Hatay organized industrial zones.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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The establishment of enterprises functioning in different fields is important for regional development. The aggregation of enterprises based on knowledge and technology is a critical means of gaining a sustainable competitive advantage at a national level through social capital dimensions [1]. Social relations among entrepreneurs strengthen cooperation and increase the learning opportunities, which are regarded as one of the economic benefits of social capital. Cooperation between individuals and organizations leads to the emergence of scale economies. Risks that uncertainties may bring along are reduced by trust that helps to take action. Exchange of information is also facilitated by trust. The entrepreneurs in high-trust relations have a higher learning capacity due to their wider and richer information flow. Information exchange serves as a ‘mediator’ between the dimensions of social capital (trust, networks and recurrent exchanges) and economic performance [2]. In short, social capital contributes to economic growth by ensuring more productive and rational use of available production factors [3].
\nThis study aims at examining the impacts of the dimensions of social capital on innovation capacity of a firm and in this respect, identify the difference between firms functioning in organized industry zones (OIZs) and others. The relevant literature mainly focuses on the resources providing competitive advantage and increasing innovation capacity of the firms. However, in this study, the literature has been reviewed to identify the impacts of social capital dimensions on innovation capacities of the firms by their locations. At this point, this study attempts to examine not only the impacts of social capital dimensions on the innovation capacities of the firms, but also the dependence of these impacts on the locations of the firms. In this sense, this study may contribute to bridge the gap in the relevant literature.
\nOrganized industrial zones emerged as an idea in the United Kingdom and the United States of America, respectively, in 1896 and 1899; however, their implementation occurred around 1950s. First OIZ practices in the USA were carried out by the private sector with the aim of profit; on the other hand, with the Second World War, OIZs were organized as public investments to contribute for the development of SMEs in the developing countries. In Turkey, the first OIZ was established in Bursa province in 1962. According to the Ministry of Industry and Trade, OIZs can be defined as settlements which meet the necessary physical requirements for the foundation of factories of a specific economic scale, provide an environment for the improvement of networks among industrial enterprises, and direct entrepreneurs to the appropriate areas. Within this context, it would not be wrong to accept OIZs as a means of development and space arrangement [4]. Having enterprises of similar economic scales and activities in the same settlement has many positive effects on firms. At this point, since firms are located together, they can create synergy and increase their productivity; and through the networks they have built, they can increase their capacity for innovation [5].
\nOn the other hand, Morgan and Hunt [6] emphasized that it is necessary to establish network connections, which can provide competitive advantage among enterprises, to help them increase their competition capacity in the global economy. In fact, this advice may serve as a strategic idea for the SMEs that operate within the small-scale economies and look for alternatives for competitive advantage [7] because these connections and collaborations contribute to the process of learning and innovation among enterprises. Through the networks between enterprises located in close areas, the natural development and modification of knowledge can be ensured. In this context, the concept of agglomeration introduced in the literature by Marshall has in fact no technological purpose, but rather, brings spatial and industrial advantages. In the definition proposed by Asheim, organized industrial zones are considered as a network of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in geographically determined production systems; they are based on practices which support the local and social structure, dense information modification, and innovation among the enterprises in the region [8]. Although aggregation and industrial zone are interchangeably used in the relevant literature, it is accepted that while each organizational zone is an aggregation, an aggregation is not necessarily an industrial zone.
\nAccording to the interaction model, relations are changing with time and these changes do not occur without a cost; relations are processes in which enterprises utilise their sources and time [9]. At the same time, relations can also be composed of basic elements such as collaboration, trust resulting from the intimateness or distantness of relations, and loyalty [10]. Relations can also be in horizontal and vertical structures. While vertical relations emphasize the ‘loyalty’ element, horizontal relations emphasize the ‘dialogue’ element. In all these processes, the ‘trust’ element has a central role. Since interactions between enterprises are different from each other in horizontal and vertical relations, trust can also develop differently in these structures [6].
\nIn his study on the relations between enterprises, Rindfleisch concludes that enterprises in horizontal relation show a lower level of corporate trust compared to the enterprises that have vertical relations [11]. The biggest challenge for these inter-enterprises relations occurring in different ways is to create collaboration among the participants, who activate these relations, and to ensure the sustainability of this collaboration. The competition between enterprises, which are located in a specific geographical region (such as organized industrial zones), is directly proportional to their ability to connect the innovation network typology emerging in inter-enterprises relations. On the other hand, there is a significant differentiation in regional innovation systems with regard to the extent of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) relations with their cooperation partners and the realization level of this cooperation with local partners [7, 12, 13].
\nSocial capital refers to the sum of the actual and potential sources, which exist in the relation owned an individual or a social unit; they are accessible by and based on that relation. The key premise of social capital theory is that relation networks are valuable sources for social works [14]. For this reason, social capital is composed of assets, which are movable in that relation network; and since it increases the innovation capacity of enterprises, it can create competitive advantage [15]. Social capital can be effective in the important activities of an enterprise, such as in the exchange of internal sources, in the creation of intellectual capital, in internal learning, and in innovation [16]. Social capital, which also provides the opportunity for technological information and market for an enterprise, is a significant source for enterprises [17]. At the same time, through the use and dissemination of sources of an enterprise, social capital contributes to the increase of innovation capacity the enterprise [18] and as a result, positively affects the performance of an enterprise.
\nThere are many different theories and approaches in the literature with regard to enterprise networks. As one of these approaches, social networks approach is important especially for the entrepreneurship literature and for those enterprises, which are shaped by entrepreneur’s own relations [19]. Social networks are social structures, which are generally established by the owner of the enterprise and accordingly, shaped depending on the personality and activities of the owner [20]. According to the social network approach, social networks of an entrepreneur affect the formation and development of the enterprise [21]; in addition, they emerge as the fundamental determinant of the potential collaboration with the other enterprises [22]. Accordingly, social networks provide the opportunity for enterprises to take advantage of the sources that they do not have [15]. People in firms can have different social group behaviours or identities, and these differences can change how they access and make use of the opportunities.
\nIn the social network literature, there might be strong or weak relations with regard to the structure of relations in the network. While the relation is dependent on the trust element in strong relations as in the relationships with family and close friends, weak relations tend to involve weaker emotional bonds and higher risks, and a concern of mutual benefit [19]. In strong attachments where people know and are familiar with each other, the sense of trust is achieved in the relation; and, this trust is regarded as the social capital that is essential for the entrepreneur enterprises. For entrepreneurs who have the minimum information about each other, have some common points, and have the same ethnic/religious/denominational identity with each other, trust comes to the forefront as a social capital. With the feeling of trust based on similarity and/or familiarity, enterprises that have the same ethnic/cultural structure can access to the social networks easier than other enterprises [23]. Besides, Kadushin states that people who are geographically close to each other and sharing similar social characteristics have more opportunity not only in the access to the existing social networks but also in the creation of new social networks [24]. In addition, no matter how strong or weak their relations are, the sense of trust strengthen with time enriching relations among enterprises.
\nIn response to the perspective, which suggests that the strong relations within social networks create advantage of trust, and hence enterprises should create this kind of relations, Burt [25] draws attention to the structural gaps, which mean lack of connection between the actors in the network. According to this, instead of close connections, the importance of structural gaps in the determination and revelation of opportunities is emphasized. It is stated that since the enterprises, which can fill the structural gap, can access the new and strategically important information in a shorter period of time compared to the other network components, they can get the competitive advantage [26]. The reason is that there are people who have different kinds of information in the social networks where the relations are not strong, and with the help of their social networks, enterprises can have access to different kinds of information; because, as mentioned, the processes of entrepreneurship, determination and utilization of opportunities are directly related to the filling the connections within the network [26]. According to this, it is stated that the enterprises, which confine themselves only to their religious and cultural social networks, cognitively shut themselves down for the opportunities existing in the world, apart from the ones in their subject network [27]. Generally, the enterprises, which have different cultural structures and are unknown in the present market for offering new customer value, can fill in the structural gaps existing in the general networks apart from the networks that have similar cultural structures in this sense [23]; and in relation to this, they play an important role in the determination and utilization of the opportunities that are not known in the general cultural structure of the market.
\nAs mentioned in the relevant literature, social networks between enterprises and the created social capital have positive effects on the innovation capacities of enterprises. Innovation and information is indeed comprised of internal and external sources; however, it is emphasized in the recent strategy and innovation literature that firms create innovation from external sources. In this context, knowledge acquisition, learning and creating opportunities are based on intra-organizational relations; access to external innovation sources, on the other hand, are related to the relationship between the firm and the actors in social networks [28]. This approach accepts that the firm is embedded in the social structure granted with the social capital. Social networks enable the relations, trust, and information flow between firms; therefore, they function as sources, which can prevent fraud and enable the utilization of opportunities for the firms. These strategic sources can positively affect the abilities and performances of firms [29].
\nGeographical proximity is expected to create strong relations and to produce strict structures hence it can shape social networks. Thus, through the existing social networks, firms can share quality and reliable information, and they can utilize the market opportunities in a more productive way because geographical distribution determines the frequency and density of the communication between the actors in the same structure. Apart from this network, firms can also develop networks through local institutions. This topic is also discussed a lot in the literature. It is concluded that these local institutions (universities, research institutes, vocational education centres and development agencies) positively affect the performance of the firms.
\nThe effect of social capital to create value in terms of innovation has been studied by Tsai and Ghoshal [30] and various dimensions of the social capital in the literature have been dealt with [15]. In this study, from the dimensions of the social capital; social interactions, trust and shared vision have been used. In addition, the role of social institutions is added to the study as a feature of local aggregates with the view of their ability to mediate the firms’ external networks [25, 31].
\nThe popularity of a social networks and interactions of a firm is actually accepted as a sign of the social capital. Social interactions are the channels for the actors in the market to reach the information sources [15]. At the same time, social interactions are tools to destroy the boundaries between firms. The lack or rarity of these interactions and bounds, both make it hard to reach some of highly important information resources and define the boundaries. In this case, within the context of creating and spreading productive research innovations in the literature, a great deal of importance is attached to social interactions. At this point, as the social interactions of the firms increase, through facilitating the access to the resources in the subject network structure and abolishing the boundaries between firms, firms will be more advantageous in terms of opportunities; and, all these tools will have a positive effect on innovation opportunities of the firms because these interactions will enable firms to reach specialised information and resources in the network structure. As a result, through social interactions, a firm will have more advantages to exchange resources with other actors and will be in a more advantageous position to combine talents. This situation will enable them to increase their innovation capacity [30].
\nH1: Social interactions of the firm will be positively associated with innovation.
\nTrust plays the role of a control mechanism between the actors in the networks and it is also a dimension of the social capital. At this point, it is not quite wrong to say that trust is actually a mechanism that manages embedded relationships and if trust cannot be managed, the access to the information and resources will become harder. Dakhli and De Clercq put forth that the trust between firms also feeds the innovation [32]. When trust comes out in the relation between firms, an institutional behaviour appears between actors as sharing the resources and information is voluntary without any concern. Ultimately, trust is a social process and when trust is achieved for one actor, it will be easier for other actors. In the literature, many studies have revealed that the perceived trust level and reliability may cause different results with regard to sharing of information and resources among the firms in the same network. At this point, we propose that:
\nH2: The level of trust of a firm is positively associated with innovation.
\nShared vision is accepted as the latest mechanism that enables the flow of sources via a network. It is also a way to ensure a common language between actors as a feature of social capital. In other words, it can be defined as a common code in the social system and involves the expectations and targets of the network members [15]. The shared expectations and targets among the network members go beyond the boundaries of the firm and facilitate access to the information and resources of the other units [30]. When it is accepted as a mechanism to help different firms to combine resources, the shared vision, which is used to combine different firms or to separate the firms from each other, will increase the innovation capacity. At this point, we propose that;
\nH3: Sharing the firm’s vision with the rest of the firms will be positively associated with innovation.
\nLocal institutions are of great importance in providing specific information in the networks and they take the role to supply new resources and opportunities. They have a major role in decreasing research costs, spreading the information, and in gaining the ability to compete. Creating a connection with external networks contributes to innovation to increase the abilities of the firms. Thus, the firms get advantage in having networks and since they reach information resources via local institutions, it causes an increase in firm’s capabilities. Local institutions have some ways that ease the creation of value for firms [31].
\nIt supports the technological services (quality control, standardisation, etc.) and these services enhance quality managements of the firm.
It organizes training activities for the workers of the firm and it increases the human capital of the firm.
It takes the duty of mediation between local and external firms, so that it provides attendance to congresses, different solutions for problems, and partnership for projects. In this way, regional firms establish access to information sources not only to increase the research costs but also to increase their abilities for opportunities.
By encouraging the attendance to common research projects, it provides the formation of formal and informal communication channels and this increases the innovation capacity of the firms.
It mediates the access of regional firms to the international markets with minimum risk, enabling the circulation of products and services of the firm in national and international markets. Besides, it has a positive impact on the innovation capacity of firms by introducing the firm’s brand with co-operative advertising on behalf of the country. At this point, we propose that:
H4: Firm involvement in local institutions will be positively associated with innovation.
\nName of OIZ | \nSurface area (Decare) | \nIndustry parcel (Decare) | \nNumber of parcel (Qty) | \nNumber of the parcel assigned (Qty) | \nNumber of workers | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ANTAKYA OIZ | \n1520 | \n881 | \n66 | \n66 | \n1221 | \n
İSKENDERUN OIZ | \n2080 | \n1140 | \n75 | \n75 | \n4771 | \n
PAYAS OIZ | \n530 | \n429 | \n42 | \n42 | \n1913 | \n
İSKENDERUN II OIZ | \n780 | \n513 | \n7 | \n7 | \n– | \n
Hatay organized industrial zones.
It is important to have face-to-face regional membership relations to construct common norms and values. Social interactions, trust and shared vision form the dimensions of social capital; and, when external firms are compared to the regional ones, it is expected to be at a higher level than the regional ones. Bianchi and Bellini asserted that geographical closeness is an important supporter of innovation from the side of social solidarity through continuous communication [33]. However, it cannot be said that every firm in the industrial zone is taking the advantages equally because their level of using these sources may affect their structural features (see Tables 1 and 2).
\nH5: District affiliation will be positively associated with a firm’s innovation.
\nName | \nYear of operation | \nTotal area (m2) | \nTotal number of workplaces | \nTotal number of full capacity workplaces | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
ANTAKYA | \n1967 | \n805,000 | \n1529 | \n1529 | \n
İSKENDERUN | \n1967 | \n300,000 | \n700 | \n700 | \n
DÖRTYOL | \n1978 | \n75,237 | \n146 | \n143 | \n
KIRIKHAN | \n1994 | \n270,000 | \n200 | \n190 | \n
PAYAS | \n1986 | \n78,841 | \n151 | \n148 | \n
There are three organized industrial zones in the province of Hatay, Turkey where 194 firms are active. While the firms in the OIZ in Antakya district are mainly active in manufacturing olives, food, flour and daphne; the firms in the OIZ in the district of Iskenderun focus on filters, machinery, iron and steel [34]. The addresses and the contacts are taken from Hatay, organized industrial zone; a pilot study was conducted with 10 firms and tested whether or not there are any incomprehensible questions in the questionnaire form; and then, a part of the questionnaire was sent via e-mail, the other part of the questionnaire was used in face-to-face interview. Exactly 121 firms from organized industrial zones, and 116 firms outside the organized industrial zones, gave feedback and meetings were held. The questionnaire used in research is attached in the Appendix.
\nSocial interactions represent the communication of firms with other firms or actors for the use of sources or the access to the information. For the measurement of this variable, the study of Tsai and Ghoshal is taken into consideration and four questions were prepared in the questionnaire form [30].
\nTrust is defined as a phenomenon, which has been constructed with firm’s new or old experiences, used by the firms to exchange information or to use of sources. Firms, either construct the trust for the other firms or there will be the exact opposite. This phenomenon also affects the quality or intension of shared or changeable sources. For the measurement of this variable, the study of Tsai and Ghoshal is taken into consideration and four questions were prepared in the questionnaire form [30].
\nShared vision is related to the cognitive perception of the other firms in the market. It is constructed with the commonly used language, beliefs, manners and cultural values. Shared vision may not be perceived the same by all firms. For the measurement of this variable, the study of Tsai and Ghoshal is taken as the reference [30].
\nNot only the firms that are active in the organized industrial zones but also those outside these regions can cooperate voluntarily with local institutions. By taking McEvily and Zaheer’s study as the basis, we designed four questions in the questionnaire about this dimension [31].
\nIn this study, we analysed this dimension through four questions, inspired by the relevant studies of Geringer et al. [35]. Despite a number of other relevant studies in the literature, based on the study of Becattini, data are gathered from the managers of the firms who are members and non-members of industrial regions [36].
\nAs a result of the conducted analyses, first, data on the firms’ field of activities and cooperation choices is presented based on whether or not they operate in the industrial zone (see Figure 1). Although it is not given as a chart, in 95 of 121 firms, the number of employees is between 11 and 50; and in 26 of them, the number of employees is between 51and 250. In 116 firms, which operate outside the industrial zone, the number of employees is between 11 and 50. As can be observed in Figure 2, it is clear that firms located in the industrial zone can get higher support from the regional development agencies and better cooperation from universities. Despite this, it is found out that firms outside the industrial zone use neither university sources nor foreign sources, which indicates that for the firms, already located in the same zone, it becomes essential to have more opportunities of cooperation for innovation and establish relations with regional/foreign/other institutions.
\nStatistics of Firms With Regard to Their Field of Activity.
Statistics of Firms’ Cooperation Choices.
Reliability and validity of the scales used in the study were tested, and they were found to be within the acceptability limits indicated in the literature. Descriptive statistics and Cronbach’s alpha multiple item variables are presented in Table 3. It is seen that the acquired results are within the limits of toleration as indicated in the literature. As can be seen in Table 3, social capital values are found to be at high levels and significant in the firms operating outside the industrial zone. Significantly high values were acquired for the firms operating in the industrial zone by the dependent variables we identified (product and process innovation). When control variables are analysed (the number of employees and R&D investments), it is observed that R&D investments are different in accordance with the firms operating in or outside the industrial zone. In addition to this, it would not be wrong to state that the number of employees has no connection with innovation; it is completely related to the capacities of firms.
\nVariable | \nMean (District Members) N = 121 | \nS.D. | \na | \nMean (No District Members) N = 116 | \nS.D. | \na | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Product Innovation | \n4.54 | \n0.45 | \n0.97 | \n1.980 | \n13 | \n0.77 | \n
Process Innovation | \n4.02 | \n0.51 | \n0.74 | \n1.00 | \n0.00 | \n0.83 | \n
Social Interactions | \n4.43 | \n0.40 | \n0.74 | \n4.71 | \n0.47 | \n0.82 | \n
Trust | \n4.38 | \n0.40 | \n0.94 | \n4.72 | \n0.44 | \n0.93 | \n
Shared Vision | \n4.52 | \n0.39 | \n0.73 | \n4.87 | \n0.32 | \n0.86 | \n
Local Institutions | \n4.51 | \n0.45 | \n0.79 | \n4.45 | \n0.53 | \n0.92 | \n
Size | \n1.21 | \n0.83 | \n– | \n1.00 | \n0.00 | \n– | \n
R&D | \n3.00 | \n0.41 | \n– | \n2.00 | \n0.09 | \n– | \n
Descriptive Statistics, Means, Standard Deviation, Cronbach’s Alpha.
a = Cronbach’s alpha for all multiple-item variables.
According to the results of regression analysis conducted after descriptive statistics, it is found out that first, second, third, and fourth hypotheses, social interaction, trust, shared vision, and cooperation with local institutions positively affect the innovation capacity of firms; therefore, these hypotheses are accepted. According to the results of the same regression analysis, it is observed that corrected R2 value (D Adjusted R2) of the variable, being located in the region, changed from 0.203 to 0.261 for product innovation, and from 0.061 to 0.074 for the process innovation. There are some differences between the variables of social capital and of being or not being located in the organized industrial zone. The most important difference is observed to be the collaboration with local institutions. In our model, the results of Durbin-Watson test, which shows whether or not there is autocorrelation, are expected to be around 1.5 and 2.5; and according to the results of the analysis, these values are found within the acceptable limits as (1.514), (2.370), (2.404) and (2.047). It is clearly seen that firms located in the zone are highly in cooperation with institutions. Low tolerance and high VIF values indicate that there are multiple connections between independent variables [41]. According to this, tolerance (0.918) and VIF (1.089) are within the acceptable limits. Finally, for the fifth hypothesis, it is found out that regional membership positively and significantly affect the firm innovation. In such case, the hypothesis is accepted.
\nEspecially because the firms located outside organized industrial zones have limited capacities and attach less importance to Research and Development, they do not pay attention to the product or process innovation unlike the firms located in organized industrial zones. Therefore, they can be weak with regard to the cooperation with local/foreign institutions. However, to increase the innovation capacity and market opportunities of firms, it should be taken into consideration that risk levels of firms will be less through the collaboration with local institutions. Results acquired from the study show that social capital variables affect the firm innovation. Within this context, it can be concluded that connections of firms are significantly important. Including the firms, which are located either inside or outside the zone, into the study enables the discussion of different parameters that can be effective on the innovation.
\nThere are some limitations in our study. These limitations were experienced in the communication with owners and managers of the firms located in the organized industrial zones, and in time. Since the firms located outside the industrial zone were in different areas, time limitation created a pressure on the researchers. It is found that especially the firms located outside the industrial zone are not properly informed about the local institutions in the area where the research was held. At this point, it can be another issue to discuss that reach out of the local institutions should be increased to make more use of their roles as mediators in the access of new information sources and regional networks. Especially, it is suggested that studies should be conducted on the models, in which different cultural elements are also included in addition to the elements of social capital and of the firms operating in the organized industrial zones. When the cosmopolitan nature of Hatay province and the different cultural, ethnic and religious background of the firm owners and employees are taken into consideration, the importance of these elements in terms of trust and social capital can be another subject of research. In addition to these suggestions, limitations of the positive effects of social capital and trust can also be investigated.
\nSolid waste can be broadly classified as putrescible and non-putrescible, based on its biodegradability. Putrescible waste contains organic matter. This waste is suitable for digestion and land disposal. Non-putrescible waste is generally non-biodegradable waste which cannot be digested. Municipal solid waste contains food waste, papers, plastic, paints, heavy metals and rubber. Municipal waste needs to be classified based on biodegradability for further treatment. Local civic bodies are now putting stringent norms for classification of solid waste. In India green and blue containers are provided to households to separate this waste and source. Industrial solid waste may contain, waste adsorbent, waste catalyst sludge, solid residue of by-product, residue of reactions, etc. This solid waste may contain hazardous material also. Dewatering, centrifugal filtration, drying and incineration are usual steps used for solid waste treatment in industries. Bio-degradable solid waste, rich in organic content can be used to synthesize various useful organic compounds. Non-biodegradable waste like plastic, rubber can be reused or recycled. Reduce, reuse and recycle are nowadays trending concepts in solid waste management. Non-government organizations (NGOs) in developing countries are playing key role in developing awareness among people about proper segregation and collection of solid waste. Recycling industry is promoted by government through various schemes and initiatives. This chapter briefly explains initiatives and investigations aimed at various solid minimizations, reuse and recycle methods and methods used for synthesis of value-added products from solid wastes. Initiatives taken by governments; non-government organizations are briefed in the chapter. Also, investigations carried out by scientific community to treat and recycle solid waste are reviewed. The chapter contains efforts taken for solid waste recycle and reuse in Asian countries, though it contains some significant efforts in other developing countries also. This review is based on available literature, research papers and available reports on solid waste management.
Solid waste contains bio-degradable and non-bio-degradable material. Non-bio-degradable material cannot be digested and hence reuse or recycle of this type of waste is becoming important area of investigation. Countries like China, Taiwan and Malaysia are taking initiatives to reduce plastic waste by reuse and recycle principle. First three sections (Sections 3–5) of the chapter are devoted to plastic and non-bio-degradable waste. In remaining sections, reuse, recycle, recovery and energy generation methods for biodegradable waste are explained with the help of available literature and research papers. Domestic and municipal solid waste treatment needs to be more familiar with people. For this, efforts are being taken by government authorities by adopting regulations and stricter norms. These regulations along with awareness created by social groups and organizations can improve waste management scenario in developing countries. Another aspect of solid waste treatment discussed in this chapter is investigations carried out by researchers to optimize the waste reuse and recycle technologies. This aspect is briefed with the help of research papers published by investigators from these developing countries.
Plastic bags are used for containing and transporting goods. Also, they are used for vegetables, groceries and other domestic items as a container. Plastic, which sometimes is non-replaceable, is very important material if used sensibly. The plastic bags are very thin and flexible. The disposal of these plastic bags is creating huge problems in developing countries. If these bags are recycled, the disposal problem would not arise. But lack of awareness and willpower has played a great roll in plastic ban. Nowadays the governments have banned the use of plastic bags above certain thickness. Even many other civic bodies are banning plastic use. Studies show that increase in reuse of plastic can reduce the eco-impact of plastic to a great extent [1]. In developing countries, blockage of drainage due to plastic causes calamities such as flood. Also, it can be a reason for mosquito breeding. Lack of sophistication of the recycle and waste treatment facility develops concern about manufacture and use of plastic [2]. Many developing countries in Africa have adopted use of glass container instead of plastic. They are promoting use of cloth bags instead of plastic bags [3, 4].
Waste plastic and rubber can be used in road construction [5]. Semi-dense bitumen concrete can be prepared and used for road construction. Waste plastic material such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE-2), low-density polyethylene (LDPE-4), poly propylene (PP-5) and polystyrene (PS-6) can be used for obtaining different products [6]. Slurry formation, liquefaction, recovery and condensation are the steps in the process. Use of superplasticizer can enhance the properties of waste plastic in road construction [7]. Biomedical plastic waste finds application in road construction. Compared to normal the bituminous mix, bio-medical plastic waste coated mix had better properties [8]. Pyrolysis oil can be derived from the waste plastic and can be used to derive diesel. Studies indicate that this diesel is suitable for use in engine [9]. Use of plastic waste in the flexible pavements increases strength and durability [10, 11]. Bitumen requirement can be reduced by 8–12% by using plastic waste for pavement material [12]. Thermal cracking of waste plastic can convert them into usable oil form [13]. Also, plastic bottles can be used for the construction of house. It is observed that these houses are bioclimatic. It means that when it is cold outside is warm inside and vice versa [14].
Discarded, obsolete, end of life electrical and electronics equipment forms Electronic waste (E-waste). Heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, chromium, mercury, barium is present in E-waste [15]. The E-waste recycling needs quantitative measures for recycling and reuse of E-waste [16]. Illegally imported E-waste from developed countries is additional E-waste problem faced by India like countries [17]. There is need for increasing awareness about health effects of E-waste and importance of recycling. Inventorization and unhealthy conditions of informal recycling, inadequate legislation, poor awareness and reluctance on part of the corporate to address solid waste issues are drawbacks of waste minimization programs in India [18]. Waste materials from discarded computers, televisions, stereos, copiers, fax machines, electric lamps, cell phones, audio equipment and batteries can be hazardous to health. For example, lead can leach out from the E-waste materials, and enter into human bodies through oral route [19]. According to Kumar and Shah, the crude recycling activities cause irreversible health and environmental hazards [20]. So, there is need of refinement of the process adopted for recycle. According to Kumar and Karishma, India is fifth largest producer of E-waste in the world. In India only recycling of E-waste is 10% of recycle business [21]. About 65% of E-waste is generated in urban Area in India [21]. About 21% of this E-waste is plastic. E-waste is fastest growing waste stream in the world [22, 23]. Around seven lakh tons of E-waste were produced in India in 2016 [24]. Individual and government contributions can help to tackle this E-waste problem [25]. It is important to bridge the gap between the formal and informal divide in E-waste management in India [26]. E-waste recycling provides jobs to thousands of people in India. There needs to be coordination between formal and non-formal sectors for proper treatment and recycling of E-waste. There is need for the collection, segregation and primary dismantling of non-hazardous fractions of E-waste. Compatible and efficient technology for E-waste was a matter of concern for India and many developing countries. According to Vats and Singh, informal recyclers are treating 95% of the E-waste generated with hazardous practices [27].
Food waste can be used for synthesis of various useful chemicals. Source separated food waste can be used for synthesis of ethanol with thermophilic enzymes [28]. Food waste biomass can be used in treating wastewater. Anaerobic digestion of this waste upon acidogenesis produces volatile fatty acids [29]. Ethanol cultivated biomass can be used effectively for the effluent of the food waste digestion. Food waste can be processed in long-term operation of a laboratory anaerobic reactor in mesophilic conditions for anaerobic fermentation to produce biogas and useful products [30]. Shukla et al. have explored the possibility of biohydrogen production from food waste [31]. Degradation of food waste and energy recovery through biogas production are twin benefits of the anaerobic digestion [32]. Factors such as organic loading rate, temperature, time, pH, carbon to nitrogen ratio play vital role in the process. With increase in methanogenic bacteria, the methane percent in biogas increases significantly [33]. An investigation by Akpan indicated that producing ethanol from food waste is more economical than producing it from other waste organic sources like old newspapers [34]. For synthesis of biohydrogen from waste, methods such as the methods like electrolysis of water, steam reforming of hydrocarbons and auto-thermal processes can be used [35]. According to Kapdan and Kargi, use of photosynthetic algae is one of the important methods for hydrogen synthesis from waste [36]. Investigations are reported on synthesis of bioplastic from food waste. Ingredients from food waste such as starch, cellulose, fatty acids, sugars and proteins can be used for bioplastic synthesis [37]. Many investigations are reported on hydrolysis of food waste and subsequent ethanol formation [38, 39]. Various investigations are reported on synthesis of lactic acid, vinegar and citric acid from waste materials including food waste [40, 41, 42, 43].
Anaerobic methods reduce the sludge volume significantly and produce biogas fuel. Major disadvantage of this method is that it causes nuisance to nearby population [44, 45]. Aerobic thermophiling composting reduces odor problem [46]. pH, temperature, moisture content, organic carbon, volatile solids are vital factors during aerobic composting [47]. Also, C/N ratio and volume reduction are performance indicators of the process [48]. Obtaining optimal performance system is very vital in increasing acceptability of the waste treatment method [49]. Waste management strategy includes many steps such as disposal, treatment, reduction, recycling, segregation and modification [50].
Vermicomposting has advantages over aerobic and anaerobic digestion methods as it overcomes few drawbacks like odor, space and cost of these two methods. Vermicomposting is a method used to convert organic waste into fertilizers with the help of worms. Factors affecting the process are parameters like the growth rate (pH), number of worms, number of cocoons and worm biomass [51]. Bedding material has also influence on the process. Newspaper bedding was effective in the investigation carried out by Manaf et al. [51]. Studies have shown that vermicomposting improves the soil structure, enhancing soil fertility, moisture holding capacity and in turn increase the crop yield [52, 53]. Vermicomposting derived liquid can be used for agriculture [54]. This liquid has very high nutrient value. Studies confirm that home composting has potential to reduce the greenhouse gas emission [55]. Investigation carried out by Kulkarni and Sose indicated that pH values between 6.4 and 7.6 are favorable for vermicomposting. 30–50% moisture is required for vermicomposting [56]. Optimum temperature lies between 25 and 30°C.
Paper waste can be used for applications like biofuel synthesis and ceiling boards, bioelectricity production, and fuel gas generation. Also, it can be used in mixed concrete. Papers are normally recycled. In order to prepare good quality paper only limited number of recycles can be done. So finally, it results into huge amount of waste, this waste sludge can be used in the concrete up to 30% concentration, as investigation revealed that up to 30% addition the concrete quality increases and it decreases after that [57]. Also, waste paper sludge can be used for biofuel synthesis. The sludge can be converted into simple fermentable sugar by microbial process [58]. The waste sludge can be mixed in 1:1 proportion with calcium carbonate additive to form good quality ceiling boards [59]. Detachment of ink from the-waste papers increases their drainability [60]. According to Allahvakil et al. [60], it is possible to modify the chemical or physical bonds with enzymes such as pectinase, cellulase and hemicellulose. This helps in detachment of ink from the paper. The waste papers can also be used as raw material for bioelectricity generation. Microbial fuel cell with Clostridium species can be used for the purpose [61]. According to research carried out by Mathuria and Sharma [61], a microwave plasma reactor can be used for conversion of waste papers to fuel gas. Waste paper sludge ash can be used for stabilization of clay soil. An investigation by Khalid et al. [62] indicated that the waste sludge ash up to 10% can exhibit excellent binding properties in the clay. According to Arshad and Pawade [63], the addition of waste paper also reduces the quantity of clay required.
Electronic and mobile component contain valuable materials like gold and platinum. Ammonium thiosulfate can be used for leaching gold from mobile circuit boards [64]. According to Chehade et al. [65], the printed circuit board contains about 0.15% of gold. Aqua regia can be used as a leaching agent for recovery of gold [66]. This process can be automized to provide solution to gold recovery [67]. Fibrous ion exchange resins can improve gold and platinum recovery. Catalyst industry waste contains gold, platinum and valuable metals [68]. About 3 vol% NaClO, 5 kmol/m3 HCl and 1 vol% H2O2 can be used for leaching platinum compounds [69]. In case of hydrochloric acid (HCl), the recovery is 99%. Platinum and gold removal from the industrial waste is necessity from ecological and environmental point of view [70].
Factors such as pH, organic loading, moisture content plays significant role in biogas production. Various types of biomass like fruit waste, domestic waste and crop residues can be used for biogas production. Pineapple waste biomass 48% concentration in biogas was obtained in less than 50 days [71]. Cow dung is also very good source of biomass. Paper waste exhibits highest methane concentration in biogas, about 73% than other solid wastes such as cow dung, saw dust, rice husk and millet waste. However, hydrogen sulfide concentration is highest in this biogas [72]. A mixture of equal percentage of paper waste and biomass can be used for biogas production to increase quality of biogas. It is observed that the biogas production increases by 50% than paper waste alone. In case of orange peels, it is needed to pre-treat the peels as that content limonene, which is antimicrobial [73]. Many such investigations are reported on biogas synthesis from various type of solid waste [74, 75, 76, 77]. Disposal of the final sludge from treatment plants needs to undergo drying and further incineration or dumping of dry biomass [78].
Putrescible solid waste like food and fruit waste, food grain waste, vegetable waste can be used for production of various products by employing bioconversion with suitable bacteria or microorganism [79]. Single cell protein can be obtained from orange peels and cucumber peel by using Aspergillus niger and Saccharomyces cerevisiae [79, 80]. These investigations suggested that glucose addition to the supplemented fruit hydrolysate medium. Solid state fermentation of orange peels with Aspergillus niger yields pectinase [81]. Content of ammonium sulfate, glucose and water in the culture medium affects the process [81]. Ethanol synthesis from fruit and other biodegradable waste is very common method of utilizing waste [82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87]. Number of other products such as citric acid, acetic acid, lactic acid, lactic acid, etc. can be obtained by using suitable microorganisms and operating conditions [84, 85, 86, 87]. These conditions differ from product to product and waste type.
Hazardous waste poses serious problem to human being and environment. These hazardous wastes may contain biological waste, nuclear waste, heavy metals and flammable materials to considerable extent. Stricter laws and their implementation are required to save the environmental from the hazardous waste [88]. Proper classification and monitoring of hazardous waste can help to treat the waste efficiently [89]. Incineration and recycling are two most sustainable waste management practices [90, 91].
Bio-degradable solid waste, rich in organic content can be used to synthesize various useful organic compounds. Non-biodegradable waste like plastic, rubber can be reused or recycled. Reduce, reuse and recycle are nowadays trending concepts in solid waste management. Non-government organizations (NGOs) in developing countries are playing key role in developing awareness among people about proper segregation and collection of solid waste. Recycling industry is promoted by government through various schemes and initiatives. Local civic bodies are now putting stringent norms for classification of solid waste. In India green and blue containers are provided to households to separate this waste and source. Industrial solid waste may contain, waste adsorbent, waste catalyst sludge, solid residue of by-product, residue of reactions, etc. This solid waste may contain hazardous material also. Dewatering, centrifugal filtration, drying and incineration are usual steps used for solid waste treatment in industries. In developing countries, blockage of drainage due to plastic causes calamities such as flood. Also, it can be a reason for mosquito breeding. Lack of sophistication of the recycle and waste treatment facility develops concern about manufacture and use of plastic. Following observations were made based on study of literature on solid waste treatment.
Many developing countries in Africa have adopted use of glass container instead of plastic.
Compatible and efficient technology for E-waste was a matter of concern for India and many developing countries.
Various investigations are reported on synthesis of lactic acid, vinegar and citric acid from waste materials including food waste.
Waste management strategy includes many steps such as disposal, treatment, reduction, recycling, segregation and modification.
Various types of biomass like fruit waste, domestic waste and crop residues can be used for biogas production.
Studies have shown that vermicomposting improves the soil structure, enhancing soil fertility, moisture holding capacity and in turn increase the crop yield.
Paper waste can be used for applications like biofuel synthesis and ceiling boards, bioelectricity production, and fuel gas generation. Also, it can be used in mixed concrete.
Hazardous waste poses serious problem to human being and environment. These hazardous wastes may contain biological waste, nuclear waste, heavy metals and flammable materials to considerable extent. Stricter laws and their implementation are required to save the environmental from the hazardous waste.
Platinum and gold removal from the industrial waste is necessity from ecological and environmental point of view.
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\n\nA Conflict of Interest is a situation in which a person's professional judgment may be influenced by a range of factors, including financial gain, material interest, or some other personal or professional interest. For IntechOpen as a publisher, it is essential that all possible Conflicts of Interest are avoided. Each contributor, whether an Author, Editor, or Reviewer, who suspects they may have a Conflict of Interest, is obliged to declare that concern in order to make the publisher and the readership aware of any potential influence on the work being undertaken.
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\n\nAll Authors, Academic Editors, and Reviewers are required to declare all possible financial and material Conflicts of Interest in the last five years, although it is advisable to declare less recent Conflicts of Interest as well.
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\n\nAuthors should declare if they are board members of an organization that could benefit financially or materially from the publication of their work.
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\n\nAcademic Editors should declare if the Author of a submitted manuscript is affiliated with the same department, faculty, institute, or company as they are.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"105746",title:"Dr.",name:"A.W.M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Koopman-van Gemert",slug:"a.w.m.m.-koopman-van-gemert",fullName:"A.W.M.M. Koopman-van Gemert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105746/images/5803_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Anna Wilhelmina Margaretha Maria Koopman-van Gemert MD, PhD, became anaesthesiologist-intensivist from the Radboud University Nijmegen (the Netherlands) in 1987. She worked for a couple of years also as a blood bank director in Nijmegen and introduced in the Netherlands the Cell Saver and blood transfusion alternatives. She performed research in perioperative autotransfusion and obtained the degree of PhD in 1993 publishing Peri-operative autotransfusion by means of a blood cell separator.\nBlood transfusion had her special interest being the president of the Haemovigilance Chamber TRIP and performing several tasks in local and national blood bank and anticoagulant-blood transfusion guidelines committees. Currently, she is working as an associate professor and up till recently was the dean at the Albert Schweitzer Hospital Dordrecht. She performed (inter)national tasks as vice-president of the Concilium Anaesthesia and related committees. \nShe performed research in several fields, with over 100 publications in (inter)national journals and numerous papers on scientific conferences. \nShe received several awards and is a member of Honour of the Dutch Society of Anaesthesia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Albert Schweitzer Hospital",country:{name:"Gabon"}}},{id:"83089",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Ojule",slug:"aaron-ojule",fullName:"Aaron Ojule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Port Harcourt",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"295748",title:"Mr.",name:"Abayomi",middleName:null,surname:"Modupe",slug:"abayomi-modupe",fullName:"Abayomi Modupe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Landmark University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"94191",title:"Prof.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"abbas-moustafa",fullName:"Abbas Moustafa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94191/images/96_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Moustafa got his doctoral degree in earthquake engineering and structural safety from Indian Institute of Science in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University, Egypt and the chairman of Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Engineering and Technology, Giza, Egypt. He is also a consultant engineer and head of structural group at Hamza Associates, Giza, Egypt. Dr. Moustafa was a senior research associate at Vanderbilt University and a JSPS fellow at Kyoto and Nagasaki Universities. He has more than 40 research papers published in international journals and conferences. He acts as an editorial board member and a reviewer for several regional and international journals. His research interest includes earthquake engineering, seismic design, nonlinear dynamics, random vibration, structural reliability, structural health monitoring and uncertainty modeling.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Minia University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"84562",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbyssinia",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"abbyssinia-mushunje",fullName:"Abbyssinia Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Fort Hare",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"202206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abd Elmoniem",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Elzain",slug:"abd-elmoniem-elzain",fullName:"Abd Elmoniem Elzain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kassala University",country:{name:"Sudan"}}},{id:"98127",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Handoura",slug:"abdallah-handoura",fullName:"Abdallah Handoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Supérieure des Télécommunications",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"91404",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdecharif",middleName:null,surname:"Boumaza",slug:"abdecharif-boumaza",fullName:"Abdecharif Boumaza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Abbès Laghrour University of Khenchela",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"105795",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Ghani",middleName:null,surname:"Aissaoui",slug:"abdel-ghani-aissaoui",fullName:"Abdel Ghani Aissaoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105795/images/system/105795.jpeg",biography:"Abdel Ghani AISSAOUI is a Full Professor of electrical engineering at University of Bechar (ALGERIA). He was born in 1969 in Naama, Algeria. He received his BS degree in 1993, the MS degree in 1997, the PhD degree in 2007 from the Electrical Engineering Institute of Djilali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes (ALGERIA). He is an active member of IRECOM (Interaction Réseaux Electriques - COnvertisseurs Machines) Laboratory and IEEE senior member. He is an editor member for many international journals (IJET, RSE, MER, IJECE, etc.), he serves as a reviewer in international journals (IJAC, ECPS, COMPEL, etc.). He serves as member in technical committee (TPC) and reviewer in international conferences (CHUSER 2011, SHUSER 2012, PECON 2012, SAI 2013, SCSE2013, SDM2014, SEB2014, PEMC2014, PEAM2014, SEB (2014, 2015), ICRERA (2015, 2016, 2017, 2018,-2019), etc.). His current research interest includes power electronics, control of electrical machines, artificial intelligence and Renewable energies.",institutionString:"University of Béchar",institution:{name:"University of Béchar",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"99749",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Hafid",middleName:null,surname:"Essadki",slug:"abdel-hafid-essadki",fullName:"Abdel Hafid Essadki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Nationale Supérieure de Technologie",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"101208",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Karim",middleName:"Mohamad",surname:"El Hemaly",slug:"abdel-karim-el-hemaly",fullName:"Abdel Karim El Hemaly",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101208/images/733_n.jpg",biography:"OBGYN.net Editorial Advisor Urogynecology.\nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly, MRCOG, FRCS � Egypt.\n \nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. 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