Effect of biochar amendment in soil on the degradation half-live time (DT50 - days) of different herbicides.
\r\n\tThe book will be focused on special topics suggested as below but not limited:
\r\n\t• Original ideas for GIS applications in coastal environments
\r\n\t• GIS applications for coastal disasters monitoring, modeling, planning, and policy-making
\r\n\t• GIS applications in coastal disasters, coastal resources, coastal social systems, and coastal urban environment
\r\n\t• GIS applications of new algorithms, big data processing, and deep learning to global or regional coastal zones in both developed and developing countries
\r\n\t• Spatial and temporal prediction and validation
\r\n\t• Global/regional coastal database
Herbicides are the pesticides most applied in modern agriculture for weed control worldwide, in pre-emergency, directly in the soil, or in post-emergence in leaves. Regardless of the application of herbicides, these reach the soil and may persist with residual effect (carryover) or contaminate the non-target organism and environment. The behavior of the herbicide in the soil is governed by the physico-chemical properties of the molecule and the soil and can have retention, transport, and transformation processes [1]. In transformation processes, the herbicide molecule is degraded into secondary compounds (metabolites) by physical (photodegradation), chemical, and biological processes (Figure 1) [2].
Degradation process (chemical, biological, and photodegradation) of herbicides in the soil.
Biological degradation is the most common way to dissipate the herbicides in the environment, and it is carried out mainly by the soil microbiota which use the herbicide molecules as an energy source and transforms it into compounds without herbicidal action, the process is also known as detoxification [3, 4]. The chemical complexity of the herbicide determines the higher or lower facility of microorganisms to degrade the molecules, characterizing it in low or high persistence in the soil [5], being measured by degradation or dissipation half-life time (DT50) in laboratory or field conditions, respectively [2].
The degradation of herbicides in the soil by microorganisms can be aerobic (with oxygen) or anaerobic (without oxygen). In the presence of oxygen, the herbicide is mineralized in CO2 and water. Without oxygen, the herbicide is mineralized in CH4, CO2, and water [6]. The efficiency of aerobic degradation of herbicides is higher than the anaerobic. The aerobic bacteria oxygen act as an oxidizing agent, and they are present in the region of the soil where there is a higher content of organic matter (OM) and an excellent soil-water-air ratio for the microbiota [7]. In conditions of absence of oxygen, the herbicide can become more persistent in the soil and its degradation pathways are different from microorganisms with aerobic metabolism [8].
The addition of organic materials, like biochar, in the soil directly influences the microbial community, responsible for herbicide degradation [9]. Biochar is a carbonaceous material produced by different feedstocks in pyrolysis conditions with the limited presence of oxygen. Naturally, biochar is found in the anthropogenic soil, known as “Terra Preta de Índio”, i.e., Amazonian Dark Earths in the Amazon, which gave rise to synthetic biochar produced worldwide [10]. Pyrolyzed feedstocks and pyrolysis conditions determine the physico-chemical properties of biochar, such as nutrient content, porosity, specific surface area, among others.
In agricultural soils, the biochar has been added to increase porosity, water-holding capacity, reduce acidity, sequester carbon, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, plant growth promotion, improve soil fertility, and immobilize (remediation) herbicides by increasing sorption and microbial diversity [11]. This chapter showed that is possible to recommend the addition of biochar in the soil to interfere in the persistence or remediation processes of the herbicide.
Biochar is the carbon-rich product resulting from the pyrolysis of organic residues such as wood, animal wastes, crop residues, and biosolids [12]. The feedstock usually determines the chemical composition, quantity of macropores, and nutrient content in biochar. Pyrolysis conditions (such as temperature, heating rate, and residence time) determine the morphology and surface structure changes in feedstock and C/H content [11]. The dominant properties affecting herbicide sorption and degradation by biochar include porosity, specific surface area, pH, functional groups, carbon content and aromatic structure, and mineralogical composition [13].
More porous structures and higher specific surface area will result in higher sorption capacities and lower degradation of herbicides [13]. Higher pH of biochar can accelerate the hydrolysis of organophosphorus and carbamate herbicides in the soil through the alkali catalysis mechanism [14]. Surface functional groups including carboxylic (–COOH), hydroxyl (–OH), lactonic, amide, and amine groups are essential for the sorption capacity of biochar [15, 16]. Carbon content and aromatic structure can increase herbicide sorption and reduce their bioavailability to be degraded [13]. The mineralogical composition can reduce the bioavailability of herbicides through surface chelation and/or surface acidity mechanisms [17].
Biochar amendment also affects the degradation of herbicides in the soil in several ways and the effects can be either stimulatory or suppressive [18]. Biochar may contain available nutrients that stimulate overall microbial activity and, thus, degradation of herbicides [19, 20]. However, the degradation of herbicides in biochar-amended soils is most commonly reduced because herbicide sorption increases [21]. Biochar also sorbs dissolved organic carbon (OC), which can contribute to co-metabolic biodegradation [22]. Some changes in the degradation rate can be a result of indirect effects of biochar amendment, e.g., changes in soil pH, albedo, and aeration [18].
Soil correction with biochar can affect the soil microbiota in different ways: (1) It can provide an increase in the microbiota [23, 24]; (2) It can negatively affect the resident microbiota by the amount of organic substances (volatile compounds) formed in the production of biochar [25, 26]; or (3) It may not effect the soil microbiota [27, 28]. The possible interaction mechanisms of biochar and soil microbiota are exemplified in Figure 2 [29, 30]. The physical–chemical structures of the biochar surface (macro and micropores, roughness, surface load, and hydrophobicity) are a refuge for the soil microbiota [31, 32], where microorganisms can find nutrients and ions adsorbed in biochar particles useful for their growth [29, 33]. In addition, biochars can contain significant amounts of organic substances (volatile organic compounds and free radicals) [34, 35], improve the soil’s physical–chemical properties, which are important for microbial growth by modifying habitats (aeration, water content, and pH) [36], affect the enzymatic activity of the soil [37, 38], and increase the sorption of herbicides, reducing the bioavailability and toxicity of these agrochemicals for the soil microbiota [29, 39, 40].
Interactions between biochar and soil microbiota and environmental effects. Source: Adapted from Zhu et al. [
Biochar-amended soil has a higher respiratory rate and microbial communities due to carbon mineralization by soil microorganisms [41]. Microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen increased by 18% and 63% with the application of 1% of sugarcane bagasse biochar [42]. The role of biochar nutrients in the biodegradation of coexisting dichlobenil and atrazine in soil by their respective bacterial degraders was evaluated. The degradation increased with increasing biochar content, due to nutritional stimulation on microbial activities [43]. The application of hardwood-derived biochar increased atrazine mineralization by stimulating atrazine-adapted microflora compared to unamended soil [19]. Soil amended with biochar derived from wheat straw increased the abundance and diversity rate of bacteria and fungi beneficial to plants in the rhizosphere of wheat seedlings [24]. In addition, these microorganisms use fomesafen as a source of nutrients, which favors their proliferation from the soil [24]. The change and proliferation of the soil microbiota with the addition of biochar is related to the chemical characteristics of biochar (mainly pH and nutrient content) and physical properties (pore size, pore-volume, and specific surface area), OM content, and water retention that provide favorable conditions for soil microbiota [28]. Although soil microbial biomass is generally benefited with the addition of biochar, the response depends on the type of raw material, pyrolysis temperature, and biochar application rate, since these factors directly interfere with the physical–chemical characteristics of biochar and consequently on the response of the microbiota in herbicide degradation. The proposed mechanisms involved in biochar and microbiota interactions require further studies to elucidate the impact of biochar on soil microbial activity.
Herbicides are applied to the soil to control weeds during a certain time after application; however, long persistence may affect the subsequent crop, a process known as carryover. Therefore, the process of degradation of the herbicide is important for the dissipation of herbicides in the soil when the intention is the remediation of the product. However, under agronomic conditions in which a residual effect of the herbicide on the soil is desired for weed control, the addition of biochar can reduce the persistence of the product, consequently reducing its effectiveness in management [2, 9, 44].
The degradation of herbicide molecules into secondary compounds (metabolites) can occur by biotic (biological degradation) or abiotic (hydrolysis, reduction, oxidation, and photolysis) processes [45]. Biodegradation, carried out by the soil microbiota (bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and actinomycetes), is the main decomposition pathway for most herbicides [13, 46]. Microorganisms can use herbicide molecules as an energy source and transform them into compounds without herbicide action, a process known as catabolism, or through co-metabolism, in which herbicide degradation requires the presence of a growth substrate that is used as primary carbon and energy source [3, 47], i.e., microorganism does not obtain energy or benefit from the herbicide degradation. The transformation process is usually mediated by non-specific enzymes that are capable to transform various organic compounds [4]. Herbicides have varied susceptibility to microbial degradation depending on the complexity of the molecule that influences low or high persistence in the soil [5].
Microbial degradation generally reduces the DT50 of herbicides in the soil; however, the addition of biochar, according to studies performed, may increase or decrease the DT50 values, depending on the herbicide and pyrolyzed feedstock (Table 1). The high sorption capacity for herbicides in the biochar-amended soil decreases herbicide degradation, providing a higher DT50 than the unamended soil [46, 49]. For example, less atrazine degradation was observed in amended soils with sugarcane bagasse biochar (0.5% w/w) (Table 1), increasing in 15 days the DT50 of the herbicide in relation to unamended soil [49]. Flumioxazin DT50 increased by ~10 days when bamboo biochar (10% w/w) was added compared to unamended soil (Table 1) [51]. The DT50 of 2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyaceticacid (MCPA) increased from 5.2 days (unamended soil) to 21.5 days in amended soil with 1% of wheat straw biochar [59].
Location (Country) | Soil texture (%) | Feedstock | Application rate (%)b | Pyrolysis temperature (°C) | Herbicide | DT50 (biochar-amended soil) | DT50 (unamended soil) | References | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sand | Silt | Clay | OMa | ||||||||
Australia | n.a. | n.a. | 36.1 | 2.4 | Wheat straw | 0.5 | 450 | Atrazine | 61.5d | 76.5d | Nag et al. [44] |
1 | 57.9d | ||||||||||
n.a. | n.a. | 28 | 4.0 | 0.5 | 65.9d | 68.6d | |||||
1 | 52.0d | ||||||||||
Australia | n.a. | n.a. | 36.1 | 2.4 | Wheat straw | 0.5 | 450 | Trifluralin | 73.6d | 75.4d | Nag et al. [44] |
1 | 71.1d | ||||||||||
n.a. | n.a. | 28 | 4.0 | 0.5 | 63.2d | 66.4d | |||||
1 | 61.2d | ||||||||||
Brazil | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | Industrial-production of charcoal | 3 | 350-550 | Sulfometuron-methyl | 52.1 | 36.6 | Alvarez et al. [48] |
6 | 55.4 | ||||||||||
China | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 3.2 | Sugarcane bagasse | 0.2 | 500 | Atrazine | 38.5 | 28.1 | Huang et al. [49] |
0.5 | 45.0 | ||||||||||
2.0 | 0.2 | 35.5 | 23.7 | ||||||||
0.5 | 41.2 | ||||||||||
3.6 | 0.2 | 41.2 | 39.8 | ||||||||
0.5 | 54.8 | ||||||||||
China | 21.4 | 51.4 | 27.2 | 2.8 | Coal | 1.5 | n.a.c | Isoproturon | 53.3 | 54.6 | Si et al. [46] |
5 | 60.8 | ||||||||||
8 | 71.4 | ||||||||||
27.9 | 33.6 | 38.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 67.9 | 16 | |||||
5 | 102 | ||||||||||
8 | 136 | ||||||||||
44.9 | 39.5 | 15.6 | 1.2 | 1.5 | 58.2 | 15.2 | |||||
5 | 88.9 | ||||||||||
8 | 107 | ||||||||||
China | 32.1 | 24.7 | 43.2 | 0.84 | Rice husk | 0.5 | 500 | Oxyfluorfen | 59 | 65 | Wu et al. [50] |
1 | 57 | ||||||||||
2 | 53 | ||||||||||
73.2 | 12.3 | 14.5 | 0.98 | 0.5 | 104 | 108 | |||||
1 | 85 | ||||||||||
2 | 77 | ||||||||||
55 | 23.1 | 21.9 | 2.2 | 0.5 | 43 | 45 | |||||
1 | 42 | ||||||||||
2 | 35 | ||||||||||
China | 77.4 | 4.4 | 18.2 | 1.5 | Cornstalk | 10 | 500 | Flumioxazin | 15.4 | 11.1 | Chen et al. [51] |
Rice husk | 500 | 16.7 | |||||||||
Bamboo | 700 | 23.2 | |||||||||
21 | 17 | 62 | 1.7 | Cornstalk | 500 | 18.5 | 11.5 | ||||
Rice husk | 500 | 22.3 | |||||||||
Bamboo | 700 | 25.4 | |||||||||
6.8 | 55.3 | 37.9 | 3.8 | Cornstalk | 500 | 20.5 | 15.4 | ||||
Rice husk | 500 | 22.6 | |||||||||
Bamboo | 700 | 29.2 | |||||||||
3.7 | 64.7 | 31.6 | 4.3 | Cornstalk | 500 | 21.0 | 20.8 | ||||
Rice husk | 500 | 24.7 | |||||||||
Bamboo | 700 | 30.7 | |||||||||
Germany | 30.1 | 62.5 | 7.8 | 1.2 | Hardwood | 0.1 | 500 | Atrazine | 74.0d | 72.4d | Jablonowski et al. [19] |
1 | 72.4d | ||||||||||
5 | 68.0d | ||||||||||
24.4 | 25.2 | 50.3 | 3.1 | 0.1 | 53.0d | 42.6d | |||||
1 | 49.8d | ||||||||||
5 | 44.4d | ||||||||||
India | 56.6 | 29.6 | 13.8 | n.a. | Rice straw | 0.25 | 350 | Bispyribac-sodium | 10.7 | 27.1 | Sharma et al. [39] |
0.5 | 11.5 | ||||||||||
1 | 12.1 | ||||||||||
0.25 | 550 | 8.8 | |||||||||
0.5 | 9.9 | ||||||||||
1 | 11.2 | ||||||||||
Latvia | 89.2 | 8.9 | 1.9 | n.a. | Wood chips | 5.3 | 725 | MCPA | 1986f | 94.5f | Muter et al. [52] |
4.1 | 3854f | 11.1f | |||||||||
Wheat straw | 5.3 | 1636f | 94.5f | ||||||||
4.1 | 15.3f | 11.1f | |||||||||
Malaysia | 40 | 21.5 | 37.9 | 0.99 | Oil palm empty fruit bunches | 1 | 300 | Imazapic | 46.2 | 34.6 | Yavari et al. [53] |
Imazapyr | 53.3 | 38.5 | |||||||||
Rice husk | Imazapic | 40.7 | 34.6 | ||||||||
Imazapyr | 46.3 | 38.5 | |||||||||
Russia | 3.1 | 30.4 | 66.5 | n.a. | Woods ( | 1 | 400 | Diuron | 47 | 40 | Zhelezova et al. [18] |
10 | 42 | ||||||||||
20 | 56 | ||||||||||
30 | 45 | ||||||||||
1 | Glyphosate | 187 | 17 | ||||||||
10 | 151 | ||||||||||
20 | 131 | ||||||||||
30 | 51 | ||||||||||
83.7 | 8.8 | 7.5 | n.a. | 1 | Diuron | 58 | 112 | ||||
10 | 33 | ||||||||||
20 | 35 | ||||||||||
30 | 40 | ||||||||||
1 | Glyphosate | 83 | 182 | ||||||||
10 | 66 | ||||||||||
20 | 78 | ||||||||||
30 | 53 | ||||||||||
Spain | 24 | 47 | 30 | 1.3 | Hardwood ( | 2 | 350 | Clomazone | 97 | 29 | Gámiz et al. [54] |
400 | 77 | ||||||||||
700 | 99 | ||||||||||
Hardwood ( | 350 | 107 | |||||||||
400 | 65 | ||||||||||
700 | 67 | ||||||||||
Hardwood ( | 350 | Bispyribac-sodium | n.a. | 21 | |||||||
400 | n.a. | ||||||||||
700 | 84 | ||||||||||
Hardwood ( | 350 | n.a. | |||||||||
400 | n.a. | ||||||||||
700 | 33 | ||||||||||
Spain | 43 | 32 | 23 | 0.9 | Olive mill waste | 2.5 | n.a. | Metribuzin | 39 | 22 | López-Piñeiro et al. [55] |
5 | 48 | ||||||||||
Olive mill waste plus leaves | 2.5 | 13 | |||||||||
5 | 17 | ||||||||||
53 | 32 | 14 | 0.6 | Olive mill waste | 2.5 | 49 | 35 | ||||
5 | 52 | ||||||||||
Olive mill waste plus leaves | 2.5 | 19 | |||||||||
5 | 22 | ||||||||||
43 | 14 | 42 | 0.9 | Olive mill waste | 2.5 | 40 | 29 | ||||
5 | 43 | ||||||||||
Olive mill waste plus leaves | 2.5 | 18 | |||||||||
5 | 16 | ||||||||||
USA | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0.7 | Sugarcane bagasse | 0.2 | 350 | Metribuzin | 54 | 25 | White Junior et al. [56] |
Sugarcane bagasse | 0.1 | 700 | 25 | ||||||||
n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0.8 | Sugarcane bagasse | 0.2 | 350 | 74 | 57 | |||
Sugarcane bagasse | 0.1 | 700 | 39 | ||||||||
n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 1.2 | Pine wood | 0.4 | 400 | 39 | 28 | |||
USA | 22 | 55 | 23 | >2 | Mixed sawing | 5 | 500 | Acetochlor | 34.5 | 9.7 | Spokas et al. [57] |
USA | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | Soybean waste | 10 | 500 | Alachlor | 4.6e | 10.4e | Mendes et al. [58] |
Sugarcane bagasse | 350 | 3.4e | |||||||||
Wood bark (grape) | 500 | 3.8e |
Effect of biochar amendment in soil on the degradation half-live time (DT50 - days) of different herbicides.
Organic Matter; bApplication rate in relation to soil mass (ww−1); cData not available; dDegradation (%); eMineralization (%) to CO2; fHerbicide concentration after incubation period (μg kg−1).
The application of biochar can also increase soil microbial activity, improving herbicide degradation [29, 60]. The increase in microbial biomass may be due to the addition of available organic substrates, which are the main energy source readily available to soil microorganisms [55]. The high content of dissolved OC in the soil MO can reduce herbicide sorption by biochar particles, as dissolved OC competes with herbicide molecules to occupy available biochar sorption sites [61]. Biochar also sorbs dissolved OC, which can contribute to co-metabolic biodegradation [22]. Some changes in degradation rate may result from indirect effects of biochar amendment, e.g., changes in soil pH and aeration [18]. The highest degradation of oxyfluorfen was observed in amended soils with different rates of application of rice husk biochar, decreasing DT50 between 2 and 23 days compared to unamended soil (Table 1) [50]. Alachlor mineralization increased up to 50% using biochar derived from soybean stoves, sugarcane bagasse, and wood chips compared to unamended soil (Table 1) [58].
Photolysis and hydrolysis are the main abiotic processes involved in herbicide degradation [48, 62]. Photolysis or photodegradation occurs when herbicides are exposed to sunlight [63] and can be direct (a herbicide molecule absorbs light energy, is later excited and transformed) or indirect (species photochemically produced in the soil matrix react with the herbicide molecule triggering its degradation) [64]. Water degrades herbicides by dividing large molecules into smaller molecules, breaking them in the process called hydrolysis [65]. The hydrolysis of herbicides in the soil can be influenced by several factors such as dissolved ion concentration, soil pH, and content of clays and metal oxides capable of catalyzing this herbicide degradation process [14, 66].
The application of biochar can influence the degradation of herbicides by hydrolysis and photolysis, since persistent free radicals existing or photogenerated in biochars can react with the herbicide by the activation of other free radicals such as hydroxyl, sulfate, anion, and superoxide [67, 68]. In addition, the increase in soil pH, the presence of active groups on the mineral surface of biochar, and the high sorption of herbicides have a direct effect on the chemical degradation processes of herbicides [64, 66]. Atrazine was hydrolyzed by 27.9% in the presence of biochar derived from pig manure (700°C) after 12 h due to the mineral surface and dissolved metal ions released from biochars that catalyze hydrolysis [66]. In contrast, imazapic and imazapyr were resistant to degradation by hydrolysis in amended soil with biochar derived from empty fruit bunch of oil palm and rice husk, and their DT50’s increased by ~6 to 12 days because the photodegradation rate diminished [53] (Table 1). The addition of biochar to the soil at 1 or 5% inhibited the photodegradation of metribuzin and its metabolites deamino (DA), deaminodiketo (DADK), and diketometribuzin (DK), which increased their DT50’s due to the immobilization of these compounds the surface layer of the biochar [64]. Therefore, the application of biochar has a direct impact on herbicide degradation processes and should be constantly examined for its application in the soil.
The impact on the degradation of herbicides due to their high sorption in the biochar particles depends on the rate of biochar applied to the soil. The application of different rates of application of hardwood biochar in Rhodic Ferralsol soil increased atrazine degradation by 49% (0.1% of biochar), 51% (1.0% of biochar), and 62% (5.0% of biochar) after 88 days of incubation (Table 1) [19]. DT50 of isoproturon in unamended Alfisol was 16 days, however, when biochar was added at 1.5 and 5%, DT50 increased to 67 and 136 days, respectively (Table 1) [46], i.e., the persistence of isoproturon is prolonged as the rate of biochar added to the soil increases. DT50 of fomesafen increased from 34.6 days in unamended soil to 51, 83, and 160 days in amended soils with rice husk biochar at 0.5, 1, and 2%, respectively [61]. The increased persistence of fomesafen can be explained by the higher sorb capacity of biochar and, therefore, little bioavailability of the herbicide for microbial degradation.
Pyrolysis temperature defines the physicochemical characteristics of biochars [69]. Generally, biochar produced at relatively high pyrolysis temperatures (>500°C) presents an increase in specific surface area, microporosity, and hydrophobicity, improving herbicide sorption [70]. However, even with higher herbicide sorption capacity, degradation at high pyrolysis temperatures may be more intensified than low temperatures. The addition of sugarcane bagasse biochar produced at 700°C in clay soil decreased the DT50 of metribuzin from 57 (unamended soil) to 39 days, but when biochar was produced at 350°C, DT50 went from 57 to 74 days (Table 1) [56]. These conflicting results could be due to the impact of ash on the alkalinity of the soil amended with biochar produced at 700°C (20.3% of ash), which increased the soil pH and improved the conditions for the degradation of metribuzin, and to the greater amount of dissolved OC from biochar produced at 350°C (3.78 mg g−1), which is more preferred by microorganisms as substrate, increasing the persistence of the herbicide. The variation in pyrolysis temperature of eucalyptus wood residue biochar affected the total hexazinone unavailable (mineralized + non-extractable residue) being higher for 850°C (46%) and 950°C (49%) compared to biochar pyrolised at 650°C (33%) and 750°C (42%) [71]. The addition of biochar did not alter the mineralization of hexazinone, but it did reduce the bioavailability of this herbicide in the soil due to the greater amount of non-extracted residue, reducing the risk of environmental contamination [71].
Aging alters the properties of biochar, affecting the degradation of herbicides, however, these changes are not fully elucidated [72]. Glyphosate showed no variation in degradation in two tropical soils (Ultisol and Alfisol) amended with eucalyptus biochar aged [73]. The aging of soil-wood biochar mixtures (
In an agricultural context, the property of biochar that offers potential for herbicide sorption (environmental remediation) can also decrease the efficacy of herbicides applied to the soil, influencing their bioavailability and susceptibility to leaching and consequently their degradation [77]. The bioavailability of diuron and microbial degradation was reduced in soils amended with rice straw biochar, which decreased the effectiveness of diuron to jungle rice (
The biochar applied to soil also influences the soil physicochemical properties and the improved nutritional availability of these directly impacts crop growth and consequently weed growth [81]. Soil amended with walnut shell biochar (5 Mg ha−1) for 4 years was evaluated for weed control [82]. Weed density was dramatically higher in biochar-amended soils (60-78%) compared to unamended soil, being related to increased nutrient availability and improvements in soil physicochemical properties such as cation exchange capacity (CEC), density and porosity, increased soil aeration, and water retention. The application of 2 Mg ha−1 of cow bonechar prevented weed control by indaziflam which is related to the increase of soil fertility, especially the phosphorus and carbon content, and to the increase of pH because it is a basic material [83]. In addition, goosegrass (
On the other hand, the decrease in efficacy depends on the characteristics of the herbicide evaluated. The dose of pretilachlor to inhibit 50% of E. colona emergence and biomass was higher in soil amended with rice-husk biochar, however, the effectiveness of pendimethalin in controlling E. colona was not influenced by the application rate of biochar [84]. The effectiveness on metribuzin in soils amended with biochar was evaluated by White Junior et al. [56]. The addition rates of biochar did not alter Palmer (Amaranthus palmeri) emergence, and it is possible that the residual activity was sufficient to reduce germination at any rate of biochar [56].
The addition of biochar to soil increases the sorption of different herbicides and reduces their effectiveness, which may result in the need for higher herbicide application rates, additional application times, or more weed control operations required [85]. Residual herbicides, applied in pre-emergence, can not provide good weed control regardless of soil type after biochar application. This does not necessarily mean that biochar should be avoided, however, when biochar is applied to the soil, management practices need to be adjusted to obtain appropriate weed control [86].
Modifying soil characteristics with biochar is a world-renowned emerging practice for either environmental and/or agronomic purposes, and the benefits these carbonaceous materials brig to the soil are clear. However, the pyrolysis conditions for biochar production directly interfere with the physical–chemical properties of the produced material, which govern the biochar-herbicide interactions. If the objective is to apply the herbicide in pre-emergence after the addition of biochar in the soil, care should be taken, as biochar can decrease or increase the persistence of the chemical product, interfering in the effectiveness of weed control over time. On the other hand, if the objective is herbicide remediation in contaminated soils, the interference of biochar in the bioavailability of the herbicide in the soil solution to increase soil microbiological diversity should be known.
The authors wish to thank the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES - 88887.479265/2020-2100) and Foundation for Research Support of the State of Minas Gerais - Brazil (FAPEMIG - APQ-01378-21) for the financial support.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The methods for analysis and design of the foundation of buildings and structures in karst areas depend on the complexes of the karst protection measures used. Two possible protection options are suggested:
the creation of such a constructive scheme of the underground part of a building or structure that will not allow the forces of the bearing structures to exceed the permissible values;
the installation of a protective geotechnical screen, either at the base of the foundation or above the karstic soils, will eliminate or substantially reduce the negative influence of karst development on the bearing structures.
The choice of protection against karst deformations is determined by the level of karst danger. In Russian Codes (SP 22.13330.2011), the two indicated options are assigned to the corresponding groups of measures of karst protection (structural and geotechnical, respectively) and the requirements for analysis of the karst protection foundations are significantly different.
As the results of the investigations of the karst deformations regularities [1, 2, 3, 4], and in accordance with the accepted classification the deformations can be divided into the holes and subsidences (Figure 1).
Karst deformation types: a – Karst hole; b – Surface subsidence.
The foundation calculation, providing karst deformations in a base, is the most advisable with due regard for the building and base interaction by the numerical modeling. The most simple decision in the given case is the modeling of the karst hole under the foundation base according to the hole dimensions. In places of the formation of the hole, the soil “goes out” from the foundation base and the load is redistributed to the adjacent parts where the contact of the foundation with the soil is provided. When modeling the building and base interaction with the karst hole, the choice of the base model and the determination of its initial parameters are of great importance.
The more important question is the bridge support pile foundation in the karst areas design. The design of the support pile foundation can be carried out in accordance with the comparison of the load-bearing capacity of the piles and the load transferred to the pile. Studies of the pile behavior during the formation of a karst hole in the base [5, 6, 7, 8] show that additional vertical and horizontal loads are transferred to the piles. The additional vertical loads are considered as “negative friction” and it is indicated that they must be taken into account. However, so far there have been no proposals to define such additional loads either in the normative or scientific literature.
The numerical studies for defining additional loads on the bridge support foundation piles during the karst cavity formation in the soil under the pile bottoms, depending on the distance to the karst soil and the karst cavity predicted size, are effective. As a result of the studies performed, the regularities of changes in the additional load transferred to the pile, depending on the variable parameters, are established and formulas for calculating the support foundation piles above the karst cavity are proposed.
The purpose of constructive measures of karst protection is to prevent the destruction of the structure when karst deformations occur at the base of the foundation. These measures are designed on the basis of the analyses that ensure a sufficient load-bearing capacity of the foundation and above-foundation structures to accept the additional loads that arise when karst deformations occur in the base. This is usually achieved in two ways:
by carrying out analysis of the foundation in conjunction with the above-foundation structures for the case of the karst deformation occurrence with the specified parameters;
by cutting through the karst soils and supporting the foundation on monolithic rocks.
Examples from the practice of design and construction show that the foundations designed for the karst deformations occurrence protects the building or structure from destruction when the karst processes in the base are activated.
However, the inclusion of a foundation that provides effective karst protection of a building can only be guaranteed if it is designed on the basis of calculated positions and initial data corresponding to the nature of the development of karst deformations. The main initial data, in this case, are the design parameters of karst deformations. The design parameters of karst deformations are determined (predicted) depending on their type.
There are three types of karst and suffusion deformations development:
“Hole”, when the karst cavity develops in karst soils and “floats” under the foundation base;
“Subsidence” as the result of the karst and suffusion processes development in the cover mass;
“Local subsidence”, when the karst cavity develops in karst soils or the cover layer, but does not “float” under the foundation base.
The decision which kind of karst deformations is critical is determined by the soil conditions and design features of the projected building or structure. The most dangerous variant of the development of deformations is accepted for design.
For shallow buildings or structures, it is advisable to perform calculations for the occurrence of a karst hole under the foundation base (the design diameter of the karst hole is taken as the design parameter of the karst deformation) or for the formation of a cauldron with the specified parameters.
For buildings or structures with the underground part, the most dangerous can be a karst deformation of the type “local subsidence”, since the foundation is approaching karst soils and the growth of the cavity in them, even if the stability of the arch is maintained, can cause significant additional forces in the bearing structures of the underground part. At the same time, the size of the karst cavity can be adopted as the design parameter of karst deformation, for which its arch is stable. Figure 2 shows an example of determining the size of such a cavity. In this case, the mathematical modeling of the karst cavity growth is performed using the finite element calculation with elastic–plastic model of the soil by eliminating the weakened zones (zones of the local loss of stability) around the karst cavity while maintaining the constant control of the equilibrium conditions of the arch. The growth of the cavity occurs before the maximum value of its diameter is attained, at which the equilibrium condition of the system is satisfied in the pre-limit state of the cover mass soil. Figure 2 shows the lines of equal soil shear strains with the cavity width increase from value b1 to b3 in karst soils.
The zones of equal shear strains: a, b, c – The width of the cavity is b1, b2, b3, respectively (b1 ˂ b2 ˂ b3); d- the cavity width (b3) due to occurrence of the equilibrium condition of the arch.
To design reliable and economical foundations, it is important to take the effect of the occurrence of karst deformations on the stress–strain state of the base and bearing structures into account. Taking into consideration the fact that the geometric dimensions of karst cavities in karstic rocks are not strictly defined, and the modeling of karst occurrence at the foundation base of a building or structure cannot guarantee the reliability of the results of the foundation analysis, the simplest solution is to model a karst hole under the foundation base in accordance with the dimensions determined by the statistical - probabilistic methods. At the same time, in the places of the formation of the hole, the ground “leaves” from under the foundation base, and the load is redistributed to adjacent areas, in which there is a contact of the foundation with the base. The modeling of the base behavior when karst deformations occur under the foundation base is possible using both elastic–plastic models of the base and the contact model.
Practical design experience of Russian engineers-researchers confirms the efficiency of a
With karst deformations of a “hole” or “subsidence” type, the compliance of the base is reduced due to the de-compaction of the soil around them with the load increase on these areas in the first case, and with the weakening of the base and unloading of the neighboring stronger sections in the second one. Therefore, it is suggested to determine the coefficients of subgrade reaction (pile stiffness coefficients) for the areas around the karst hole Kh by taking into account the decreasing coefficients ξ with respect to the coefficients of subgrade reaction (pile stiffness coefficients) K defined by standard methods without taking karst deformation into account:
Based on the results of numerical and field studies, methods for determining of the coefficients ξ for raft, pile-raft, and pile strip foundations have been developed.
Analysis of the
For a building or structure with a developed underground part, such an approach may be erroneous and lead to unpredictable deformations of the base and stresses in the foundation sections, since the karst cavity in the karst soils may be of a larger diameter than the karst hole “floating” as a result of the cavity arch failure. At the same time, due to the proximity of the foundation base to the karst soils, the local subsidence of the base above the cavity will provoke greater forces in the foundation sections than the karst hole under the foundation base of a smaller diameter. Therefore, in this case, it is suggested to take the diameter of the karst cavity in the karst soils (dp) as the design parameter of karst deformations. It is the maximum diameter of the karstic cavity when the soil cover mass is stable and the cavity does not “float” to the surface in kind of a hole, but there occurs local subsidence of the base above the cavity [9]. As a result of 3D finite element calculation with the elastic–plastic model of the soil, a method for analysis of the coefficient of subgrade reaction for the raft foundation base of a buried building, has been developed. This method allows to determine the decreasing coefficient ξ with respect to the coefficient of subgrade reaction determined without regarding cavity occurrence by any known methods:
where
As shown in Figure 3 the subgrade reaction coefficient and pressures under the raft base for the occurrence of karst cavity of the design diameter
A schematic of the subgrade reaction coefficient and pressures under the raft base for the occurrence of karst cavity of the design diameter
where
Analysis of t
Due to the peculiarities of the pile-raft foundation behavior, namely, the effect of pile pre-stressing in the soil, a situation is possible when the soil mass, stabilized with piles, accepts stresses of karst deformations and the karst cavity under the pile tips does not develop to the foundation base. In this case, karst deformations should be considered as “local subsidence”. In this case, the forces in the raft sections and, accordingly, the reinforcement of the raft, can be significantly reduced. Considering these features of the pile-raft foundation behavior, a method was developed for the analysis of the stiffness coefficient of the pile foundation above the karst cavity located under the pile bottoms. Analytical solutions were obtained to determine the pressures in the base and the settlements of the raft above the karst cavity [5, 8]. By the results of the analytical investigations using the linear-elastic approach, the method of calculation of the pile deformability ratio above the karst cavity is developed. The stressed-deformed state of the base with the full design column load is analyzed at the moment of the karst cavity formation under the pile bottoms. The pile compression in soil and the extra radial stresses along the pile shaft due to adjacent pile loads are taken into account.
As it is shown in Figure 4 the pile design scheme above the karst cavity is characterized by the radial stresses σr and the friction force
Pile design scheme above karst cavity.
where
The coefficients С1, С2, С3 (Eq.5) are defined by the equilibrium of forces around the piles with the total number of piles m and the distance to the neighbor piles bi:
The values of Tσ are defined according to R. Mindlin solution
As the result of the solution (Eq. 6), the coefficients
The condition, when the piles do not “move” in soil and karst deformations should be considered as “local subsidence”, is evaluated by the expression:
where Plim is the pile limit load above the karst cavity and is evaluated as Plim = pa2;
where
To define the pressure (
The solutions of Russian scientist Korenev B.G. are used to evaluate the pressure in the raft base and the settlements of the raft base in Bessel functions [5]:
as well as Hankel conversion for the function
where k0,k - pile deformability ratio (
The function
The parameters
By the results of the calculations of the improper integrals of Bessel’s function, the pressures in the raft base (
Using the analytical dependence of the pressure in the raft base on the pile deformability ratio above the hole and solving the inverse problem, the pile deformability ratio (
Analysis of the
One of the most effective geotechnical karst protection measures is the cementation of the cover soils above the karst soils. Schemes of karst protection cementation of the foundation are developed on the basis of the Russian Code (SP 22.13330.2011), which recommends cementation of the cavities and the entire thickness of the karst soils. However, in practice, these strata often reach considerable sizes (from 15 to 20 m), and their cementation to the full depth to monolithic rock soils where karst cavities do not form is not possible due to a significant rise in the cost of construction and technological problems of cementation and control its quality at great depths.
Investigations of the stress–strain state of the artificially strengthened foundation base over the karst cavity [10] made it possible to establish that the most efficient method was the cementation of the soil mass in the roof of the karst soils. In this case, the additional deformations in the foundation base are minimal when cavities occurrence in karst soils. Also, soil collapse into the karst cavity is not allowed if the height of the probable collapse area above the cavity does not exceed the thickness of the artificially strengthened soil layer.
The design forecast of the possibility of soil collapse into the karst cavity is based, as a rule, on the classical view of the distribution of stresses and the mechanism of the arches formation above the karst cavities. The arch above the cavity in the equilibrium state (up to the moment of its collapse) can be considered as an area of increased stresses and deformations, the size of which is determined by the strength and deformation characteristics of the soils. When cementing a soil layer of a given thickness over the karst soils in which the cavity growth is predicted, this area depends on the thickness and characteristics of the cemented soils, as well as on the maximum predicted cavity size for the standard operating life of the building and on the building loads.
The state of the collapse process characterizes the excess of the boundary values of the tensile and compressive stresses around the cavity that can be obtained from Mohr’s circle of stress. Therefore, the boundaries of the region of increased stresses and the formation of shear strains can be determined using the strength condition according to Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria, taking it as the boundary condition of rock flow and its collapse. Thus, the boundaries of a possible collapse area are defined as the locus of points at which the Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria are met.
Determination of additional load on the bridge foundation pile under karst deformation.
During the formation of a karst hole in the base of the bridge support pile foundation the additional loads are transferred to the piles. The additional vertical loads can be taken into account as the tangential stresses on the lateral surface of the piles, directed to the pile base.
To develop an engineering calculation method, complex numerical studies were performed by means of mathematical modeling of the bridge support pile foundation in various geological conditions. The calculation method was based on the analysis of the design documents for bridge crossings at Moscow-Kazan HSL section. As a result of the analysis, a variable finite element calculation model with the following parameters was compiled:
the soil mass under the rocky karst soil is represented by firm clay with the characteristics specified in Table 1;
a square-shaped grillage combining 36 piles with a diameter of 1.2 m and a length of 33 m.;
the size of the calculated area L (along X and Y axes) was determined by the condition that it did not affect the results of the calculation, the nodes at the boundaries of the area were fixed;
the size of the calculated area H (along Z-axis) was limited by the roof of the rocky karst soils, the nodes at the boundaries of the area were fixed, except for the predicted karst cavity;
the predicted karst cavity was represented by the absence of anchoring of the nodes (along Z-axis) within it;
the pile-soil contact was taken into account with the help of special interface elements.
The Finite element model section and scheme of the calculated foundation is shown in Figure 5.
Characteristic name | Clay |
---|---|
Density, kN/m3 | 18.0 |
Deformation modulus, MPa | 25.0 |
Angle of internal friction, degree | 20 |
Cohesion, kPa | 80.0 |
Physical and mechanical characteristics of soils.
Finite element model (section).
As shown in Figure 6 the calculations were performed by varying the following parameters:
the distance to the rock roof (
estimated cavity size during operation (
distributed load over the grillage top: 400 kN/m2, 550 kN/m2 (corresponds to the load on the pile of 2800 kN and 3900 kN).
The scheme of calculated foundation.
Finite element calculations were made in a three-dimensional representation with Midas GTS NX Software. Soil, grillage, and piles were modeled by three-dimensional elements. A linear-elastic model was used to model concrete. The elastic–plastic Mohr-Coulomb model was used for soil modeling with 3-dimensional finite elements. Using the strength criterion implemented in the model, it was possible to estimate the “collapse arch” size in the cover layer of the soil above the karst cavity. In this way, the “subsidence” deformation type and “failure” deformation type can be realized. The possibility of using that strength criterion was confirmed by the convergence of the calculation results with the model experiment data of the “collapse arch” formation above the cavity [10].
The calculation was performed in the following sequence:
The initial stress–strain condition of the soil mass was determined;
The pile foundations of the supports were calculated for the design loads under normal operating conditions and the tangential stresses on the lateral surface of the piles were determined;
The cavity size growth in karst soils located at a given distance from the bottom of the piles was determined step-by-step and the tangential stresses on the lateral surface of the piles were defined.
During calculations, the growth of the “collapse arch” above the karst cavity was monitored. Figure 7 shows the predicted “collapse arch” under pile bottom with Mohr-Coulomb points above karst cavity. Assuming the possibility of the arch development not higher the bottom of the piles, the additional load on the pile, realized at the time of the cavity formation, was determined.
Mohr-coulomb points above cavity.
The additional load was transferred to the pile at the time of the cavity formation due to the occurrence of “negative friction” on the lateral surface of the piles in their lower part. When modeling the formation of a cavity in karst soils, the occurrence of “negative friction” was determined by changing the tangential stresses on the lateral surface of the piles in comparison with the calculated ones in normal operating conditions.
Under normal operating conditions, tangential stresses on the lateral surfaces of piles increased with depth, while on the extreme and corner piles the growth began from the top of the pile (the pile was included in work entirely). In the central piles, tangential stresses developed in the lower part of the pile (due to the “compression” effect, the side surface friction of the central piles was not fully realized). Similar results of experimental and theoretical studies of piles behavior in the group were obtained in Russian and abroad [11, 12, 13, 14].
When a cavity was formed, the soil of the cover layer subsided, which led to a change in the nature of the pile lateral surface work: the tangential stresses on the lateral surface in the lower part decreased, but along the rest of the pile length they increased. Figure 8 shows tangential stresses on the lateral surface of the pile before cavity formation (a) and after cavity formation (b). That indicated the occurrence of the “negative friction” effect in the lower part of the piles and the inclusion of the most part of its lateral surface at the time of the cavity formation. The additional load on pile
Tangential stresses on the lateral surface of the pile (τz, kN/m2): а – Before cavity formation, b – After cavity formation.
where:
The proportion of the increase in the load on the pile
After performing the variable calculations, the following results were obtained and processed:
the position of the Coulomb-Mohr points above the karst cavity to assess the size of the “collapse arch” and control the development of that arch to the bottom of the piles (Figure 7);
change of the tangential stresses on the lateral surface of the pile (Δτz kN/m2) during the growth of the karst cavity (Figure 8).
As the calculation result of Coulomb-Mohr points location shown in Figure 7, the curves of the ratio
Dependence of the relative distance from the predicted top of the collapsed vault to the bottom of the piles (
Figure 10 shows graphs of the dependence of the additional load on the pile (
Dependence of the additional load on the pile (
To determine the additional load on the pile (
Dependence of
The value of a reliable approximation was R2 = 0.9194. Thus, the additional load on the pile
To design the reliable and economical foundations, the practical design experience of Russian engineers-researchers confirms the efficiency of a
The most effective way to determine the coefficients of subgrade reaction is to use the lowering coefficients with respect to the coefficients of subgrade reaction defined by standard methods without taking karst deformation into account.
Based on the results of numerical and field studies with the elastoplastic soil model, methods for determining the lowering coefficients for pile-raft, pile strip, and raft foundations have been developed [5, 6, 9].
One of the most effective geotechnical karst protection measures is the grouting of the cover mass above the karst soils. In this case, the soil collapse into the karst cavity will not occur if the height of the probable collapse area above the cavity does not exceed the thickness of the artificially strengthened soil layer. The boundaries of a possible collapse area can be defined as the locus of the Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria points [10].
On the basis of numerical calculations for bridge support pile foundation, it was shown that there were additional loads on the piles under karst deformations at the base of the foundation. The value of those loads for clay cover layers over karst soils was determined.
For bridge support pile foundation it was established that additional loads largely depended on the distance from the bottom of the piles to the karst soils roof and the cavity diameter in the karst soils. The method for calculating the additional loads on the bridge support piles depending on the size of the cavity and the distance from the bottom of the piles to the karst soil roof has been developed.
The author expresses gratitude to his graduate students Kayumov M., Davletyarov D., Evdokimov A., together with whom the research was carried out and the solutions presented in this paper were obtained.
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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"