Annual deforestation rate and selective logging extent in humid tropical forests.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Treatment",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The use of water, one of the most valuable and vital resources in the world, should respond to growing needs, and used water should not have negative effects on the environment. Research on the reduction of used water and wastewater quantities, post-use treatment, or reuse/recovery methods is increasing day by day. These studies focus on finding the most appropriate method from both technical and economic perspectives. In this book, emerging technologies and materials used in the treatment, reuse, or recovery of various kinds of water and wastewaters are examined. The book consists of valuable scientific research specifically including desalination and use of renewable energy, nanomaterials, biosorbents, photocatalytic treatment, as well as riverbank filtration and wetlands. The editor would like to record his sincere thanks to the authors for their contributions.",isbn:"978-1-78923-930-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-929-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-688-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80313",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"water-and-wastewater-treatment",numberOfPages:160,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ccb46d6518786712b3184b2498fb0cab",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz",publishedDate:"July 24th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8804.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:4305,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:15,numberOfTotalCitations:17,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 5th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 26th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 25th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 13th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 14th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/170083/images/system/170083.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Eyvaz is an Associate Professor of the Environmental Engineering Department (ENVE) at Gebze Technical University (GTU). He received his bachelor’s degree in environmental engineering from Kocaeli University in Turkey in 2004. He completed his graduate work (M.Sc., 2006 and Ph.D., 2013) at Gebze Institute of Technology (former name of GTU) in Environmental Engineering under the supervision of Dr. Mehmet KOBYA, Prof. in ENVE-GTU (for M.Sc.), and of Dr. Ebubekir YÜKSEL, Prof. in ENVE-GTU and Dr. Ömer AKGİRAY, Professor and Chair of ENVE at Marmara University, (for Ph. D.). He completed his post-doctoral research in the National Research Center on Membrane Technologies (in Istanbul Technical University) under the mentorship of Dr. İsmail KOYUNCU, Professor and Manager of the center, between March 2014-March 2015.\n\nDr. Eyvaz has been in the Environmental Engineering Department of GTU as a Faculty Member (2017-present). His research interests are applications in water and wastewater treatment facilities, electrochemical treatment process, and filtration systems at the lab. and pilot scale, membrane processes (forward osmosis, reverse osmosis, membrane bioreactors), membrane manufacturing methods (polymeric membranes, nanofiber membranes, electrospinning), spectrophotometric analyses (UV, atomic absorption spectrophotometry), chromatographic analyses (gas chromatography, high-pressure liquid chromatography). He has published his findings in the premier journals of his field, Journal of Hazardous Materials, Separation and Purification Technology, Journal of Membrane Science, and Chemical Engineering Journal. He has produced more than 20 peer-reviewed publications (cited over 1000 times) with an h index of 12. He serves as an editor for over 45 various journals and a reviewer in 140 different various journals and conferences indexed in SCI, SCI-E, and other indexes.\n\nDr. Eyvaz and his co-authors’ peer-reviewed publications have continuously and increasingly been cited. By January 2021, the totals of citations to Dr. Eyvaz’s journal publications are 555, 599, and 1055 for Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholars databases, respectively, and his h-indexes are 10, 10, and 12, respectively.",institutionString:"Gebze Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Gebze Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1354",title:"Wastewater Engineering",slug:"technology-environmental-engineering-wastewater-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"66885",title:"Treatment of Water and Wastewater for Reuse and Energy Generation-Emerging Technologies",slug:"treatment-of-water-and-wastewater-for-reuse-and-energy-generation-emerging-technologies",totalDownloads:1291,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"199957",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudesh",surname:"Rathilal",slug:"sudesh-rathilal",fullName:"Sudesh Rathilal"},{id:"262983",title:"Dr.",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"Kweinor Tetteh",slug:"emmanuel-kweinor-tetteh",fullName:"Emmanuel Kweinor Tetteh"},{id:"281613",title:"Dr.",name:"Maggie",surname:"Chetty",slug:"maggie-chetty",fullName:"Maggie Chetty"},{id:"281614",title:"Mr.",name:"Edward Kwaku",surname:"Armah",slug:"edward-kwaku-armah",fullName:"Edward Kwaku Armah"},{id:"281615",title:"Dr.",name:"Dennis",surname:"Asante-Sackey",slug:"dennis-asante-sackey",fullName:"Dennis Asante-Sackey"}]},{id:"66331",title:"Desalination with Renewable Energy: A 24 Hours Operation Solution",slug:"desalination-with-renewable-energy-a-24-hours-operation-solution",totalDownloads:632,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"174208",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Wakil",surname:"Shahzad",slug:"muhammad-wakil-shahzad",fullName:"Muhammad Wakil Shahzad"}]},{id:"65548",title:"Nonconventional Wastewater Treatment for the Degradation of Fuel Oxygenated (MTBE, ETBE, and TAME)",slug:"nonconventional-wastewater-treatment-for-the-degradation-of-fuel-oxygenated-mtbe-etbe-and-tame-",totalDownloads:355,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"228497",title:"Dr.",name:"Hermicenda",surname:"Perez Vidal",slug:"hermicenda-perez-vidal",fullName:"Hermicenda Perez Vidal"},{id:"229146",title:"Dr.",name:"Zenaida",surname:"Guerra Que",slug:"zenaida-guerra-que",fullName:"Zenaida Guerra Que"},{id:"240565",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Gilberto",surname:"Torres Torres",slug:"jose-gilberto-torres-torres",fullName:"Jose Gilberto Torres Torres"},{id:"240661",title:"Dr.",name:"María A.",surname:"Lunagómez Rocha",slug:"maria-a.-lunagomez-rocha",fullName:"María A. 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This requires extensive analysis of developing trends in scientific research in order to offer our readers relevant content. Creating the book catalogue is also based on keeping track of the most read, downloaded and highly cited chapters and books and relaunching similar topics. I am also responsible for consulting with our Scientific Advisors on which book topics to add to our catalogue and sending possible book proposal topics to them for evaluation. Once the catalogue is complete, I contact leading researchers in their respective fields and ask them to become possible Academic Editors for each book project. Once an editor is appointed, I prepare all necessary information required for them to begin their work, as well as guide them through the editorship process. I also assist editors in inviting suitable authors to contribute to a specific book project and each year, I identify and invite exceptional editors to join IntechOpen as Scientific Advisors. 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Tropical Forests",doi:"10.5772/30166",slug:"human-altered-mesoherbivore-densities-and-cascading-effects-on-plant-and-animal-communities-of-fragm",body:'\n\t\t
Rainforest loss and fragmentation are proceeding at an alarming rate, and having demonstrable consequences for the relevant plant and animal communities. Between 1984 and 1990 6.5 million hectares of humid tropical rainforest were lost annually worldwide (Hansen & DeFries, 2004). This rate increased to 7.3 million hectares annually between 1990-1997, due largely to accelerating deforestation rates in Asia. Though the pantropical deforestation rate slowed to 5.5 million hectares annually between 2000-2005 due to slowing in much of Asia and Latin America, deforestation continues to increase in Brazil (Hansen et al., 2008). As of 2005, half to two-thirds of humid tropical regions have <50% tree cover, with an additional 20% undergoing selective logging between 2000 and 2005 (Asner et al., 2009; Table 1).
\n\t\t\tMuch of the remaining original forest persists as small, isolated fragments. The highest rates of forest fragmentation are found in North and South America, respectively (Riitters et al., 2000). In the Amazon, the amount of forest in fragments or within 1km of forest edge exceeded the extant forest area by 150% (Skole & Tucker, 1993), and between 1999 and 2002 over 30,000 km of new forest edge was created there annually (Broadbent et al., 2008). Asia and Africa currently have the lowest levels of tropical rainforest fragmentation, although with the rapidly accelerating Southeast Asian deforestation rates this is likely to change (Sodhi et al., 2010a).
\n\t\t\tSuch loss and fragmentation of tropical forest, coupled with other global change phenomena, have profound and diverse effects on the remaining forest fragments. The very complexity of these synergistic effects is only beginning to be documented and comprehended. Recent studies show that tropical forest fragmentation disproportionately affects the largest vertebrates (Henle et al., 2004; Stork et al., 2009; Wilkie et al., 2011). Large predators experience the strongest fragmentation effects, with cascading consequences for the small- and intermediate-sized herbivores regulated by vertebrate predators (Duffy, 2003; Purvis et al., 2000; Redford, 1992). Altered populations of these herbivores, which we term “mesoherbivores” (after Soulé et al.’s (1988) term “mesopredator” referring to small- and intermediate-sized predators), in turn cascade down to affect plant growth and recruitment via altered seed predation and dispersal (Duffy, 2003; Redford, 1992).
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | Annual deforestation rate (x106 hectares) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSelective logging3 (%) | \n\t\t\t\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | 1984-19901\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1990-19971\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2000-20052\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2000s | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Latin America | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.31 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.28 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3.31 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17.2% | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Tropical Asia | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.81 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.57 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.88 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t19.2% | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Tropical Africa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.43 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t27.2% | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Pantropical | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6.50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7.30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t20.3% | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 Data from Hansen & DeFries, 20042 Data from Hansen et al., 20083 Percent of regional forest area experiencing selective logging. Data from Asner et al., 2009 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Annual deforestation rate and selective logging extent in humid tropical forests.
Herein, we review both the direct and indirect effects of fragmentation on tropical forest communities. We review the literature on vertebrate herbivores both because few reviews are available for tropical forests and the pervasiveness and diversity of their ecological effects remain largely undocumented. We begin by reviewing the substantial tropical literature on human overhunting of mesoherbivores and the consequences this has for tropical forest plant communities, in an effort to understand the magnitude of the effects of human-perturbed mesoherbivore populations on tropical forest plant communities.
\n\t\t\tUltimately, however, we are particularly interested in the poorly-studied phenomenon wherein loss of vertebrate predators without compensatory human hunting may result in dramatic increases in mesoherbivore populations, which we call “mesoherbivore release.” This phenomenon has been observed in multiple temperate systems, as well as tropical savanna and grassland systems (see review in Salo et al., 2010), yet it is poorly studied in tropical forests. This section of the review will synthesize for the first time the sparse and scattered literature involving putative tropical examples of mesoherbivore release, making the case that the cascading consequences of increased mesoherbivore abundance can be as widespread and ecologically destructive as those resulting from mesoherbivore decline. Finally, we address the most pressing conservation and management implications of the research on perturbed mesoherbivore populations, both decline and release. We also identify topics in need of further investigation, in terms of both ecology and conservation.
\n\t\tPredictably, rainforest loss and fragmentation are dramatically altering tropical forests, both directly and indirectly. Loss of forest area and, to a lesser degree fragmentation, directly drive population decline and extinction of myriad plant, invertebrate, and vertebrate species pan-tropically (Beier et al., 2002; Fahrig, 1997, 2002, 2003; Laurance, 1999; Laurance et al., 2011; Michalski & Peres, 2007; Newmark, 1991; Sodhi et al., 2008, 2010b; Yaacobi et al., 2007). Pervasive edge effects further alter the microclimate and vegetation structure of remnant fragments, affecting still more species (Fletcher et al., 2007; Laurance, 2000; Laurance et al., 2002, 2011; Lindell et al., 2007; Manu et al., 2007; Norris et al., 2008; Pardini, 2004; Tabarelli et al., 2008). Synergistic interactions between fragmentation and other global change drivers, notably climate change with its concomitant increased drought and fire frequency, and exploitation of wildlife, further exacerbate loss and degradation of remnant tropical rainforest and their plant and animal communities (Brooks et al., 2008; Ewers & Didham, 2006; Laurance & Useche, 2009; Laurance & Williamson, 2001; Tabarelli et al., 2008). Roads and other infrastructure also contribute to accelerating declines of mammals, birds, and other organisms in both fragments and intact forests (Benítez-López et al., 2010), e.g., by increasing hunting pressure (Peres, 2001).
\n\t\t\tEven if a species persists temporarily in fragmented forest, it is likely to experience reduced genetic diversity, inbreeding depression, reduced adaptive potential, and accumulation of deleterious mutations (Keyghobadi, 2007). Inbreeding depression and reduced genetic diversity combine with dispersal limitation, competitive disadvantages, fragment area and isolation effects, and other species- and fragment-level traits to create an “extinction debt,” wherein extinctions proceed for decades post-fragmentation (Brooks et al., 1999; Ewers & Didham, 2006; Ferraz et al., 2003; Laurance et al., 2008; Metzger et al., 2009; Tilman et al., 1994), if not at the rate once thought (He & Hubbell, 2011). These high short- and long-term extinction rates, combined with the rapid and accelerating loss and fragmentation of remnant tropical forest, have led many scientists to warn of a tropical biodiversity crisis resulting in a potential mass wave of extinctions rivaling historical extinction events, resulting in an era of novel secondary tropical forests (Bradshaw et al., 2009; Brooks et al., 2008; Dirzo & Raven, 2003; Gardner et al., 2007; Laurance, 1999, 2006; Lugo, 2009; but see Wright & Muller-Landau, 2006a,b).
\n\t\t\tSpecies declines following rainforest loss and fragmentation are highly non-random. Fragmentation-sensitive species typically share a common suite of traits, including small population size/rarity, large body size, and specializations (see Table 2). Many of these traits (e.g., “slow” life-histories, dietary and habitat specialization) are unique to, or relatively prevalent in tropical species, thus rendering many paradigms (e.g., edge effects) and conservation strategies developed for temperate and boreal forests largely irrelevant when developing conservation plans for tropical forests (Stratford & Robinson, 2005).
\n\t\t\tCommon traits of fragmentation-sensitive species | \n\t\t\t\t\t|
Small population size / rarity | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tHigh sociality | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Large body size | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tDisturbance- and competition- sensitivity | \n\t\t\t\t\t
High trophic position | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecialized diet (e.g., insectivorous and large frugivorous birds) | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Fluctuating population dynamics | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecialized habitat use (especially forest interior) | \n\t\t\t\t\t
“Slow” life-histories (low fecundity, high annual survival) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tLocation near edge of altitudinal or biogeographical range | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Low dispersal capability | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tInvolved in mutualistic interaction | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Common traits of fragmentation-sensitive species (from Henle et al., 2004; Kattan et al., 1994; Laurance, 1991; Laurance et al., 2011; Lees & Peres, 2008; Sigel et al., 2006, 2010; Stork et al., 2009)
Tropical forests also tend to harbor diverse, pervasive mutualistic interactions, notably plant-animal interactions (Terborgh & Feeley, 2010). Between 70 and 90% of tropical trees rely on animals for seed dispersal (Muller-Landau & Hardesty, 2005), and >95% of lowland tropical trees are animal-pollinated (Bawa et al., 1985). Thus, habitat loss and fragmentation also alter many important plant-animal interactions, including pollination, seed dispersal, seed predation, and herbivory (Herrera et al., 2011; Laurance, 2005). Some of these altered interactions result from direct effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on plants and animals involved in mutualisms, e.g., extirpations of forest-interior butterflies following loss of their host plants (Brown & Hutchings, 1997; Koh et al., 2004). However, in many cases plant-animal interactions change in response to indirect effects of other animals declining higher in the food chain, in what is known as trophic cascades.
\n\t\tFragmentation effects are particularly strong on large predators, due to their high trophic position, “slow” life-histories that preclude rapid population response to disturbances, large home ranges, and other traits characteristic of fragmentation-sensitive species. Apex predators such as jaguars, pumas, tigers, leopards, large raptors, and large snakes are amongst the first species to disappear from tropical rainforest fragments (Duffy, 2003; Pimm et al., 1988; Purvis et al., 2000; Ray et al., 2005; Redford, 1992; Terborgh, 1992). Moreover, the cascading consequences resulting from apex predator loss can dramatically affect ecosystem structure and function in ways we are just beginning to understand, and thus far exceed the effects of loss of species from lower trophic levels (Dobson et al., 2006; Duffy, 2003; Estes et al., 2011; Schmitz et al., 2010; Terborgh et al., 1999).
\n\t\t\tTrophic cascades, wherein perturbations of apex predator populations cascade down to affect lower consumer (e.g., herbivore) and producer (i.e., plant) levels (Paine, 1980), were once thought not to occur in tropical forests as a result of their high species diversity and high intraguild predation, leading to functional redundancy and weak links between individual predator and prey species (Polis & Holt, 1992; Polis & Strong, 1996; Shurin et al., 2002; Strong, 1992; Van Bael et al., 2003; Vance-Chalcraft et al., 2007). Terborgh (1992) first presented evidence suggesting a carnivore (jaguar, Panthera onca; puma, Puma concolor) – large seed predator (peccary, Pecari spp.; paca, Cuniculus spp.; agouti, Dasyprocta spp.) – large-seeded tree (Dipteryx, Protium) trophic cascade at Barro Colorado Island, Panama. Three years later, Dial and Roughgarden (1995) published one of the first experimental studies of trophic cascades in tropical rainforest, showing that insectivorous Anolis lizards limit herbivorous insects and in turn, herbivory on canopy trees. Shortly thereafter, Letourneau and Dyer (1998) were the first to experimentally show a four-level (beetle – ant – herbivore – plant) trophic cascade in tropical rainforest understory. Within the next few years, a flurry of exclosure experiments demonstrated that insectivorous birds and bats limit arthropod herbivores and herbivory in rain forest canopy and understory (review by Van Bael et al., 2008; Kalka et al., 2008; Michel et al., in review; Williams-Guillén et al., 2008).
\n\t\t\tAdditionally, a number of experimental and observational studies have shown effects of mesopredator release (reviews by Brashares et al., 2010; Prugh et al., 2009). Mesopredator release is a phenomenon wherein small to mid-sized predators increase in abundance following declines of their own predators, resulting in declines in their prey, which are typically small herbivores and insectivores, especially birds and small rodents (Fig. 1; Soulé et al. 1988, Crooks and Soulé 1999). Though first documented in fragmented temperate habitats, Laurance (1994) noted increases in rodents - including one species, Uromys, known
\n\t\t\tDiagrammatic representation of the potential cascading consequences of apex predator loss via mesopredator and mesoherbivore release.
to depredate bird nests and consume small vertebrates - in Australian rainforest fragments missing large predators. Increases in other small, generalist predators (e.g., barn owls, red-bellied blacksnakes, and white-tailed rats) were also observed in fragments without large, specialist predators (Laurance, 1997). Elsewhere in Australia, declines and extirpations of dingoes, an apex predator, resulted in continent-wide collapse of native marsupials due to release of invasive house cats and red foxes from predation (Johnson et al., 2007). On Barro Colorado Island, Panama, high avian nest predation has been attributed in part to increased small mammalian nest predators such as white-nosed coatimundi (Nasua narica), white-faced capuchin monkeys (Cebus capucinus), and opossums following isolation from the mainland, and subsequent loss of large carnivores, when the Panama Canal was built (Loiselle & Hoppes, 1983; Sieving, 1992; Wright et al., 1994). On the Lago Guri islands in Venezuela, former hilltops isolated from nearby mainland by a hydro-electric reservoir, anomalously low bird densities were associated with abundant olive capuchin monkeys (Cebus olivaceus), which depredated all artificial nests (Terborgh et al., 1997). Olive baboons (Papio anubis) also dramatically increased in Ghana following steep declines in lions (Pantera leo) and leopards (Pantera pardus), negatively impacting smaller ungulates, primates, rodents, and birds, as well as human livestock, pets, and crops (Brashares et al., 2010).
\n\t\t\tIn summary, strong trophic cascades, resulting in increases in arthropod herbivores and mesopredators, have been repeatedly demonstrated to occur in tropical rainforest despite the functional redundancy and potentially weak links between predators and prey (Terborgh & Feeley, 2010). However, very few experimental studies have focused on the potential cascading consequences of loss of large terrestrial predators on vertebrate herbivores (i.e., of mesoherbivore release), and subsequent plant community effects, despite the fact that large predators have been shown to effectively limit vertebrate herbivores in a variety of habitats worldwide (Estes et al., 2011; Salo et al., 2010). This is likely due, in large part, to logistical, methodological, and financial constraints, including the large scale of impacts and the long generation times of vertebrate herbivores and the trees they frequently impact; responses may not be apparent for years or even decades following perturbations to predator and herbivore populations (Terborgh & Estes, 2010). Furthermore, in many cases, apex predator populations were decimated decades or centuries prior to the development of the theory of trophic cascades (Estes et al., 2011). Moreover, across much of the tropics, the lost ecological services attributable to prey regulation (Dobson et al., 2006, Schmitz et al., 2010) once provided by predators such as jaguars, leopards, and tigers have been compensated - and often overcompensated - for by a new apex predator: human hunters.
\n\t\tBy far the majority of studies documenting cascading effects of altered vertebrate herbivore densities on rainforest plant communities have focused on consequences of extirpated or greatly reduced herbivore populations. Herbivores, especially larger herbivores, often experience declines due to simple area effects of habitat loss and fragmentation (MacArthur & Wilson, 1967; e.g., Dalecky et al., 2002; Laurance et al., 2011), as well as edge effects (Norris et al., 2008; Restrepo et al., 1999), altered vegetation structure, local climate (e.g., droughts), and/or microclimate within fragments (Chiarello, 1999; Fleury & Galetti, 2006; Laurance, 1994; Laurance et al., 2008; Laurance & Williamson, 2001). But tropical forests are rarely impacted by habitat loss and fragmentation alone. Many anthropogenic factors, including logging, fires, introduction of invasive species or disease, and hunting, interact synergistically to exacerbate fragmentation effects on tropical forest residents (Brooks et al., 2008; Laurance, 2005, 2008; Laurance & Useche, 2009; Wright 2005, 2010).
\n\t\t\tSynergistic effects of fragmentation and hunting are particularly strong, as fragmentation - also commonly associated with increased road-building - both a) allows hunters easier access to prey species and to markets, and b) subdivides remnant forest into patches below the minimum area requirement to support sustainable hunting (Peres, 2001). As a result, hunting is having dramatic effects on vertebrates, including herbivores and the plants dependent upon them for pollination and dispersal, resulting in what has come to be known as the “bush meat crisis” (Milner-Gulland et al., 2003; Wright et al., 2007a). Humans have been implicated in extinctions of large vertebrates as far back as 46,000 years ago, when extinctions of Australia’s megafauna coincided with human arrival (Roberts et al., 2001). Similarly, humans are partially, if not predominantly, responsible for the North American megafauna extinction, including loss of herbivorous mammoths and mastodons, over 12,000 years ago (Alroy, 2001; Johnson, 2002). The impact of human hunters on large herbivores have only increased as the human population grew exponentially over the last 2,000-3,000 years, and also as it developed modern hunting techniques and weapons, including firearms and traps (Corlett, 2007). Their relative abundance (compared to cats and other apex predators) often makes vertebrate herbivores a prime target for human hunting.
\n\t\t\tToday human hunting is decimating herbivore populations pan-tropically in intact as well as fragmented forest. In the Congo, 60% of mammals are unsustainably harvested, including 93% of herbivorous ungulates, suggesting catastrophic losses of herbivores and their dependent plants in the near future (Fa et al., 2002). While Fa et al. (2002) estimated that only 20% of Amazonian mammals are unsustainably hunted, Peres and Palacios (2007), using slightly different methods, found that 22 of 30 large mammals, birds, and reptiles significantly declined under high hunting pressure, at rates of up to 74.8%. Large-bodied vertebrates and seed dispersers experienced greater declines than seed predators and browsers. As a result, hunted Amazonian forests will likely experience altered plant communities as large-seeded trees and lianas are no longer able to escape and recruit away from the parent tree (Peres & Palacios, 2007). Indeed, tree species richness is already 55% lower, and density of large-seeded, primate-dispersed trees is 60% lower, in hunted sites near Manu National Park, Peru, where large primates were exterminated and midsize primate populations reduced 80% by hunters (Nuñez-Iturri & Howe, 2007). Another study from the same hunted site found 50-60% lower sapling densities, and declines amongst 72% of tree species, particularly among large-seeded species (Terborgh et al., 2008). Within the Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project (BDFFP) reserves, the large-seeded, mammal-dispersed Duckeodendron cestroides experienced a 300% reduction in seed dispersal, 500% reduction in maximum dispersal distance, and 5000% reduction in the number of seeds dispersed 10m beyond the crown in hunted fragments relative to continuous forest (Cramer et al., 2007). Overall, up to one third of Amazonian plants may suffer failed dispersal due to losses of vertebrate seed dispersers (da Silva & Tabarelli, 2000).
\n\t\t\tSimilarly, in the Atlantic coastal forest of Brazil, large-seeded Astrocaryum aculeatissimum palms in fragments with low agouti density faced a collapse in seed dispersal, as agoutis disperse more seeds than they predate, and smaller rodents are unable to compensate for the agouti’s absence (Donatti et al., 2009). In southern Mexico, fragments <30ha lack most to all large frugivores, and as a result dispersal and recruitment of large-seeded species declined ~50% (Melo et al., 2010). Large frugivorous seed dispersers have also declined in Australian rainforest fragments, affecting 12% of all plant species, particularly large-seeded species (Moran et al., 2009). In Asia, commercial hunting threatens mass extinctions of mammals greater than 1-2 kg, particularly the major seed dispersers – elephants, tapirs, deer, primates, and large birds and bats, all of which face greater hunting pressure than seed predators. As a result, future Asian forests are likely to be dominated by small-fruited and –seeded, fast-growing trees at the expense of large-seeded species (Corlett, 2007).
\n\t\t\tWhile all the studies cited above found declines in large-seeded tree species in hunted fragments due to loss of seed dispersers, a number of studies have found the opposite: large-seeded species increase in abundance and diversity due to the loss of hunted vertebrate seed predators. In Panama, hunters favor large-seeded tree species by removing seed predators (e.g., Central American agoutis, Dasyprocta punctata, and collared peccaries, Pecari tajacu), and thereby increasing seedling survival (Wright et al., 2007b), resulting in 300-500% higher seedling density of two large-seeded palms at heavily hunted sites (Wright et al., 2000). Lianas also benefit from hunting, as most liana seeds are wind-dispersed, then escape competition from small-seeded species that have lost their seed dispersers (Wright et al., 2007b). This effect is particularly pronounced in Los Tuxtlas, Mexico, where thick monospecific carpets of large-seeded seedlings result from heavy rodent predation of small-seeds (Dirzo et al., 2007). In northeastern Costa Rica, large-seeded Dipteryx panamensis escaped predation in fragments due to heavy hunting of squirrels (Sciurus spp.), agoutis, and peccaries, resulting in higher seedling densities (Hanson & Brunsfeld, 2006). However, even where seed and seedling survival is increased due to the loss of seed predators, the concurrent loss of seed dispersers often results in monospecific seed and seedling carpets clustered underneath conspecific parent trees, eventually resulting in lower tree species diversity (Figure 2; Wright et al., 2000; Wright & Duber, 2001).
\n\t\t\tCollared peccary (Pecari tajacu; top left), Central American Agouti (Dasyprocta punctata; bottom left), and a carpet of undispersed Attalea butyraceae fruits at a heavily hunted site in Parque Nacional Camino de Cruces, Panama (all photos by Nicole L. Michel).
Relative seed dispersal and predation rates between hunted fragments and protected forest tend to be highly plant species-specific (Guariguata et al., 2000, 2002; Wright et al., 2000). Regardless of which species are impacted or favored by increased hunting pressure on seed dispersers and predators, it is clear that the loss of large herbivores and frugivores is having dramatic effects on density and diversity of the remnant plant communities (Wright, 2010; Wright et al., 2007a). There is some hope, however, that negative density dependence may allow once declining plant species to rebound as the forest is protected, and once seed disperser and predator populations to return to their historical levels (Muller-Landau, 2007).
\n\t\tThe previous section focused on the consequences of excessive human predation on midsize and large herbivores and frugivores, the so-called mesoherbivores. However, large non-human predators also effectively limit vertebrate herbivores in diverse natural systems (Fig. 1; Estes et al. 2011; Salo et al., 2010). What happens when large non-human predators are removed in the absence of human hunting? Terborgh (1992) first suggested that the loss of large carnivores (jaguars, pumas) from Barro Colorado Island, Panama could explain the seemingly higher densities of mesoherbivores such as peccaries, pacas, and agoutis relative to Cocha Cashu, Peru. Yet, very few studies have since followed up with experimental or observational studies documenting increased mesoherbivore abundance in tropical forests following losses of large predators. The few studies that do exist, however, suggest that mesoherbivore release may have consequences just as catastrophic as their decline.
\n\t\t\tThe best-known and most clear-cut cases of mesoherbivore release occur at temperate latitudes. In North America, white-tailed (Odocoileus virginianus) and mule deer (O. hemionus) populations have exploded following the disappearance of wolves and mountain lions, with catastrophic effects on plant cover and diversity, nutrient and carbon cycling, and forest successional rates, with rebounding effects on insects, birds, and other mammals (see reviews by Côté et al., 2004; McShea et al., 1997). In Yellowstone National Park, in the western United States, elk (Cervus canadensis) populations increased and altered their foraging behavior when wolves (Canis lupus) were extirpated, causing collapses in aspen and cottonwood (Populus spp.) recruitment that did not recover until wolves were reintroduced (Beschta, 2005; Halofsky & Ripple, 2008a,b; Ripple & Larsen, 2000). Less well-known in the literature is the eradication of dholes (wild dogs; Cuon alpinus) in Bhutan that allowed wild pig (Sus scrofa) densities to increase thirty-fold, resulting in extensive crop losses and even direct attacks on humans and livestock (Wang et al., 2006; Wangchuk, 2004).
\n\t\t\tIn tropical forests, mesoherbivore release was first suggested at Barro Colorado Island (BCI), Panama. Terborgh (1992) compared mesoherbivore densities at BCI, with ocelots persisting but not jaguars and pumas, versus Cocha Cashu (CC), Peru, with all large cats. He reported mesoherbivore densities 8 to 20 times greater on BCI than CC, and predicted that this could have a detrimental impact on large-seeded tree species via increased seed predation. However, this result is controversial, as Wright et al. (1994) pointed out multiple problems with both the data and its proposed implications. Mesoherbivore densities at BCI may have been overestimated due to human habituation, and densities at CC may be anomalously low due to seasonal flooding; indeed other Neotropical sites with large predators have mesoherbivore densities similar to BCI. Further, predation on and recruitment of the large-seeded Dipteryx panamensis, commonly predated by agoutis, was similar at BCI and CC despite an order of magnitude difference in agouti abundance between the sites (Terborgh & Wright, 1994). Seed survival of three large-seeded species was also similar at BCI and the nearby mainland after poaching was greatly reduced, and seedling herbivory was lower on BCI (Asquith et al., 1997). Additionally, calculations of total herbivore consumption rates by predators indicates that Manu’s jaguars, pumas, and ocelets do not eat sufficient herbivore biomass to effectively limit their populations (Leigh 1999). This led Wright et al. (1994) to conclude that, in comparison to the effects of hunting-driven meso-herbivore loss, “There is, however, no evidence to support the hypothesis that the relatively subtle increases in abundances that may follow the extirpation of large felids are of similar importance.”
\n\t\t\tHowever, release of tropical mesoherbivores from predation does not always result in “relatively subtle increases in abundance,” especially when combined with other factors (e.g., increased food availability) that may amplify mesoherbivore population growth. At Pasoh Forest Reserve, an aseasonal tropical forest in Malaysia have, native wild pig (S. scrofa) densities exploded to an estimated 47/km2 in 1996, due to a combination of lost natural predators (tigers, leopards) and increased food supply provided by nearby oil palm plantations (Ickes, 2001). These densities are one or two orders of magnitude greater than the observed wild pig densities of 0.1 – 4.2/km2 in tropical forest with predators present, and are similar to densities found on Peucang Island, coastal dipterocarp forest with no natural predators (27-32/km2; Ickes, 2001). The hyperabundant pigs had dramatic effects on the natural forest vegetation structure and diversity. Within experimental pig exclosures, the number of seedling recruits increased 3 times, stem density increased by 56%, liana density increased 18%, plant species richness increased by 10%, and height growth increased 52.5% for trees 1-7m tall, though mortality was not affected (Ickes et al., 2001). Female pigs damage an estimated 170,000 saplings/km2 annually by snapping the stems to build woody nests (Ickes et al., 2003). Pigs build 6 nests/ha annually, causing an estimated 29% of observed tree mortality and 43% of sapling mortality and damage (Ickes et al., 2005). Pigs preferentially select saplings of the dominant and ecologically important Dipterocarpaceae for nest building (Ickes et al., 2005). Yet, tree species have differential ability to regenerate following snapping; the dominant dipterocarps have particularly poor regrowth rates (Ickes et al., 2003). The wild pigs are also implicated in Pasoh’s recent invasion by Clidemia hirta (Melastomataceae), an invasive shrub colonizing recent treefall gaps and pig-disturbed soil (Peters, 2001). Thus, the ecological release of feral pigs in Pasoh, due to a combination of artificial food inputs (i.e., oil palm) and lost native predators (Ickes, 2001; Ickes & Williamson, 2000), is having and will continue to have dramatic cascading effects on forest structure and tree community composition.
\n\t\t\tIn Gunung Palung National Park in Borneo, recruitment of the dominant dipterocarp canopy trees collapsed during the 1990s, purportedly due, in part, to release of vertebrate seed predators (Curran et al., 1999). Dipterocarps exhibit mast fruiting during El Niño-Southern Oscillation events, and the large extent and synchronous production allow some seeds to escape predation. However, forest fragmentation due to logging and human-induced wildfires has reduced the extent and intensity of the mast fruiting events; and masting events at Pasoh Forest Reserve in Malaysia also have been highly variable in recent years, for unknown reasons (S.J. Wright, pers. comm.). Nonetheless, vertebrate seed predators (including bearded pigs, Sus barbatus; primates, rodents, and birds) and seed predation increased dramatically in 1998, particularly in logged and degraded land (Curran et al., 1999; Curran & Leighton, 2000). The combination of high predation, logging, and wildfires contributed to a complete collapse in dipterocarp reproduction: not a single seedling was found following the 1998 masting event, compared to 150,000 seedlings/ha following the previous masting event (Curran et al., 1999).
\n\t\t\tAt Lago Guri in Venezuela, herbivorous howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus), common iguanas (Iguana iguana), and leaf-cutter ants (Acromyrmex spp. and Atta spp.) occur at densities 10-100 times greater than nearby mainland sites (reviewed by Terborgh & Feeley, 2010). As a result, seedling and sapling densities have dramatically decreased due to high mortality and low recruitment, creating “ecological meltdown” (Terborgh et al., 2001, 2006). Mortality and recruitment of both small and large saplings on these islands exceeded comparable rates on the mainland by a factor of 2, primarily due to leaf-cutter ant herbivory (Lopez & Terborgh 2007; Terborgh et al., 2006). Though leaf-cutter ants are clearly not mesoherbivores, this example demonstrates the magnitude of the effects herbivores can have on tropical forest plant communities. Furthermore, hyperabundant mesoherbivores also had species-specific effects on nutrient cycling: iguanas and howler monkeys increased the carbon/nitrogen ratio and, in turn, tree growth, while leaf-cutter ants had the opposite effect (Feeley & Terborgh, 2005). This altered nutrient regime drove a ricocheting bottom-up effect, in which the positive indirect effects of howler monkey density (and concomitant increased nutrient availability) on bird species richness exceeded the negative, direct effects of island area on bird species richness (Feeley & Terborgh, 2008). Indeed, birds maintained territories 3 to 5 times smaller on islands with abundant howler monkeys than on the adjacent mainland (Terborgh et al., 1997). While the herbivore hyperdensities are commonly attributed to the absence of all large and mid-sized predators from the islands (Terborgh et al., 2001, 2006), the very small size of the islands, extensive edge effects, and refuge effect during reservoir inundation also likely contributed (S.J. Wright, pers. comm.).
\n\t\t\tIn each of the previous examples, hyperabundant mesoherbivores were shown to have dramatic, cascading consequences on the rainforest plant communities, yet release from predation may have accounted only in part for the altered herbivore densities. On the contrary, La Selva Biological Station in Costa Rica presents a more clear-cut case of mesoherbivore release. Collared peccaries (Pecari tajacu) have increased from a density of ~0/km2 of trail in the 1970s (T.W. Sherry, pers. obs.) to 14/km2 in 1993 (Torrealba-Suárez & Rau, 1994), and likely higher today (Romero et al., unpubl. data). While some herds forage in neighboring croplands (Torrealba-Suárez & Rau, 1994), peccaries had similar effect sizes (i.e., no block effects) on vegetation density at 5 paired mammal exclosures located far from any station boundary. This suggests that peccary densities are consistent across the station and thus not dependent on food inputs or experiencing a refuge effect, leaving release from predation a likely driver of the current high peccary densities (Michel et al., unpubl. data).
\n\t\t\tThe question of whether collared peccaries at La Selva are over- or hyperabundant is under debate, and accurate current density estimates are greatly needed. However, the most recent available estimate (14/km2 in 1993) is itself over double the mean 6.6/km2 density estimated at 26 unhunted Amazonian sites (Peres & Palacios, 2007), despite some hunting occurring at La Selva (N.L. Michel, pers. obs.). It also exceeds reported densities of 9.6/km2 at BCI, Panama, despite similar area, hunting pressure, and soil nutrient levels to La Selva (Powers et al., 2005; Wright et al., 2000). Known peccary densities elsewhere in Central America are all lower (3-7.5/km2; Michel et al., unpubl. data). Furthermore, effect sizes of mammal (primarily collared peccary) exclosure on vegetation metrics at La Selva exceed effect sizes from exclosures at BCI and Gigante Peninsula, Panama by 200-400%, despite sturdier exclosures in Panama that exclude more terrestrial mammals (Michel et al., unpubl. data). Thus all evidence suggests that La Selva’s collared peccaries occur at unusually high densities that could be considered overabundant (McShea et al., 1997).
\n\t\t\tHigh-density peccaries at La Selva consume 98.6% of Mucuna holtonii (liana) seeds on the forest floor (Kuprewicz and García-Robledo, 2010), and reduce seedling densities at La Selva vs. nearby sites with greater hunting pressure (Chazdon et al., in press; Hanson et al., 2006). Peccaries consume stilt roots of Socratea exorrhiza, causing high mortality in these once-abundant trees, effects rarely observed at other Central American sites (Lieberman & Lieberman, 1994; N.L. Michel, pers. obs.). Seedling abundances of 30 focal species in exclosures versus controls were significantly different, presumably due to differences in seed predation pressures and herbivory rates (A. Wendt et al., unpubl. data). Peccaries have also reduced woody and herbaceous stem density, canopy cover, and vine and liana density and cover at La Selva (based on mammal exclosures,\n\t\t\t\tFig. 3). Moreover, six sites from Costa Rica-Panama show liana tangle frequency varies inversely with peccary density, and liana tangles are 133% more abundant within mammal exclosures than paired controls at La Selva. This research suggests that the hyperabundant collared peccaries at La Selva are having dramatic effects on understory, and even canopy, vegetation. This is particularly troubling, given that vines and lianas provide important foraging and nesting substrate for many organisms, including understory insectivorous birds, a guild that has experienced significant declines at both La Selva and BCI over the past 40 years (Sigel et al., 2006, 2010).
\n\t\tUnderstory vegetation density at La Selva Biological Station, Costa Rica, is lower in areas exposed to collared peccaries (left) than within experimental peccary exclosures (right; photos by Nicole L. Michel).
It is clear from this review that fragmentation-induced trophic cascades are having catastrophic impacts on tropical forests worldwide. Regardless of whether mesoherbivores are increasing due to the loss of large predators, over-protection in some ecological reserves (e.g., La Selva), and/or food inputs, or decreasing due to human hunting pressure, it is clear that the cascading effects of perturbations in mesoherbivore populations on tropical forest plant communities and the animals reliant on them are catastrophic, diverse, and pervasive. Indeed, trophic cascades and increased mesoherbivore abundances are considered to be as serious threats to tropical biodiversity as climate change (Terborgh & Feeley 2010).
\n\t\t\t\tThe solution to the problem is clear: large extents of continuous, or at least connected, forest must be protected and carefully managed to keep populations of both apex predators and mesoherbivores within natural ranges (Soulé, 2010). However clear the solution, its implementation is far from simple for many reasons:
\n\t\t\t\tLarge predators have large home ranges and are highly edge-sensitive. In Central America, female jaguars have home range sizes of 10-18.8 km2, whereas male jaguars roam over 28-40km2 (Rabinowitz & Nottingham, 1986; Woodruffe & Ginsberg, 1998). As a result, jaguars require a minimum “critical reserve size” of 69 km2, or 6,900 hectares, to maintain a 50% probability of population persistence (Woodruffe & Ginsberg, 1998). This far exceeds the size of most Central American forest reserves. Tigers, with a female home range size of 16.9 km2, require even more space: 135 km2 is the minimum required to maintain a 50% probability of population persistence (Woodruffe & Ginsberg, 1998). Where mesoherbivores are also hunted by humans and prey is thus scarce, predators are likely to need even more space (Cramshaw & Quigley, 1991).
Human phobias associated with large predators and their impacts on domesticated animal herds contribute to resisting reintroduction of predators to areas from which they have been extirpated, and heavily persecuting predators even beyond reserve borders (Soulé, 2010). Conflict with humans along reserve borders is one of the major causes of predator mortality within protected reserves (Woodruffe & Ginsberg, 1998).
Many tropical forests are found in countries with limited funds to protect and effectively manage forest reserves (Bruner et al., 2004). The corruption endemic to many national governments in tropical regions further complicates matters (Wright et al., 2007c). Even in Costa Rica and Panama, two of the wealthiest (International Monetary Fund, 2010) and least corrupt (Transparency International, 2010) countries in Central America, poaching is endemic. In Panama, poachers are altering seed dispersal, predation, and recruitment via limitation of mesoherbivores (Wright & Duber, 2001; Wright et al., 2000, 2007b). In Costa Rica, poaching continues to affect vertebrates such as white-lipped peccaries even in the relatively well-protected Corcovado National Park (Carrillo et al., 2000, 2002), and the 260 km2 Tortuguero National Park was often patrolled by fewer than five forest guards as recently as 2005 (N. Michel, pers. obs.).
Many people in tropical countries rely upon hunting for either their own subsistence or to trade for food and other necessities (Corlett, 2007). If patrolling forest reserves effectively limits hunting, many neighboring people would need other means of support. This could result in increased slash-and-burn agriculture with its concomitant negative effects on tropical biodiversity (Naughton-Treves et al., 2003).
Many scientists and conservationists argue that simply setting aside land in forest reserves is sufficient to preserve biodiversity, regardless of connectivity or management (e.g., Fahrig, 1997). Yet, others argue that connectivity, i.e., developing biological corridors to connect nearby reserves, is sufficient to preserve biodiversity (e.g., Soulé, 2010). However, if proposed reserves do not already have apex predators, or have degraded habitat unable to support apex predators, or if heavy hunting pressure is limiting mesoherbivore and/or predator populations, the reserve will function in reality as an “Empty Forest” (Redford, 1992; Wilkie et al., 2011). This is a serious problem, as much of the land remaining in tropical regions is either degraded, or in suboptimal habitat, and/or heavily impacted by hunting, and – as discussed above – government funding of reserve protection is often insufficient to control poaching. In order for conservation to succeed, it is imperative that reserves of sufficient size and/or connectivity not only be set aside, but these reserves must also contain sustainable populations of both apex predators (whether extant or reintroduced) and mesoherbivores, i.e., balanced populations to which the natural vegetation and other organisms are adapted. Furthermore, adequate protection needs to be instituted and continued monitoring of predator and herbivore populations, perhaps using a Footprint index (de Thoisy et al., 2010), is crucial in order to prevent destructive trophic cascades and the subsequent loss of tropical biodiversity.
\n\t\t\tIn terms of future research, we need intensive study of not only what are “normal” and sustainable abundances of mesoherbivores, but also how to maintain these abundances through a combination of vegetation, predator, and/or hunting management. We need better information on all the consequences, both long- and short-term, of human-altered mesoherbivore abundances on native tropical forest communities. There is an urgent need for better information and models on how altered trophic dynamics, especially mesoherbivore abundances, will be affected by other global phenomena, especially climate destabilization. Finally, it is essential to determine the effectiveness of various conservation actions, in order to determine which techniques can best prevent a mass extinction of tropical biodiversity (Brooks et al., 2009).
\n\t\t\tThe authors thank S. Joseph Wright and Padmini Sudarshana for their helpful reviews of the original manuscript. We thank Walter P. Carson, David and Deborah Clark, Deedra McClearn, Robert Timm, and other La Selva researchers for constructive comments and advice, and thank W.P. Carson as well for access to experimental mammal exclosures on BCI and La Selva. The Explorers Club, National Science Foundation, Organization for Tropical Studies, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, and Tulane University all generously supported this research.
\n\t\tThe increase of participation of women in politics has revealed that women and men are political actors with distinct political preferences [1, 2]. In the last 30 years, there was a rise in the political gender gap. The Center for the American Woman and Politics [1] data show that a more substantial proportion of women than men vote for the Democratic Party. The last presidential elections (2016) revealed a sizable 11 percentage-point gender gap, 42 percent of women voted for Trump versus 53 percent of men [1]. This is not a new phenomenon according to the data of CAWP in the last two decades, since in the 1996 presidential election, women voters tend to prefer more a democratic candidate than men (the gender gap variance has varied in these years from a minimum of 7 points to a maximum of 11 points). The 2016 gender gap was one of the largest ones. Also, in Europe, most countries show either no gender gap or that women are more left-wing than men. Recent research [3] based on the analysis of the European Values Study/World Values Survey that combines data spanning from 1989 to 2014 reveals that there is a gender-generation gap. In the younger cohorts, women are more left-wing oriented than men. Researches on the gender difference in political issues point out that there is a wide difference in programs and issues that women and men support. Women, in general, are in favor of government spending on social welfare, education, and health. They are more likely to favor programs for medical care, schooling, and gun control.
\nOn the contrary, they tend to oppose more military spending or the use of force to solve conflicts and are against capital punishment [4, 5, 6]. They support less discriminatory policies and have more positive attitudes toward homosexuals than men [7]. Women have lower levels of prejudice [8], authoritarianism [9, 10], and anti-egalitarianism, [11] are more worried about potential international conflicts [12], and, in general, hold less punitive attitudes [11]. Social dominance orientation (SDO) has been theorized to account for political gender differences [13, 14, 15].
\nThe social dominance theory (STD) aims to understand how group-based social hierarchy is formed and preserved [13]. According to Sidanius and Pratto [13], postindustrial societies tend to develop group-oriented social hierarchies that support long-term human survival. In these hierarchical societies, intergroup conflicts and oppressions contribute to maintaining the status quo of the social system. SDT suggests that an individual orientation called social dominance orientation [13, 16, 17] is a potential explanatory factor of sociopolitical sex differences. The SDO has been defined as a personal desire for group-based dominance, mirroring an individual’s support for group-based hierarchies [13]. People higher in SDO tend to support hierarchy-enhancing legitimizing myths such as prejudice, racism, sexism, militarism, support for the death penalty, and coercive social power across societies and contexts [16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. Men tend to score higher than women in SDO [13]. Such differences may be, to a certain extent, determined by the desire of males to justify their dominant position in society. As Sidanius and Pratto [13] point out, our contemporary hierarchical system is mostly “andrarchical” since men tend still occupy most of the highest positions of political and economic power. Therefore, men should support social systems that maintain hierarchies since they tend to hold privileges due to occupying higher positions in society.
\nIn our societies, women and men usually have different roles in the group-based hierarchy. Men tend to be more numerous in the police, military, lawyers, judges, and business executives areas, whereas women are in a more significant number in the teachers, social workers, and charity volunteer areas [23]. Overall, men are inclined to participate in institutions or hold roles that enhance hierarchy and females on the contrary to institutions that diminish hierarchy [24]. The SDT maintains that those that occupy positions in society that reinforce the existing group inequality or strengthen in-group status are more likely to be social dominance-oriented than out-groups are.
\nSDT claims that men and women should exhibit differences in SDO due to strategies that follow from evolutionary theory. Sidanius et al. [25] maintain that different psychological and behavioral predispositions between males and females in terms of sexual and reproductive behavior are the core of gender difference in society. From this perspective, sex differences in orientation toward group-based social inequality (SDO) are the effects of human reproductive strategies. Sidanius and Pratto [13] put forward that reproductive inequality implies economic inequality and economic inequality implies political inequality. Sidanius, Pratto, and Bobo [25] formulate the gender invariance hypothesis from a perspective of theoretical biocultural interaction: “Not only should men have a higher average level of SDO, but this higher average level of male SDO should also be found after cultural, situational and environmental factors are considered” (p. 1000) [25].
\nTwo invariance hypotheses have been proposed. The “strong” version and the “soft” one. The strong version claims that SDO differences between men and women should not vary across cultural factors, situational factors, or both. There should, therefore, be no significant interaction between sex gender and cultural-situational factors. In other words, the strong version of the invariance hypothesis predicts that the difference in SDO between men and women should be essentially invariant across all major cultural, environmental, and situational factors such as country of national origin, ethnicity, education, income, age, political ideology, racism, religious beliefs, and gender role attitudes. However, since the claim of the biological roots of gender differences is less relevant in SDT today [18], a contextual variation is, to some extent, allowed in the soft version hypothesis [26]. The soft version of the invariance hypothesis asserts that men will always show higher levels of SDO than women, everything else being equal. It claims that although gender might interact with several cultural-situational factors, this interaction will always be ordinal and never disordinal. Whereas the male-female differences in SDO might show some significant variations across cultural factors, situational factors, or both, females should never have significantly higher SDO than males within the same sociocultural context [25]. Both socialization experiences and belonging to hierarchy-attenuating or hierarchy-enhancing settings can increase or diminish SDO [27]; however, women should never have a significantly higher SDO than men. For instance, different professional groups may vary in their levels of SDO [20]; however, within a specific professional group, men should report higher levels of SDO than women [28].
\nQuite a lot of studies have attempted to investigate, if and under which, circumstances the invariance hypothesis holds. Several studies conducted mainly by Sidanius and colleagues supported the validity of the invariance hypothesis, both with samples of students and adult residents of the United States and in many foreign countries [13, 14, 15, 24, 25, 29, 30].
\nFor example, in their cross-cultural study on male-female difference in SDO that involved 10 countries (Australia, Canada, Israel, Mexico, Palestine, Republic of China, New Zealand, the former USSR, Sweden, and the United States), Sidanius and Pratto showed that males are significantly more social dominance-oriented than females in 39 of the 45 samples [13].
\nAlso, Wilson and White [31] in their study based on students and adults revealed that males were more social dominant and politically conservative than women. Social dominance mediated the relationship between gender and conservatism.
\nFurthermore, studies confirm that even in countries that traditionally promote gender equality, the gender gap in social dominance orientation prevails [32, 33].
\nContrary evidence emerged, however, in other studies. Research based on student and adult samples from Australia, the United States, Ireland, and Sweden did not confirm the main gender effect [34, 35, 36, 37, 38].
\nIn Taiwan, females scored higher than males, but the difference was not significant [39], and in two samples in Israel and Australia, men did not score significantly higher than females [34, 39]. In Küpper and Zick’s [40] first study, women unexpectedly showed higher levels of SDO than men.
\nSome studies on the gender invariance hypothesis investigated whether group differences in SDO can be explained by group identification.
\nWilson and Liu [41], following the social identity theory (SIT) perspective, predicted that males who identify strongly with gender group should exhibit higher SDO scores than low-identifying males and that females who identify strongly with their gender group should score lower than low-identifying females. Their findings showed that the gender-SDO relationship was moderated by the strength of gender in-group identification: increasing group identification was associated with decreasing SDO scores for females and increasing SDO scores for females. Sidanius and Pratto [28], however, criticized this study for not meeting the criteria, “all else being equal in principle.” They underlined that they should have compared men and women with similar levels of gender identification.
\nAlso, Huanga and Liu [42] analyzed the controversy in the literature concerning whether group differences in SDO can be explained by group identification. They hypothesized that if SDO acts as a stable individual difference, it should maintain its relative relationship with gender (i.e., men should have higher SDO than women) even when the demographic group is saliently primed. Alternatively, from a situational priming perspective, one might expect gender differences in SDO to be significant only when gender is salient. Their first research involved 1605 adults in Taiwan, and they found that contrary to SDT’s invariance hypothesis, men were higher on SDO than women only when gender was salient.
\nFoels and Pappas [43] tested the invariance hypothesis by measuring the relationship between sex and SDO while controlling for the effects of gender socialization. They demonstrated that the sex difference in SDO is mediated by gender socialization.
\nLee et al. [33] addressed the dispute between SDT and social identity theory (SIT) in a meta-analysis. Their research showed that in what has been predicted by SDO, gender differences on SDO were more substantial and more stable than differences between ethical and racial groups in the United States and worldwide.
\nOther studies on the gender invariance hypothesis explored the influence of various kinds of presumed hierarchy-enhancing or hierarchy-attenuating settings. Several studies have shown that university majors and career choices are associated with either hierarchy-enhancing (HE, e.g., racism) or hierarchy-attenuating (HA, e.g., human rights) legitimizing myths [44]. Dambrun et al. [45] examined the impact of HE vs. HA academic major on stereotyping. They found that students in psychology were less social dominance-oriented than students in law. Moreover, while males were more social dominance-oriented than females in law, no sex difference was found for psychology majors. Authors conclude that their results “can be taken to suggest that social-cultural variables may affect scores on SDO and modify gender differences on SDO” (p. 130). They also notice that female law students had higher SDO scores than male psychology students; this finding is in opposition to the strong version of the invariance hypothesis that men should always score higher than females in SDO.
\nSidanius et al. [30] showed conflicting results. In their longitudinal study, they measured the SDO of men and women once a year for the 4- and half-year period. Their findings show that even after controlling for the characteristics of students’ academic majors (hierarchy-enhancing or hierarchy-attenuating), males showed significantly higher SDO scores than females did, across the entire college career.
\nResearch, based in Sweden, on gender differences in SDO in social structures varying in equality enhancement and gender composition revealed a main effect of gender on SDO despite the degree of political equality or gender composition. There was an interaction effect only in associations where women were the majority of members [26].
\nBathalka et al., [46] investigated the gender invariance hypothesis in similar cultural, ideological, and status contexts. Their findings revealed either no effect for gender or an interaction between gender and the relevant social context and only a small effect size of gender. Overall the authors underline that their results disconfirm the gender invariance assumption of SDT. In their second study, students were categorized according to disciplines HA or HE (literature, languages, psychology, social studies, and anthropology majors were grouped as HA and economics, law, and business as HE majors). Their research showed that whereas HE/HA predicted SDO, gender did not.
\nReviewing the literature, we find that most, but not all, studies have found significant differences in favor of males in SDO. However, some studies we discussed showed that males’ SDO scores changed according to environmental and socialization variables such as being embedded in hierarchy-attenuating environments, not identifying strongly with their gender, or living in societies whose cultural values are more egalitarian and less competitive.
\nMost of the studies that found an invariant gender gap involved students or adolescents [40]. To investigate further the possible causes of the increasing political gender gap, we need to conduct studies with members with strong salient group identities, where the influence of adult socialization egalitarian myths may have the opportunity to influence SDO. On this line, studies on the ideological divide may be done involving militants and politicians. With dispositional features such as personality traits and value differences between conservatives and liberals, right-wing and left-wing voters may be present among ordinary citizens or college students [47] but are more pronounced in groups of party activists, extremists, and politicians. Already in the 1960s, McClosky et al. [48] showed the ideological conflicts were much higher between democratic and republican activists and party leaders than among party voters.
\nTo further explore the gender identity hypothesis and the political gender gap, we need to compare people who not only identify with specific hierarchy-enhancing or hierarchy-attenuating ideologies but who participate actively and continuously to political parties or groups which uphold and promote those ideas. Activism in political parties is a matter of choice in modern society. As Huddy [49] underlines, people who choose to be activists in particular political groups already may hold some hierarchy-enhancing or hierarchy-attenuating ideals. However, their SDO may be heightened or lessened by their prolonged exposure and their internalization of legitimizing myths (i.e., according to “soft” gender invariance hypothesis).
\nSDO would suggest that being committed activists in a hierarchy-attenuating political groups could make individuals identify with the ideals of the groups. Therefore, male members in these groups could have lower SDO scores than males adhering and participating in hierarchy-enhancing political groups. So, we should find the highest scores of SDO in males belonging to right-wing political groups and the lowest in males active in extreme left-wing groups. However, according to SDT, even while absolute levels of SDO may vary across situations, men should still have relatively higher SDO than women within each political group. The predisposition of males to be temperamentally inclined to dominate, even when exposed to substantial and long-term environmental attenuating pressures, will produce nonetheless residual gender differences even among males and females belonging to groups who uphold egalitarian group values.
\nTo understand if the gender gap in politics could be systematically observed within and across the left-wing and right-wing split, we aimed to compare the accuracy in predicting SDO by gender in four well-defined samples of male and female activists belonging to hierarchy-enhancing political groups – center right and extreme right wing oriented groups - vs. belonging to hierarchy attenuating political groups - center left and extreme left wing oriented groups.
\nAs predicted by SDT, we should find higher mean SDO scores among male activists of extreme right-wing, hierarchy-promoting political groups and lower mean SDO scores in males members of extreme left wing, hierarchy-attenuating political groups. However, according to the invariant gender hypothesis of SDT, the difference between males and females within each group should be invariant across groups: the gender divide should be stronger than the political divide.
\nOn the other hand, as more sustainable within a SIT perspective and gender similarities hypothesis [50], we should find no gender differences both in the hierarchy-attenuating extreme left-wing political groups and hierarchy-enhancing extreme right-wing political groups. Both settings should reinforce both in male and female members the dominant legitimizing myths of the political group they have chosen, and the political divide should be stronger than the gender divide.
\nThere is a general consensus in literature that SDO is a stable individual difference [51] although can relatively vary across some conditions. According to person-environment fit theory, authors [27] posited that people select hierarchy-enhancing environments according to their SDO levels, as well as environments attract and socialize people according to how much in such places hierarchy-enhancing myths are supported. As a result, high-SDO people tend to fit better in hierarchy-enhancing environments and low-SDO people tend to fit better in hierarchy-attenuating environments (e.g., [18, 27, 52]). In the present chapter, we opted to study the gender invariance hypothesis in people belonging to political groups with a different support of hierarchy-enhancing legitimizing myths accordingly to the literature that outlines that the SDO level among participants (of both sex) of political groups mirrors the different extents to which parties support group dominance.
\nWe included 626 subjects, 350 males and 276 females, who had been for at least 2 years activists in political parties or associations belonging to two well-differentiated groups of (1) extreme left-wing and (2) extreme right-wing and having also two additional groups of (3) center left-wing and (4) center right-wing parties. We decided to invest considerable effort to secure a relatively large sample of political activists of different political parties. We sent emails to the address of local political parties asking to give the questionnaire to the activists. The questionnaire was accompanied by a letter of the Sapienza University of Rome stationery presenting the aims of the scientific research and guaranteeing anonymity and privacy. After mailing questionnaires and letters, we tried to recontact the political parties to ascertain that they received the questionnaires and to solicit their responses. However, since the response rate was low, after the first contacts had been established, snowball sampling was used to recruit other political activists:
Extreme left activists were 126, 70 males and 56 females (mean age 26.21, SD 4.83; range 16–34). About 9% have a low level of education, 61% a high school diploma, and 30% a college degree. These extreme left-wing organizations define themselves as supporting socialist, feminist, and ecologist issues and fighting against all social inequalities based on race, ethnicity, gender, or other discriminating features. Activists spend considerable time in these groups in weekly meetings and organizing protest marches, boycotts, and sit-in in favor of oppressed groups.
Extreme Right activists were 181, 123 males and 58 females (mean age 24.01, SD 5.07; range 14–34). About 23% had a college degree, 57% had a high school diploma, and about 20% did not finish high school. These groups promote attitudes and belief systems such as nationalism, racism, classism, sexism, ethnocentrism, and political-economic conservatism. Extreme right activists also meet weekly and often engage in nontraditional political activities bordering on illegality such as unauthorized protest marches that sometimes end in violence (fights with police officers or leftwing extremists).
Center left-wing activists were 111, 50 males and 61 females (mean age 26.71, SD 4.86; range 16–35). They are members of the center left-wing moderate parties. About 7% have a junior high diploma, 67% a high school diploma, and 26% a college degree. They engage in more traditional legal-political activities such as signing petitions, political campaigns, raising funds, and getting people to the voting polls.
Center right-wing activists were 208, 107 males and 101 females (mean age 27.20, SD 4.76; range 14–35). They belong to center right-wing parties. About 68% have a high school diploma, 24% a college degree, and 8% a junior high education. They also engage in more traditional party activities, like organizing fundraising events, helping party candidates, distributing documents, and getting voters to the poll.
All subjects filled a questionnaire which contained:
A section in which subjects recorded age, sex, and educational level. Furthermore, to confirm and control the distinctive SS belonging to the selected groups, we measured their political orientation by means of a single item (a 10-point scale), where point 1 meant extreme right-wing orientation and point 10 meant extreme left-wing orientation.
SDO scale used was an Italian adaptation of the SDO scale [53].
We first performed an analysis of variance to ascertain the political orientation as firmly acting differences within groups in SDO males and females scores.
\nResults are shown in Table 1.
\nGender | \nPolitical orientation | \nMeans | \nGender | \n\n | Political orientation | \nGender × political orientation | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\nF\n | \n\nP\n | \n\nF\n | \n\np\n | \n\nF\n | \n\np\n | \n|||
Males | \nExtreme right-wing | \n3.74 | \n19.85 | \n<0.001 | \n192.00 | \n<0.001 | \n3.16 | \n<0.05 | \n
Center right | \n3.27 | \n|||||||
Center left | \n1.84 | \n|||||||
Extreme left-wing | \n1.73 | \n|||||||
Total | \n2.93 | \n|||||||
Females | \nExtreme right-wing | \n3.12 | \n||||||
Center right | \n3.03 | \n|||||||
Center left | \n1.79 | \n|||||||
Extreme left-wing | \n1.46 | \n|||||||
Total | \n2.46 | \n
Four political groups, male and female—SDO means.
To deepen the test of the invariance hypothesis, we applied a multiple regression model involving social dominance orientation and gender across the four groups considered. A multigroup path analysis was performed to test the hypothesis of the influences of gender on social dominance, this way independently of political orientation. A dummy variable was created with 1 corresponding to males. Thus, in our regression model, the weight is the average difference between males and females on SDO.
\nConceptual model of the regression of gender on social dominance orientation.
SDO was treated as an exogenous latent variable with three indices. The latter was formed summing up groups of items of the scale. The figure below illustrates the conceptual model (Figure 1).
\nSeveral competing models were tested.
\nHypotheses were as follows in ascending order of constraints:
H1: both factor loadings and regression weight are different for each of the four political orientation groups.
H0A: regression weight is invariant for each of the political groups.
H0B: factor loadings of social dominance are invariant for each of the four political groups.
H0C: both regression weight and factor loading are invariant for each of the political groups.
Results showed in Table 2 ascertain from these results that hypotheses H1 and H0A showed a relevant good fit.
\nModel | \nChi | \ndf | \nP | \n
---|---|---|---|
H1 | \n13.86 | \n8 | \n0.09 | \n
H0A | \n18.37 | \n11 | \n0.07 | \n
H0B | \n23.86 | \n14 | \n0.05 | \n
H0C | \n29.76 | \n17 | \n0.03 | \n
Results of path analysis of the model tested.
In order to choose the best model, D2 statistic was calculated [54] as follows:
\nSo,
\nSince the reduction in Chi2 is not statistically significant, it is possible to choose the model of the invariance of regression weight among the political groups. Focusing on this model, fit indexes were RMSEA = 0.07; NFI = 0.98; and CFI = 0.99.
\nLoading differences among the groups did not seem due to a different factorial structure.
\nConcerning the main hypothesis, these results showed that males express higher SDO than females invariantly of their right-wing or left-wing political orientation (beta = 0.21; R2 = 0.04).
\nRecent years have seen a rise in the political gender gap; women in Western European countries have gradually preferred more leftist parties [55]. In the United States, the share of women who identify with or lean toward the Democratic Party has increased. The last data from the Pew Research Center [56] show that among registered voters, 56% of women affiliate or favor the Democratic Party compared to 44% of men. Several authors have hypothesized that the difference between women and men on political attitudes and political party identification can be attributed to differences in SDO [5]. To investigate if the gender gap in politics goes deeper than traditional left-wing and right-wing division, we analyzed gender differences in SDO in activists of HE and HA political parties. According to the gender invariance hypothesis, all else been equal, men should still have significantly higher SDO than women. The predisposition of males to be temperamentally inclined to dominate will produce nonetheless residual gender differences even among males and females belonging to groups who uphold egalitarian group values.
\nTo analyze the gender invariance hypothesis in a political context, we based our study on political activists. Political activists, in fact, not only identify with groups that hold specific hierarchy-enhancing or hierarchy-attenuating ideologies but actively participate, promoting their values and ideas within the group. Their active commitment in specific HE or HA groups should encourage in fact, even more, the internalization of legitimizing myths that may influence their levels of SDO. Our research was based on four samples of male and female activists belonging to hierarchy enhancing – right-wing – vs. hierarchy attenuating – left-wing - political groups. According with SIT and SDT, the SDO scores should be higher in right-wing groups than left-wing groups and highest in extreme rightwing groups and lowest in extreme left groups. However, according to SDT, even while absolute levels of SDO may vary across situations, men should still have significantly higher SDO than women. The SIT theory, on the contrary, would predict that groups on both sides of the political divide should attract males and females who, for the left, are strong egalitarian and do not favor the oppression of one group over another and, for the right males and females, who hold equally strong opposite views. Gender differences should be insignificant since egalitarian adult socialization experiences should promote egalitarian attitudes in both men and women activists and vice versa.
\nOn the whole, our results sustain more the validity of the soft than the strong version of the invariance hypothesis [25]. We observed general differences in SDO score across political groups (e.g., SDO score for right-wing were higher than left-wing); therefore, males of all the activists’ groups showed a higher social dominance than females invariantly belonging to left- or right-wing political groups. The soft version implies indeed that SDO difference between men and women should be essentially constant across cultural and situational factors, everything else being equal. Our study confirmed that SDO differentiated men and women invariantly across cultural and situational factors such as political activism practiced both in moderate and extremist political groups. Male right-wing extremists had the highest SDO scores and female left-wing extremists the lowest. Still, the gender differences persisted in all groups, giving strong support for the temperamental differences in dominance predisposition.
\nOur data did show also that extreme right-wing women presented significantly higher scores of SDO than men belonging to left-wing parties. This result can be congruent with both SIT and SDT, which emphasizes the importance of group identification and the soft version of the SDO gender hypothesis that recognizes the influence of context.
\nIn this study, the recent increase of the gender gap in political elections was addressed by analyzing gender differences in SDO of political activists. Our findings confirm the soft version of gender invariance hypothesis. However, our study has several limits; we still do not know if people who chose these different groups had originally higher or lower SDO or if the experience of belonging to different groups changes the SDO. Furthermore, we did not explore whether changes in SDO occurred in people who were active participants in different political groups. Future studies should ascertain whether SDO scores diminish after being an active member of the political moderate leftist group and if these changes occur in less time or more often when participating in extremist groups with even stronger egalitarian ideals. Moreover, to understand more the influence of group identification maintained by the SIT, the number of years of group involvement should be taken into consideration in future studies. Future research could also explore if new media like partisan Internet sites and social networks can enhance or reduce SDO.
\nOur results, with their present limits, also show that SDO is strongest in males and females in far right-wing groups, and these findings could help explain why these groups are now rising in recent elections in Europe and several other countries worldwide. One fundamental belief of SDT theory is that certain groups of people are entitled to rule over other groups [13]. The SDO scale elicits agreement-disagreement with statements such as “it’s a good thing that some groups are at the top, and others at the bottom” or “Some groups of people are simply inferior to other groups.” “America first,” which Trump launched, had a very precise meaning, to favor American-born citizens over immigrants. This slogan has been echoed by right-wing nationalist parties in Italy (“Italy first”) and Hungary, Poland, and Turkey. In all these countries, authoritarian leaders have emerged and are sustained by male and female supporters, who perceive themselves similar to their leaders, and in fact, both authoritarian leaders and followers probably share very high SDO. As a matter of fact, recent studies have shown that SDO is related to support for radical right parties [57].
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",metaTitle:"Conflicts of Interest Policy",metaDescription:"As an Open Access publisher, IntechOpen is dedicated to maintaining the highest ethical standards and principles in publishing. In addition, IntechOpen promotes the highest standards of integrity and ethical behavior in scientific research and peer-review.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/conflicts-of-interest-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"In each instance of a possible Conflict of Interest, IntechOpen aims to disclose the situation in as transparent a way as possible in order to allow readers to judge whether a particular potential Conflict of Interest has influenced the Work of any individual Author, Editor, or Reviewer. IntechOpen takes all possible Conflicts of Interest into account during the review process and ensures maximum transparency in implementing its policies.
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\n\nA Conflict of Interest is a situation in which a person's professional judgment may be influenced by a range of factors, including financial gain, material interest, or some other personal or professional interest. For IntechOpen as a publisher, it is essential that all possible Conflicts of Interest are avoided. Each contributor, whether an Author, Editor, or Reviewer, who suspects they may have a Conflict of Interest, is obliged to declare that concern in order to make the publisher and the readership aware of any potential influence on the work being undertaken.
\n\nA Conflict of Interest can be identified at different phases of the publishing process.
\n\nIntechOpen requires:
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST - AUTHOR
\n\nAll Authors are obliged to declare every existing or potential Conflict of Interest, including financial or personal factors, as well as any relationship which could influence their scientific work. Authors must declare Conflicts of Interest at the time of manuscript submission, although they may exceptionally do so at any point during manuscript review. For jointly prepared manuscripts, the corresponding Author is obliged to declare potential Conflicts of Interest of any other Authors who have contributed to the manuscript.
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST – ACADEMIC EDITOR
\n\nEditors can also have Conflicts of Interest. Editors are expected to maintain the highest standards of conduct, which are outlined in our Best Practice Guidelines (templates for Best Practice Guidelines). Among other obligations, it is essential that Editors make transparent declarations of any possible Conflicts of Interest that they might have.
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\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"105746",title:"Dr.",name:"A.W.M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Koopman-van Gemert",slug:"a.w.m.m.-koopman-van-gemert",fullName:"A.W.M.M. Koopman-van Gemert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105746/images/5803_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Anna Wilhelmina Margaretha Maria Koopman-van Gemert MD, PhD, became anaesthesiologist-intensivist from the Radboud University Nijmegen (the Netherlands) in 1987. She worked for a couple of years also as a blood bank director in Nijmegen and introduced in the Netherlands the Cell Saver and blood transfusion alternatives. She performed research in perioperative autotransfusion and obtained the degree of PhD in 1993 publishing Peri-operative autotransfusion by means of a blood cell separator.\nBlood transfusion had her special interest being the president of the Haemovigilance Chamber TRIP and performing several tasks in local and national blood bank and anticoagulant-blood transfusion guidelines committees. Currently, she is working as an associate professor and up till recently was the dean at the Albert Schweitzer Hospital Dordrecht. She performed (inter)national tasks as vice-president of the Concilium Anaesthesia and related committees. \nShe performed research in several fields, with over 100 publications in (inter)national journals and numerous papers on scientific conferences. \nShe received several awards and is a member of Honour of the Dutch Society of Anaesthesia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Albert Schweitzer Hospital",country:{name:"Gabon"}}},{id:"83089",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Ojule",slug:"aaron-ojule",fullName:"Aaron Ojule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Port Harcourt",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"295748",title:"Mr.",name:"Abayomi",middleName:null,surname:"Modupe",slug:"abayomi-modupe",fullName:"Abayomi Modupe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Landmark University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"94191",title:"Prof.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"abbas-moustafa",fullName:"Abbas Moustafa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94191/images/96_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Moustafa got his doctoral degree in earthquake engineering and structural safety from Indian Institute of Science in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University, Egypt and the chairman of Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Engineering and Technology, Giza, Egypt. He is also a consultant engineer and head of structural group at Hamza Associates, Giza, Egypt. Dr. Moustafa was a senior research associate at Vanderbilt University and a JSPS fellow at Kyoto and Nagasaki Universities. He has more than 40 research papers published in international journals and conferences. He acts as an editorial board member and a reviewer for several regional and international journals. His research interest includes earthquake engineering, seismic design, nonlinear dynamics, random vibration, structural reliability, structural health monitoring and uncertainty modeling.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Minia University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"84562",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbyssinia",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"abbyssinia-mushunje",fullName:"Abbyssinia Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Fort Hare",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"202206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abd Elmoniem",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Elzain",slug:"abd-elmoniem-elzain",fullName:"Abd Elmoniem Elzain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kassala University",country:{name:"Sudan"}}},{id:"98127",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Handoura",slug:"abdallah-handoura",fullName:"Abdallah Handoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Supérieure des Télécommunications",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"91404",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdecharif",middleName:null,surname:"Boumaza",slug:"abdecharif-boumaza",fullName:"Abdecharif Boumaza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Abbès Laghrour University of Khenchela",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"105795",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Ghani",middleName:null,surname:"Aissaoui",slug:"abdel-ghani-aissaoui",fullName:"Abdel Ghani Aissaoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105795/images/system/105795.jpeg",biography:"Abdel Ghani AISSAOUI is a Full Professor of electrical engineering at University of Bechar (ALGERIA). He was born in 1969 in Naama, Algeria. He received his BS degree in 1993, the MS degree in 1997, the PhD degree in 2007 from the Electrical Engineering Institute of Djilali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes (ALGERIA). He is an active member of IRECOM (Interaction Réseaux Electriques - COnvertisseurs Machines) Laboratory and IEEE senior member. He is an editor member for many international journals (IJET, RSE, MER, IJECE, etc.), he serves as a reviewer in international journals (IJAC, ECPS, COMPEL, etc.). He serves as member in technical committee (TPC) and reviewer in international conferences (CHUSER 2011, SHUSER 2012, PECON 2012, SAI 2013, SCSE2013, SDM2014, SEB2014, PEMC2014, PEAM2014, SEB (2014, 2015), ICRERA (2015, 2016, 2017, 2018,-2019), etc.). His current research interest includes power electronics, control of electrical machines, artificial intelligence and Renewable energies.",institutionString:"University of Béchar",institution:{name:"University of Béchar",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"99749",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Hafid",middleName:null,surname:"Essadki",slug:"abdel-hafid-essadki",fullName:"Abdel Hafid Essadki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Nationale Supérieure de Technologie",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"101208",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Karim",middleName:"Mohamad",surname:"El Hemaly",slug:"abdel-karim-el-hemaly",fullName:"Abdel Karim El Hemaly",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101208/images/733_n.jpg",biography:"OBGYN.net Editorial Advisor Urogynecology.\nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly, MRCOG, FRCS � Egypt.\n \nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. 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