perullo et al. [27] integrated an ORC to an engine for power generation. They mentioned the problem, as bypass ratio keep on growing and the engine cores becomes effective, the diameter of engine fan increases and the core size decreases which causes pneumatic offset needing greater percentage of the core flow and results in higher performance penalties. They tried to solve the problem by changing the pneumatic off-take to an electrical and used power generated to drive external air to the environmental control system (ECS). With the idea of no-bleed aircraft, performance penalties for shrinking cores and increased fan diameter are supposed to be eliminated and they had demonstrated that a rise in efficiency from 0.9 to 2.5% is possible. Boeing has also applied the no-bleed system; but using generator as the source of energy, not ORC where the generator works with energy taken from the APU and engines. As this application save fuel by 3%, this explain why they put this idea together in ORC rather than extracting energy from fuel, the waste heat could supply the energy needed. ORC is used due to the low quality of the range temperature. The WHR system is placed in the core jet exhaust of a turbofan engine. Conversely to land ORC systems, used in steam power plants for instance, an on-board ORC would suppose operating conditions that may vary continuously in the course of every few hours in external pressure and temperatures. The amount of heat extracted from the engine should be considered to avoid reduction of thrust. The system is distributed in the nozzle, the nose cowl and the Pylon. It uses R245fa as the working fluid having demonstrating highest thermal efficiency in a wide range of operating pressure. The MathCAD 2001 software was used to model the design to govern whether energy is enough to extract our f the exhaust gases to a power of 270 hp. motor. Figure 7 below describes the ORC schematics.
Aircraft engine ORC system working principle [
The model was integrated on a CFM56-7B configuration and cruise conditions were used in it. Some assumptions were done; not analyzing the system with take-off conditions as working fluid dissociates at high temperatures, heat is taken out of core exhaust flow before expanding in the nozzle, assuming a weight of 430 kg and was used to calculate the fuel burn reduction (0.9%) a TSFC reduced its value in 2% compared to the engine alone. It was also assumed that the ORC could produce greater power which is needed to drive the ECS air compressor and resulted in reduction of TSFC for 22%. Perullo et al. [27] concluded that an ORC WHR system could produce more power on the existing engine and can be utilized to supply sufficient power to a compressor driving air to the ECS. They suggested that the design system should be reconfigured to obtain the best results of fuel burn and take into account the need of an electric starting mechanism if the bleed system was removed in future research. The option of using the engine cowl or the anti-icing system in the wing s as the condenser of the ORC system was suggested as well.
Regenerative ORCs are designed where ORCs and turbine bleeding are integrated to a heat exchanger. The cycle heats up the working fluid upon infiltrating the evaporator which is almost similar to the ORC with recuperator. Figure 8(a) and (b) provides the schematic cycle and T-s diagram of regenerative cycle.
(a) ORC with regenerator and its (b) T-s diagram [
At 139°C of turbine inlet temperature, Le et al. [28] utilized a genetic method to optimize the first law and effectiveness of the system for diverse fluids. When examining, CO2 results the worst while recuperative cycle was discovered for greater efficiencies compared to simple cycle. Moloney et al. [17] studied the environmental fluids with critical temperature below 200°C in regenerative supercritical ORCs to upgrade the geothermal energy efficiency and noted that CO2 operates the lowest. The same purpose was enforced by Muhammad et al. [29] to the basic ORC; single and double stage regenerative ORC for applications of recovering waste heat. Studies showed that the single and double stage regenerative ORC has greater thermal efficiency with lower economic performance rather than the basic ORC.
Found that superheating of dry fluid negatively affects the ORC’s efficiency while wet fluid positively affects the ORC’s efficiency and isentropic fluid did not really affect ORC. Nevertheless, an experimental observation by [15] indicated that ORC with wet fluid superheat utilizing R245fa at 1.8°C and if the superheat rises to 8.7°C, the system is stable. Thus, even for dry working fluid, superheating is essential.
Li et al. [30] conducted an experimental study to inquire the performance of a small-scale ORC system with low grade heat source to produce electricity at various working state. It was found that the fluid of ORC during superheat and pressure at the turbine inlet were two main variables able to be managed with temperature of heat source and speed of the ORC pump. It was also found that superheat and internal heat exchanger are crucial for ORC from both perspectives of thermodynamic and techno-economic. Roy et al. studied the consequences of superheat and recovering on ORC system at certain degree of superheat [31]. Note that Guo et al. [15] argued if the superheat coupled with an internal heat exchanger, greater development could be done. Zhang et al. inquires the consequences of superheat and internal heat exchanger on three ORC designs’ thermos-economic performance from fluid properties and heat sources. It has been discovered that the thermo-economic performance of internal heat exchanger ORC with dry surpasses the wet fluid as temperature of heat source load increases [32]. Brizard et al. [33] suggested preventing condensation drops during operation of superheating; the inlet of expander must exceed 20°C. Radulovic et al. [34] mentioned that superheat is important in cycle especially in wet fluids. As the temperature of superheater rises, the cycle efficiency also rises and the chance of the working fluid condenses during pressure drop inside turbine, resulting in corrosion and efficiency drop is lesser. To get a higher efficiencies and net power output, superheating is important to prevent wet expansion. Feng et al. [35] found that rises the superheat degree assure the decrease in mean heat transfer temperature difference in superheating area of evaporator causes decreasing of overall heat transfer area, and decrease in the investment cost of the system. It was also found that outlet temperature of evaporator and superheat degree gives good feedback on the efficiency of exergy. Li et al. [30] construct an investigation on the experimental of a small-scale ORC system under designated working state for the recovery application of low-grade thermal energy. The reaction between condenser cooling water temperatures and superheat.
R245fa at turbine inlet were measured and analyzed on the performance of the system. The outcomes show that when evaporating pressure is constant, superheat at the inlet of expander gives negative feedback on the turboexpander and performance of the at some temperatures of cold water. In conclusion, superheat is crucial in assuring an efficient and safe system operation. Bianchi et al. [36] presented an experimental micro-ORC setup for low-temperature application by implementing a test bench to acquire data for the energy system characterization. From the results, it was found that for the tested working points, efficiency is from 2.9 to 4.4% and increases as degree of superheating decreases. Ismail et al. [37] concluded that utilizing superheated vapor in the system with internal heat exchanger results in increasing of thermal efficiency ORC. The mass flow rate required for the system together with superheated vapor is lower than the saturated vapor system. Thus, superheated is essential to lower the mass flow rate, and enhanced the performance of the system with presence of internal heat exchanger.
This chapter presents a comprehensive review on the developments of organic Rankine cycle (ORC) systems that have been used for power generation by using a waste heat source. This review also highlights more on the different configurations of ORCs used, depending on their applications. From here, we could conclude that superheating and the condition of the organic working fluid are crucial in ORC system from the thermodynamic point of views. Therefore, this study plans to investigate the design of an ORC model with better output power by modifying the configurations and adding a superheating device and also to study the effect of using organic dry working fluid (R245fa) at supercritical condition.
Tumor angiogenesis or aberrant vascularization is considered a critical hallmark of tumor progression that is inevitable for tumor growth and metastatic spread [1]. This complex multistep process of new vasculature formation from pre-existing blood vessels is triggered by numerous signals from tumor cells in a phase of rapid growth [1]. The expression and secretion of various activators and inhibitors of angiogenesis are regulated by gene mutation (e.g., oncogenes and tumor-suppressor genes), and microenvironmental factors such as hypoxia and accumulation of different metabolites [2, 3]. As the growing tumor requires more blood vessels for nutrition and oxygen supply, angiogenic pathways are induced by tilting the balance toward pro-angiogenic molecules (angiogenic switch) to drive new blood vessel growth [3].
High expression levels of pro-angiogenic factors reflect the tumor aggressiveness [4]. Within the angiogenic cascade, a diverse group of mediators are shown in Figure 1. These molecules participate in the establishment of new tumor vessels in various ways. Among them, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), also called VEGF-A, is key “molecular player” that modifies the endothelial barriers [3]. Moreover, VEGF as master regulator of angiogenesis in tumor tissues and its receptors, particularly VEGFR-2, have been implicated in tumor vascularization [3]. Namely, activation of VEGF/VEGFR-2 signaling pathways triggers an angiogenic program in the endothelial cells (ECs) [3]. Thus, VEGF binds to its cognate receptor that results in autophosphorylation of specific tyrosine residues of VEGFR-2, and consequential activation of multiple downstream signaling networks in the vascular endothelial cells through the recruiting of the MAP kinase (ERK1/2 and p38), PI3K, AKT, PLC-γ, and JAK-STAT [5, 6, 7]. The final result is the activation of full range of biological responses that modulate angiogenesis, including vascular permeability as well as endothelial cell proliferation, survival, adhesion, and migration.
Pro-angiogenic mediators implicated in the tumor angiogenesis. Plethora of mediators that promotes tumor angiogenesis can be categorized into several groups. VEGFs-vascular endothelial factors; FGFs-fibroblast growth factors; PDGFs-platelet-derived growth factor; EGFs-epidermal growth factor; TGFs-transforming growth factors; MMPs-matrix metalloproteinases; uPA-urokinase-type plasminogen activator; TNF-α-tumor necrosis factor-α; NO-nitric oxide; PGE2-prostaglandin E2; S1P-sphingosine-1-phosphate.
It is well established that VEGF is multifunctional molecule. VEGF has been first identified as vascular permeability factor, which exerts potent ability to increase vascular permeability, resulting in leakage of plasma protein and other molecules out of blood vessels [8]. Furthermore, VEGF is a potent mitogen that is highly specific for ECs and stimulates cell proliferation through VEGFR-2-mediated activation of the RAS/RAF/ERK/MAPK pathway [9]. Acting as survival factor for ECs, VEGF increases expression of the anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2 and A1 in the ECs [10]. On the other hand, VEGF also participates in tumor angiogenesis through increased migration and invasion of ECs by enhancing of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) release [3], and further amplifying angiogenesis by enhanced recruitment and homing of bone marrow derived vascular precursor cells [11]. PI3K/AKT signaling promotes VEGF-mediated invasion and metastasis of ECs [12].
VEGF expression is tightly regulated by plethora of transcriptional regulators, such as transcription factor called hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF). Beside them, VEGF signaling is also upregulated by multiple stimuli, including cytokines and galectins by tumor microenvironments. We discuss the role of IL-17 and Galectin-3 in mediating angiogenesis, either directly or indirectly
The tumor microenvironment represents a complex ecosystem involving interactions between tumor cells, ECs, epithelial cells, immune cells, fibroblasts, and the extracellular matrix, as well as secreted cytokines and growth factors. All of these factors provide essential support for the tumor progression. The dynamic cross-talk between angiogenesis and tumor microenvironment is important to further accelerate tumor growth and metastasis [13]. Thus, released angiogenic factors can promote tumor immunosuppression by inhibiting maturation of dendritic cells, increasing mobilization of immunosuppressive cells, and suppressing CD8 + T cell activity [14]. The tumor microenvironment, in turn, produces numerous soluble molecules and growth factors that stimulate angiogenesis, thus forming a vicious circle for tumor progression [15]. Increasing evidence suggests that Galectin-3 and IL-17 are the significant pieces of that puzzle that shape angiogenesis and tumor progression in many ways (Figure 2).
Pro-angiogenic effects of Galectin-3 and IL-17 as a part of tumor progression machinery. Many cells and soluble mediators create tumor microenvironment characterized by hypoxia, chronic inflammation, and immunosuppression. Galectin-3 participates in all steps of angiogenic cascade
Galectin-3, a unique chimaera-type member of the lectin family with selectivity for β-galactosides, is a versatile galectin involved in fundamental biological processes as well as various pathological circumstances [16, 17]. This evolutionary conserved molecule is usually overexpressed in variety types of tumor [18]. The ECs, immune cells, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), and myofibroblasts also produce and secrete Galectin-3 [19, 20, 21]. Galectin-3 expression is higher in endothelial progenitor cells as compared with normal ECs [22]. However, the tumor microenvironment, for example, tumor cells, inflammatory cells, and/or specific glycan-ligands on galectin-binding proteins, alters endothelial Galectin-3 expression as it provide most of the signals to which the ECs respond [23, 24]. Accordingly, pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β increases Galectin-3 expression by ECs [25]. ECs not only have a pivotal role in angiogenesis, but also they facilitate tumor invasion by secreting growth factors and extracellular matrix proteinases [26]. Released molecules sequentially increase chances that tumor cells enter to the circulation and metastasis [26].
Depending on cell types and cellular localization, Galectin-3 drives force in the diverse processes critical in tumor biology, including apoptosis, invasion, metastasis, immune surveillance, gene expression, and inflammation [27]. The cytoplasmic Galectin-3 blocks apoptotic machinery in tumor cells [16] through several mechanisms [28]. Galectin-3 secreted by tumor cells contributes to immunosuppression within the tumor microenvironment by polarizing to pro-tumor phenotype of tumor-associated macrophages 2 (TAM2), restricting T cell receptor clustering, and triggering apoptosis of CD8 + T lymphocytes, further facilitating tumor escape [29]. The upregulation of Galectin-3 by TAMs in the hypoxic regions of breast cancer promotes tumor cell migration and invasion and TAMs-mediated metastasis, as well as angiogenesis [30]. Expression of Galectin-3 in CAFs in breast cancer has been associated with distant metastasis [31]. Galectin-3 is also found in extracellular vesicles released by tumor cells, and it seems that this galectin is critical regulator in cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix interactions [32]. Endothelial Galectin-3 expression in the lungs cooperates with poly-N-acetyl-lactosamine on N-glycans of B16-F1 murine melanoma cells, as a ligand for Galectin-3 [33]. Our data demonstrated that host-derived Galectin-3 facilitates B16-F1 cell adhesion to the metastatic target and interferes with efficiency of the antitumor immune response, thereby accelerating melanoma metastasis [34].
Tumor angiogenesis and chronic inflammation are closely related and often share common signaling pathways and molecules [35]. In addition to angiogenesis, Galectin-3 participates in shaping of tumor inflammatory microenvironment likely through the recruitment of inflammatory cells and modification of their polarization [36], as well as the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines that have been implicated in tumor promotion (Figure 2, [37]). Overexpressed pro-inflammatory IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α contribute to various steps of tumor progression [38]. This cytokine network, required for the establishment of chronic inflammation in the tumor microenvironment, facilitates tumor growth and metastasis, enhances angiogenesis, and inhibits immune surveillance [39]. In particular, tumor-infiltrating Th17 lymphocytes orchestrate the maintenance of chronic inflammation. IL-6, TGF-β, and IL-1β are pivotal drivers of development of Th17 cells that secrete IL-17 and other cytokines. Although IL-23 is not required for triggering Th17 differentiation, it is essential for the function, survival, and expansion of Th17 lymphocytes in the inflamed tissue [40]. To increase inflammation, IL-17 induces mobilization, recruitment, and activation of different immune cells [40]. Interestingly, the finding of correlation between serum Galectin-3 levels and IL-17 production in patients with colorectal carcinoma has suggested that Galectin-3 may be one of the important modulators in the regulation of inflammatory conditions (Figure 2, [41]).
IL-17A (commonly referred to as IL-17) is the first discovered and best characterized member of the IL-17 family. Currently, six structurally related cytokines of IL-17 family have been identified (IL-17A to IL-17F) [42]. It is well documented that IL-17 plays protective role in infections, but here, we will review the multifunctional impacts of IL-17 on tumor biology.
IL-17 is mostly produced and secreted by Th17 lymphocytes, but it can be also produced by a broad spectrum of other cell populations [42]. Many studies describe the Th17-rich microenvironment in various types of tumor and that Th17 lymphocytes are endowed with a unique functional plasticity [40, 43]. Tumor cells, CAFs, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) have been found to produce cytokine milieu that elicits recruitment and/or generation of Th17 lymphocytes [44, 45]. In addition, metabolic conditions present in the tumor milieu including indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) and hypoxia drive the differentiation of CD4 + T lymphocytes toward the Th17 lineage [46, 47]. Type 17 CD8 + T cytotoxic (Tc17) lymphocytes among tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) were detected in nasopharyngeal [48] and gastric cancer [49]. Further, the main IL-17-producing cells in breast cancer are tumor-infiltrating γδT cells [50], and it seems that these TILs can promote the breast cancer progression [51]. NKT cells and group 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILC3s) represent other innate lymphocytes capable to produce IL-17 in the tumor microenvironment [52]. On the other hand, IL-17R is widely expressed in ECs, epithelial cells, fibroblasts, hematopoietic cells [53], and tumor cells [54], which implicates pleiotropic effects of IL-17 in the tumor microenvironment.
It seems that IL-17, as Roman god Janus, exerts two opposite faces in the tumor: “dark face” that drives tumor progression and “light face” responsible for the development of effective antitumor immunity. By
The critical events during angiogenic cascade such as activation, proliferation, and migration of ECs, as well as sprouting and tube formation, largely depend on Galectin-3 [66]. Initially, it has been observed that soluble Galectin-3 affects the migration of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and capillary tube formation indicating its potential as chemoattractant for ECs [19]. This result has been confirmed by the increased tumor angiogenesis in the presence of Galectin-3
Ever since, Galectin-3 has been widely recognized as powerful pro-angiogenic molecule acting through various receptors on the ECs, subsequently activating distinct signaling pathways involved in tumor angiogenesis (Figure 2). Interactions between Galectin-3 and different integrins expressed on ECs supposed to be critical in controlling endothelial cell migration and adhesion. Pericyte-derived neural/glial antigen 2 (NG2) proteoglycan, Galectin-3, and α3β1 integrin form the membrane complex that triggers intracellular signaling involved in endothelial cell motility [69]. The blocking antibodies specific for αVβ3, α5β1, and α2β1 integrins interfere with endothelial cell adhesion to Galectin-3-coated surface [70]. In addition to integrins, Galectin-3 on endothelial cell migration markedly depends on direct binding to the membrane highly glycosylated cell adhesion molecule CD146, also known as melanoma cell adhesion molecule [71]. CD146 has been recognized as VEGFR-2 co-receptor and a potential target for anti-angiogenic therapy in tumors [72]. The interaction between Galectin-3 and CD146 is also responsible for secretion of pro-metastatic cytokines by ECs indicating that this axis regulates distinct events during tumor progression [73]. Galectin-3 interacts with glycoprotein endoglin expressed predominantly by ECs as a component of TGF-β receptor complex [74]. Endoglin is abundantly expressed by proliferating ECs indicating an important role of TGF-β/endoglin signaling in tumor vasculature formation [75]. Therefore, thanks to its carbohydrate-binding capacity, Galectin-3 interacts with different molecules expressed by ECs in tumor microenvironment. Moreover, truncated Galectin-3, containing CRD domain, interacts more efficiently with ECs in comparison with full-length molecule [76, 77]. Apart from CRD domain, it seems that angiostimulatory effect of Galectin-3 also depends on its N-terminal tail [78]. Full-length Galectin-3, including its ability to oligomerize through N-terminal domain, appears to be necessary to affect migration of ECs and capillary tube formation [78]. Taken together, angiostimulatory effect of Galectin-3 on distinct events during angiogenesis has been mediated by different parts of the molecule in both carbohydrate dependent and independent manner [68].
Further investigation of the molecular mechanisms responsible for Galectin-3 pro-angiogenic actions in tumors documented its involvement in modulation of VEGF and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) signaling pathways. Galectin-3 binds N-glycans of integrin αvβ3
Galectin-3 has been described as a regulator of Jagged-1 (JAG1)/NOTCH1 signaling axis involved in tumor vasculature formation, in particular sprouting angiogenesis [83]. Under hypoxic condition, secreted Galectin-3 directly binds Notch ligand JAG1 in ECs thus activating pro-angiogenic JAG1/NOTCH1 signaling pathway. Galectin-3 prolongs the half-life of JAG1 over the Delta-like-4 (DLL4) thus affecting the balance between these molecules with opposite functions during angiogenic cascade [83, 84]. Interestingly, the proposed mechanism seems to be independent of VEGF/VEGFR signaling thus revealing novel potential targets in anti-angiogenic therapy.
In addition, Galectin-3 promotes the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma, including angiogenesis, through upregulation of β-catenin signaling [85]. Given its presence in different cellular compartments including nucleus, as well as its pleiotropic functions, Galectin-3 interferes with β-catenin pathway known to be active in various types of tumor. Galectin-3 activates PI3K/AKT signaling thus enhancing the phosphorylation and inactivation of key molecule of β-catenin degradation complex known as glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) [85, 86]. Subsequently, β-catenin accumulates in the nucleus and regulates the expression of genes involved in Galectin-3-mediated angiogenesis and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) [85].
Exosomes are vesicles secreted by living cells that participate in intercellular communication during essential processes such as proliferation, apoptosis, migration, and angiogenesis [87]. A highly glycosylated protein named lectin galactoside-binding soluble 3 binding protein (LGALS3BP), as a ligand for Galectin-3, has been previously recognized as a modulator of breast cancer angiogenesis that elevates VEGF expression via PI3K/AKT signaling pathway [88]. It has been shown recently that exosomes highly containing LGALS3BP affect endometrial cancer growth and angiogenesis [89]. The exosomes delivering LGALS3BP induce tumor cell proliferation and migration and HUVEC angiogenesis by triggering PI3K/AKT/VEGF signaling pathway [89].
The complex interplay between immunosuppression and angiogenesis is the integral part of tumor progression [29]. TAMs are the critical participants in tumor progression involved in the creation of immunosuppressive microenvironment thus enhancing metastasis and angiogenesis [90]. TAMs produce various pro-angiogenic molecules including growth factors (e.g., VEGF), chemokines, cytokines, as well as MMPs [90]. Galectin-3 promotes alternative activation of TAMs toward their pro-tumorigenic M2 phenotype (Figure 2, [29]). Increased angiogenesis in tumor is strongly associated with macrophage influx driven by elevated Galectin-3 expression [36]. Furthermore, Galectin-3 deficiency in both tumor tissue and stroma impairs angiogenesis
Collectively, thanks to its distinctive structure, Galectin-3 engages plenty of ligands both intracellularly and extracellularly, further interfering with various signaling pathways that regulate tumor angiogenesis. As a potential orchestrator of angiogenic cascade, Galectin-3 may be successfully targeted for anti-angiogenic tumor therapy.
Apart from galectins, certain cytokine network within the tumor microenvironment contributes to angiogenesis mainly through sophisticated interplay between different cells and extracellular matrix components as well as stimulation of key pro-angiogenic mediator productions.
The data from human subjects have indicated the strong association between increased angiogenicity and high frequency of tumor-infiltrating Th17 lymphocytes [92, 93]. IL-17 overexpression has been associated with higher microvascular density (MVD) in tumors [92]. In general, IL-17 indirectly amplifies angiogenesis mostly by inducing VEGF upregulation, as well as another angiogenic factors by tumor cells and CAFs [94, 95, 96]. Also, IL-17 induces the recruitment of inflammatory cells with angiogenic phenotype (e.g., macrophages and neutrophils) and immunosuppressive cells to the tumor microenvironment, which contributes to different points of angiogenesis in many ways (Figure 2, [59, 97]). Even though the IL-17 overexpression has been detected in tumors, mechanisms of IL-17 that contribute to angiogenesis are still unclear. IL-17/IL-17RA axis promotes the activation of JAK-STAT3 signaling pathway resulting in phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of STAT3 [98]. STAT3 is important regulator of VEGF expression [96]. Furthermore, IL-17-mediated tumor angiogenesis involves the activation of STAT3/GIV (Gα-interacting vesicle-associated protein, Girdin) signaling pathway and subsequent upregulation of its downstream target VEGF [99]. Wu et al. [96] determined that IL-17 induces VEGF upregulation and neovascularization through STAT3-mediated signaling pathway in tumor cells that could be blocked by JSI-124, an inhibitor of phosphorylated STAT3. In addition, other mediators such as granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), EGF, FGF, PDGF, and IL-6 exhibit their pro-angiogenic functions
IL-17 stimulates the production of IL-8 [102]. IL-8 acts directly on ECs by promoting their proliferation, survival, and migration, as well as indirectly by increasing the recruitment of neutrophils that are important source of angiogenic factors in tumor microenvironment [103]. IL-17 activates ECs to produce pro-inflammatory chemokines and cytokines, including CXCL1, IL-8, and granulocyte macrophage-colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), thus promoting neutrophil recruitment and adhesion to ECs [98]. It is well known that neutrophils release plethora of molecules that promotes angiogenesis. In particular, neutrophil-derived MMP-9 is critical for catalyzing angiogenic switch in tumor cells and releasing of sequestered growth factors (e.g., VEGF), as well as remodeling of extracellular matrix (ECM) components during angiogenesis [104].
Accumulation of neutrophils has been associated with higher MVD and therefore more aggressive phenotype of gastric cancer [105]. IL-17 enhances the production of many angiogenic CXC chemokines including CXCL1, CXCL5, CXCL6, and CXCL8 (IL-8) [106, 107]. Among these, CXCL1 and CXCL5 are the important chemoattractants for neutrophils [108]. The listed chemokines also promote CXCR2-dependent angiogenesis by stimulating the migration and proliferation of ECs [107]. On the other hand, IL-17 facilitates recruitment and activation of MDSCs in tumor microenvironment [109]. Apart from immunosuppressive activity, MDSCs modulate angiogenesis
Increased IL-17 and IL-23 mRNA expression has been associated with invasive gastric cancer [111]. We have shown that serum levels of IL-17 and IL-23 are significantly elevated in patients with colorectal carcinoma, but only IL-23 significantly correlated with overexpression of VEGF [112, 113]. It seems that IL-23 induces tumor-associated inflammation and angiogenesis thus promoting tumor growth [114]. IL-23-induced differentiation of Th17 lymphocytes suggests the possible indirect role of IL-23 in angiogenesis in IL-17-dependent manner (Figure 2).
There is evidence of tightly relationship between IL-17 and IL-33. Serum IL-33 has been associated with elevated IL-17 levels in patients with autoimmune hepatitis [115]. In addition, intestinal epithelial cells-derived IL-33 stimulates the recruitment of Th17 lymphocytes as the main cellular source of IL-17 in the small intestine [116]. Further, IL-6 can be critical trigger of IL-17 production, suggesting that the IL-33/IL-6/IL-17 axis plays a potential role in tumor biology [117]. It is well known that IL-33 is another pro-inflammatory cytokine with strong pro-angiogenic capacity (Figure 2). Similar to IL-17, IL-33 promotes the production of different pro-angiogenic factors, including VEGF and IL-8 [118]. It appears that IL-33 increases endothelial cell proliferation and vascular permeability [119]. Milosavljevic et al. [120] have found significantly higher expression of IL-33, IL-33 receptor, and VEGF in breast cancer. IL-33 and IL-33R expression correlated with VEGF expression in tumor tissue. VEGF expression positively correlated with MVD implicating that IL-33/IL-33R pathway is involved in breast cancer growth [120]. Further, tumor-derived IL-33 induces the recruitment of CD11b + Gr1+ and CD11b + F4/80+ myeloid cells to the tumor microenvironment further contributing to angiogenesis
Angiogenesis is complex and dynamic process in which more actors take part. To date, several anti-angiogenic agents, mainly acting
MCP is specifically inhibitor of Galectin-3, which significant decreases the MVD, suggesting that targeting Galectin-3 may open novel perspectives to interfere with tumor angiogenesis [67]. On the other hand, anti-angiogenic treatments have therapeutic limitations including varying degrees of response and resistance due to VEGF-independent mechanisms. Thus, VEGF blockade creates hypoxic conditions in the tumor, which in turn causes increased invasion and poorer survival by inducting of HIF-1α-dependent c-Met overexpression [126]. In hypoxic areas, tumor cells also survive oxygen-depleted environment by upregulating Galectin-3 expression, which may in turn increase tumor aggressiveness [127]. The simultaneous blockade of VEGF and Galectin-3 could be providing a more potent antitumor effect, which is mediated by, among others, anti-angiogenic mechanisms.
Finally, due to the fact that multiple actors are involved in tumor angiogenesis, Galectin-3 and IL-17 targeting is likely to improve the efficacy of current anti-angiogenic tumor therapy.
This work was supported by a grant from the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development, Serbia (ON175069 and ON175071), a bilateral project with People’s Republic of China (06/2018) and by the Faculty of Medical Sciences of the University of Kragujevac, Serbia (JP16/19).
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