Top 20 of banana-producing countries and overseas territories.
\r\n\tAtherosclerosis is a systemic disease. Some 60% of patients with peripheral artery disease will have ischaemic heart disease, and 30% have cerebrovascular disease. Within five years of diagnosis, 10-15% of patients with intermittent claudication will die from cardiovascular disease. Therefore, management begins with the identification and modification of risk factors that are common to peripheral artery disease, heart disease, and stroke. Treatment goals include reducing cardiovascular risk and improving functional capacity. Revascularization is indicated for persistent symptoms.
\r\n\tThe main objective of the book is to deal with peripheral arterial disease in the most diverse aspects. Addressing issues such as pathophysiology, signs and symptoms, clinical aspects, treatment, and prognosis.
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The history of endoscopic management of pediatric foreign bodies was predated by significant innovations allowing for the evolution of adult and pediatric bronchoesophagology. Prior to these advances, tracheotomy was the accepted method for successful removal of airway foreign bodies [1]. In 1806, Philipp Bozzini, reported using the "lichtleiter" or "light conductor" to visualize the upper esophagus using candle illumination [2]. While his instruments and methods did not gain wide acceptance during his lifetime, they set the stage for further innovations that occurred over the ensuing decades. Desormeaux, a urologist, is credited with coining the term "endoscopy" in 1867 [3] and is considered by most to be the "Father of Endoscopy" [4]. Kussmaul is credited with performing the first direct esophagoscopy, and his student Killian further explored these techniques and instrumentation. Mikulicz further refined the techniques and instrumentation of esophagoscopy, bringing it into more common use [5].
In 1895, Alfred Kirstein, a laryngologist in Berlin who was familiar with the work of Kussmaul and Mikulicz, was the first to directly visualize the larynx and trachea [6]. Killian became interested in Kirstein\'s achievements and began to practice laryngoscopy on cadavers and tracheotomized patients. In 1897, he was the first to remove a foreign body from the right mainstem bronchus of an adult via the translaryngeal route. His contributions and achievements have prompted many to consider him the "Father of Bronchoscopy" [7]. Following these innovations, tracheoscopy and bronchoscopy became accepted surgical techniques.
Chevalier Jackson became interested in laryngology while studying medicine in Pennsylvania and eventually furthered his studies in London. After learning the techniques of his mentors and as an instrument maker, he created an esophagoscope allowing for direct visualization of the esophagus. With this design, he was successful in removing esophageal foreign bodies from both adults and children. Jackson further refined his technique and the instruments he used, eventually developing the largest endoscopy clinic in the world [5]. Through the innovations of Jackson and his predecessors, the techniques for removal of esophageal and airway foreign bodies was perfected, reducing the mortality from foreign body ingestion or aspiration from more than 50% to less than 2% [5].
Modern endoscopic equipment is available in various sizes and configurations to accommodate patient age and size, and the use of flexible vs. rigid endoscopic equipment are both available (Figure 1). There are some clear advantages to the use of rigid bronchoscopy for removal of a tracheobronchial foreign body. The scope is designed to have ventilating ports so the anesthesia circuit can be directly attached for active ventilation and control of the airway during the procedure.
A) Various non-optical and optical graspers used for removal of foreign bodies from the aerodigestive tract. B) Rigid, ventilating bronchoscopes of various sizes. Selection depends on the age of the patient and size of the airway.
Flexible bronchoscopy can be done with insufflation techniques in the oropharynx or through the scope, but the channel on the scope is small, thus limiting flow of gas. Alternatively, the flexible scope can be passed through a secured endotracheal tube (Figure 2). If the foreign body cannot fit through the endotracheal tube, then this creates a problem for removal with the tube in place. The foreign body forceps have more limited sizes with flexible bronchoscopy, and there is also less control of the scope itself since it can bend to various configurations. Certainly in our experience, flexible bronchoscopy can be a useful adjunct to removal of foreign bodies, as it can give more distal visualization of the lower airways for small food particles, like nuts, that may fall further than the rigid scopes can reach. Such smaller, distal airways can be irrigated with saline and additional attempts using flexible or rigid bronchoscopy can then be utilized to remove these small fragments using endoscopic optical graspers or suction.
Flexible bronchoscopy cart setup.
For esophagoscopy, the use of the rigid scope allows for use of the same endoscopic optical graspers used in airway cases. While many esophageal foreign bodies are safely removed with flexible endoscopy, the rigid scope does not require insufflation of the esophagus with air and using rigid equipment, more direct visualization of the insertion through the upper esophageal sphincter can be made. There are fewer options for types of graspers available for the flexible esophagoscope. In our opinion, the endoscopic optical graspers themselves used through the rigid scope allow for enhanced visualization and easier foreign body removal (Figure 3).
An example of an endoscopic, optical coin grasper, with a fine tooth at the tip, which allows the coin to pivot or swivel through the path of least resistance through the esophagus during removal.
The upper aerodigestive tract extends from the lips and nasal vestibule to the upper esophagus and trachea and mainstem bronchi. It can be divided into anatomic subsites, including the nasal cavity, nasopharynx, oropharynx, hypopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and esophagus.
With regard to the nasal cavity, foreign bodies typically get lodged between the inferior turbinate and the septum. As the nasal cavity is part of the airway, care must be taken during removal attempts in the office setting to avoid converting this upper airway foreign body into a lower airway foreign body.
Several differences between the adult and pediatric airway exist that the endoscopist should consider when evaluating and treating patients with aerodigestive foreign bodies. First, the infantile larynx is positioned much higher in the neck. Additionally, the neonatal larynx is approximately one-third the size of the adult larynx, with the narrowest portion being at the level of the cricoid cartilage and not at the level of the glottis, as in adults [8]. A small reduction in the size of the pediatric airway can have significant and devastating consequences. The size of the airway must be kept in mind when choosing the appropriate size of the bronchoscope. As a general rule, the largest size ventilating scope that can be placed based on age of the child and size of subglottis, allows for optimal ventilation, visualization, and endoscopic removal.
A 13-month old presented to the emergency room with wheezing and coughing. The child had reportedly put something into its mouth earlier that day. An A-P plain film showed hyperinflation of the left lung with right-sided mediastinal shift. There was no radiopaque foreign body noted on the plain film. Direct laryngoscopy with rigid bronchoscopy revealed a left mainstem foreign body, consistent with half of a wooden bead that was removed with an endoscopic optical forceps.
The presence of a foreign body within the tracheobronchial tree can lead to a ball-valve effect, resulting in early hyperinflation of the lung ipsilateral to the foreign body (Figure 4). Over time, the obstructed lung segment becomes atelectatic. In addition to its physical obstruction, the presence of a foreign body disrupts the normal mucociliary clearance of the tracheobronchial tree. These factors can contribute to the rapid accumulation of secretions and subsequent superimposed pneumonia [9].
The right mainstem bronchus creates a more obtuse angle with the trachea when compared to the left mainstem bronchus, leading to a higher incidence of right-sided airway foreign bodies [10].
There are several anatomic considerations that can lead to arrested passage of an esophageal foreign body through the digestive tract and into the stomach. These sites include the upper esophageal sphincter or cricopharyngeus, the mid-esophagus where the aortic arch crosses, and the lower esophageal sphincter. Additionally, there are a few pathologic conditions that can predispose pediatric patients to dysphasia and esophageal foreign bodies, including vascular rings and slings.
Airway foreign bodies represent an important cause of pediatric morbidity and mortality both in developed and developing countries. According to the US CDC\'s Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, nonfatal choking-related episodes among children less than 14 years old were responsible for approximately 17, 000 emergency room visits in the year 2001 alone, with an estimated rate of 29.9 episodes per 100, 000 children. The incidence was greatest in patients less than 1 year old (140.4 per 100, 000) and steadily declined with increasing age. Seventy-seven percent of patients presenting with chocking-related symptoms were three years old or younger. In their data, there was a higher incidence in males (55.1%) and a higher incidence of food-related substances when compared to nonfoods (59.5% vs. 31.4%, 9% unknown) [11]. The most commonly aspirated foreign bodies include round, hard foods such as nuts, seeds, beans, corn, and berries [12].
In Tan et al.\'s 10-year retrospective review of children treated for airway foreign bodies via bronchoscopy, they reported a male preponderance (63.7%) in a series of 135 cases. Three quarters of their patients were under 3 years of age [13]. Both of these trends mirror that of other published series [14–16]. Tan proposed that the higher incidence of foreign body aspiration in younger children was due to their poor oro-motor control and their lack of dentition, in addition to their propensity to explore the world with their mouths.
Prior to the advent of modern endoscopic techniques, the reported mortality from aspirated foreign bodies was as high as 50% or greater [5]. Following the advent of endoscopic techniques and increased public awareness, the mortality rate of patients with foreign bodies is approximately 1% [17]. The total number of foreign body--related deaths in the United States is estimated to be between 500 and 2000 [13].
The nasal cavity is the most common sub-site for foreign bodies when considering the entire upper aerodigestive tract, accounting for approximately two-thirds of all foreign bodies. In Chinski’s study of aerodigestive tract foreign bodies in Argentina, 1559 nasal foreign bodies were reported. The most common objects found in the nose in decreasing order were pearls, stationery, food, seeds/nuts/beans, pins/nails/metal, other inorganic materials and stones, followed by other less common items, including 1 button battery and 11 magnets [18]. The majority of nasal foreign bodies occur on the patient\'s right side, with this trend increasing with the patient’s age [19]. Interestingly, some studies have demonstrated a decreased incidence of nasal foreign bodies during the summer months [20]. Others have commented on the increased incidence of nasal foreign bodies during the months of January, March, April, and October, coinciding with the months near Christmas, Easter, and Halloween when children are exposed to more toys and treats [19].
Many nasal foreign bodies are asymptomatic, presenting only because their placement was witnessed or admitted (Figure 5). Unwitnessed or untreated nasal foreign bodies may present with a variety of symptoms, including unilateral purulent rhinorrhea or nasal obstruction, halitosis, epistaxis, sinusitis, or a combination of these symptoms [19, 21]. A nasal septal hematoma should be differentiated from a nasal foreign body (Figure 6). In a European study assessing complications and hospitalizations due to nasal foreign bodies, Gregori et al. demonstrated that battery nasal foreign bodies were more likely to experience complications and require hospitalizations when compared to many other types of nasal foreign bodies [21]. As with other studies regarding aerodigestive foreign bodies, they reported a fairly high incidence of children placing nasal foreign bodies while under adult supervision (38%).
Right nasal foreign body, a piece of broken glass, placed by a 5-year old boy. This was removed in the operating room, instead of clinic setting, due to sharp edges and risk of bleeding following removal.
Right nasal septal hematoma after nasal trauma could be mistaken for a foreign object; the mucoperichondral flap is fluctuant to palpation with a cotton tip applicator. Surgical drainage is the required treatment to prevent abscess formation and cartilage necrosis.
Foreign bodies of the laryngotracheobronchial tree can present with varying degrees of airway symptoms depending on their location, shape, size relative to airway, and chronicity.
Foreign bodies of the larynx, while infrequent, are associated with the most devastating outcomes. In addition to more common symptoms associated with foreign bodies of the trachea and bronchi, these patients are more likely to present with hoarseness, aphonia, drooling, stridor, and drooling. Complete obstruction can cause cyanosis, respiratory distress, and respiratory arrest followed by death. Persistent irritation can lead to significant laryngeal edema that can persist and cause significant symptoms even after foreign body removal [10, 22].
Patients with tracheal foreign bodies may present with biphasic stridor, a dry cough with an associated "sharp crack" or "slap" when a moving foreign body impacts the subglottis. Patients may place themselves in the "tripod" position, leaning forward with elbows or hands on their knees. There may also be a dramatic shift in symptoms when the patient changes positions, owing to the mobility of the foreign body [22].
In Tan et al.\'s series, the most common presenting symptoms of tracheobronchial foreign bodies were "choking, coughing, gagging" with 91.8% of patients presenting in this manner. This was followed by "wheezing" in 84.4% of patients and finally the classic triad of "coughing, wheezing, and reduced breath sounds" in only 57% of patients. Less common symptoms reported in their series included fever, pneumonia, stridor, chest pain, blood stained mucous, restlessness, throat discomfort, sternal discomfort, increased seizure episodes, and nose bleed [13].
A thorough history and physical exam are paramount in the evaluation of a child with suspected foreign body and can frequently lead to a diagnosis without the need for further diagnostic workup or imaging. Traditionally, plain film radiography has been advocated for patients with suspected foreign body aspiration. A-P and lateral plain films may reveal a radiopaque foreign body within the tracheobronchial tree. Additionally, sequelae from the presence of the foreign body may be recognized, including air-trapping with associated mediastinal shift, atelectasis, or pneumonia from long-standing foreign body. Decubitus films may demonstrate lack of dependent mediastinal shift on the side ipsilateral to the foreign body [23].
The use of plain film radiography does not need to be routinely employed in patients where there is a high index of suspicion for foreign body based on history and physical examination. In a 6-year retrospective review of 93 cases of possible airway foreign body cases, Silva et al. reported a imaging study sensitivity and specificity of 74% and 45%, respectively [24]. In a series of 232 patients with pre-operative radiography in whom foreign bodies confirmed via bronchoscopy, 110 had plain film imaging that was considered normal by the surgeon (47%). For patients with radiology reports, 42% of patients with bronchial foreign bodies and 81% of patients with tracheal foreign bodies had negative imaging reports. The same study did note that patients with long-standing foreign bodies are more likely to have positive findings on plain film radiography when compared to patients with foreign bodies that have been present for less than 24 h [25]. In their retrospective reviews, neither Assefa nor Brown found sufficient evidence to support the routine use of decubitus films in the identification of airway foreign bodies, citing the lack of sensitivity [23, 26].
Some studies have reported on the diagnostic utility of CT imaging and CT virtual bronchoscopy, with reported sensitivities and specificities ranging from 90% to100% [27, 28]. Foreign bodies that are radiolucent on plain films may be identified on CT. The risks of ionizing radiation and the inability to concurrently diagnose and treat foreign body aspiration should be recognized when considering these modalities.
Despite negative imaging studies, if the history is concerning for possible aspiration, then endoscopic evaluation should still be considered given the potential morbidity and mortality of airway foreign bodies.
Nasal foreign bodies can frequently be managed in the clinic if the object is in the anterior nasal cavity. After removal, confirmation using nasal endoscopy can ensure that no additional retained foreign body is present. Objects that are difficult to grasp or that are posterior within the nasal cavity may require sedation or a general anesthetic removal. If the object is round, using a right angle probe behind it and pulling anterior is safest, to avoid propelling the object into the pharynx or causing it to be aspirated into the lower tracheobronchial tree. Other upper airway foreign bodies require direct laryngoscopy and removal with endoscopic visualization of the pharynx and larynx (Figure 7). These are considered an emergency as they can potentially lead to lower airway obstruction if the object is aspirated. When done in the operating room, the endoscopist must be prepared for emergent bronchoscopy, should the object fall distally during induction of anesthesia. Thorough discussion with the anesthesia team on the plan prior to induction must take place. All potential non-optical and optical graspers should be available to quickly use as needed. In addition, instrumentation for emergent tracheostomy placement should be immediately available should the need arise. Figures 8-14 demonstrate a variety of cases where endoscopic management was performed.
The choice of anesthetic technique should be based on a discussion between the surgeon and anesthesiologist. Pediatric airway and esophageal foreign body removal is performed under general anesthesia. Anesthetic induction can be achieved either by inhalation of volatile anesthetic gas or intravenous medications. Anesthesia can then be maintained with spontaneous ventilation or paralysis with control of the airway. This choice is surgeon and anesthesiologist dependent, but should be agreed upon prior to the start of the procedure.
Especially in the case of tracheobronchial foreign bodies, constant and deliberate communication regarding the airway should be maintained between the surgical and anesthesia teams. This situation represents a true “shared airway”[29, 30].
An age-appropriate size bronchoscope and one size smaller should always be set up for tracheobronchial foreign bodies. A back-up fiberoptic light source is helpful in case one fails during the procedure. Given that the rigid bronchoscope itself is a means of ventilation, strategic use of the instrument during the procedure is important. For example, if the oxygen saturations drop, the telescope can be removed and this increases the ventilating diameter, and therefore the volume of airflow through the bronchoscope tube with occlusion of the proximal end with a cap. The mouth and nose can be manually sealed around the scope to create some “positive pressure” as needed. Optical graspers of various shapes can be easily passed through the bronchoscope while maintaining ventilation, and foreign bodies can be removed under direct endoscopic visualization. The surgeon must ensure all equipment is functional, available, and all desired instruments fit through the bronchoscope size selected prior to the patient’s anesthetic induction.
Tracheostomy is rarely required; however, equipment should be immediately available for obtaining an emergent surgical airway in the management of airway foreign bodies. This is always discussed with the parents during the informed consent process.
In the rare case where the foreign body cannot be removed endoscopically, additional interventions may be required. As a temporizing measure, the use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) may allow oxygenation in a case of inability to ventilate [31]. This is a highly specialized technique that is not available in all centers. It allows oxygenation of the blood and maintenance of circulation until a definitive plan for removal can be facilitated.
An 11-month old with an open safety pin in the upper airway. The patient presented with irritability and drooling of several hours duration, and the mother felt the child might have put something into its mouth. A-P and lateral plain films confirmed the diagnosis.
In cases where the foreign body cannot be removed endoscopically, open approaches may be required [32]. Cervical esophagostomy for proximal esophageal foreign bodies, or thoracotomy with bronchotomy, may be required for tracheobronchial foreign bodies. In these rare cases, close collaboration with pediatric thoracic surgeons or pediatric surgeons is required.
A 9-year-old patient presenting with cough and stridor with concurrent fever. Direct laryngoscopy with rigid bronchoscopy revealed bacterial tracheitis. Tracheal casts can cause airway symptoms similar to aspirated foreign bodies.
A 12-month old presented to the Emergency Department with increased work of breathing and stridor after reportedly having swallowed a piece of a pen. Plain film imaging was unrevealing. Given the clinical presentation, the patient underwent direct laryngoscopy with rigid bronchoscopy, revealing a plastic foreign body in the right mainstem bronchus.
A 12-month old presenting with respiratory symptoms and concern for foreign body aspiration. Direct laryngoscopy with rigid bronchoscopy confirms a high-powered magnet sphere within the right mainstem bronchus. Another was trapped in the esophagus directly behind this. This has the potential to cause a tracheoesophageal fistula given magnetic strength and tissue necrosis between the two magnets. Severe injuries are more common in the lower gastrointestinal tract causing perforation when more than one of these is swallowed (this child had additional magnetic spheres in the small bowel which caused transmural necrosis and perforation requiring repair).
While having a tooth extracted at a dentist office, this child accidently aspirated the tooth, found in the right mainstem bronchus.
Plastic bronchitis in a patient with congenital heart disease, showing a cast in the left bronchial tree.
A 2-year-old boy was given peanuts by an older sibling, choked, was in severe respiratory distress, found to have several fragments in the lower airways. These were removed with optical graspers through the rigid bronchoscope.
A 2-year-old patient presented to the Emergency Department with multiple facial lacerations following a motor vehicle accident during which she was ejected through the passenger side window. She had no respiratory symptoms as presentation. As part of her trauma workup, she underwent both plain film and CT imaging of the chest, both showed a possible left-sided airway foreign body. Direct laryngoscopy with bronchoscopy confirmed the diagnosis, and the object was endoscopically removed without difficulty.
Foreign body ingestion is a relatively common occurrence, with an estimated 100, 000 cases per year in the United States alone. Like airway foreign bodies, the majority of cases occur in children aged between 6 months and 3 years [33]. For the majority of esophageal foreign bodies, a child’s caregiver either witnesses or suspects that their child has ingested a foreign body [34]. While the majority of ingested foreign bodies will pass on their own, there is still a real risk of significant morbidity and mortality. Of all patients with esophageal foreign bodies seeking medical attention, 80%–90% pass the foreign body without any intervention, 10%--20% require endoscopic removal, and only 1% require surgical removal [33]. It has been estimated that 1, 500 deaths occur annually in the United States alone due to foreign body ingestion [35].
Recently, there has been a sharp rise in the use of button-battery powered hand-held electronic equipment. This has coincided with a rise in the incidence of button battery--related emergency department visits [36].
As with airway foreign bodies, a thorough history and physical exam are critical in the workup of the pediatric patient with a suspected esophageal foreign body. As previously stated, frequently, a caregiver has witnessed the ingestion and can positively identify the object, which may have implications regarding urgent intervention, such as in the case of an ingested button battery or magnet.
Many esophageal foreign body ingestions go unwitnessed and a large proportion of these pass without incident or development of symptoms [37]. When children do have symptoms, they tend to be nonspecific and can lead to a missed or delayed diagnosis. In a retrospective review by Arana et al. of 325 pediatric patients presenting with esophageal foreign bodies, only 54% of patients had transient symptoms at the time of ingestion [38]. When patients are symptomatic, they primarily present with nonspecific gastrointestinal or pulmonary complaints, including coughing, choking, gagging, drooling, odynophagia, and/or dysphagia. Patients may also present with stridor or wheezing due to inflammation of adjacent tracheobronchial mucosa.
In their retrospective study of 248 cases of patients undergoing esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) for foreign body removal, Denney et al. assessed the incidence of esophageal injury as it related to presenting symptoms. In their series, 59 children (30%) were found to have mucosal ulceration. They found that a presenting complaint of substernal pain correlated with mucosal ulceration, whereas symptoms of vomiting, respiratory distress, and drooling did not. The vast majority of foreign bodies in their series were coins (81%) and 8 cases of batteries were reported. They did not comment on any injuries from batteries [34].
The patient’s clinical presentation should be corroborated with imaging to ensure that a foreign body requiring urgent removal is not misdiagnosed [35]. Imaging for esophageal foreign body workup should typically include the chest and abdomen in both AP and lateral planes (Figure 15). It should be noted, however, that about 1/3 of foreign bodies are radiolucent [38].
A 5-year old presented to the Emergency Department with several episodes of emesis. She admitted to swallowing a penny while at day care earlier that day. A-P and lateral plain films confirmed the diagnosis of an esophageal foreign body. A penny was identified and removed via rigid esophagoscopy. Minimal esophageal mucosal irritation was noted.
Jatana et al. reported on the utility of plain film radiography in distinguishing esophageal coins from button batteries [39]. They described the "double ring" or "halo" sign created by a button battery on an A-P plain film (Figure 16). The 20mm 3 volt lithium batteries consistently demonstrate this finding. They also demonstrated the "step-off" that can be seen on lateral plain films of button batteries, though they caution that some new thinner button batteries will not demonstrate this finding. Clinicians must not rely on lateral x-rays alone.
A) Button battery in upper esophagus. B) Coin in upper esophagus. By zooming into the foreign body, the “double ring or halo sign” can be clearly seen for the battery. Zooming into the image is most helpful for differentiation. Reproduced with permission, Jatana [
Esophageal injury secondary to a button battery in a 4-year old. The injury involves the muscular layer of the esophagus. Reproduced with permission, Jatana [
Many experts argue against the use of contrast studies for diagnosing esophageal foreign bodies given the increased risk of aspiration with a foreign body obstructing the esophagus. The presence of contrast could compromise the ability of the endoscopist to find the foreign body during retrieval and may also limit mucosal assessment [41]. In addition, the contrast typically pushes back general anesthesia 8 h, and delays operative intervention. Esophagram does have a role in assessing for esophageal perforation or stricture due to foreign bodies, but generally only after operative removal of the foreign body.
Several authors have described the utility of hand-held metal detectors in the management of patients with suspected coin ingestion. Younger et al. performed a 2-year prospective study of patients presenting for evaluation of esophageal foreign bodies. With a hand-held metal detector, they were able to positively identify the presence and location of esophageal coins in all 26 patients who had positive plain films [42]. Lee et al. performed a systematic review of 11 studies and found that the sensitivity and specificity of identifying the presence of coins was 99.4% and 100%, respectively, when compared to plain films. They do note however, that non-coin metal objects were not detected as frequently as coins in one study reviewed. The authors point out the benefit of avoiding ionizing radiation when using a hand-held metal detector [43].
Repeat imaging has a role in the management of esophageal foreign bodies that are managed expectantly. An x-ray can ensure that an esophageal foreign body has passed into the stomach. In addition, should the object not be found in the stools over time, repeat abdominal x-ray can confirm that there is no retained opaque foreign body in the lower gastrointestinal tract.
Management of esophageal foreign bodies varies considerably based on several factors, including anatomic location, type of foreign body, patient presenting symptoms, and existing complications. A button battery lodged in the esophagus is an emergency. The current generated around the battery causes hydroxide ion to form at the negative pole, causing rapid injury. Serious injury can occur in only 2 h. The 20 mm diameter, 3 volt lithium batteries cause the most severe injury as they combine high power, with large enough size to get stuck; these are frequently used in many household electronics [39]. A common misconception is that the leaking battery acid is the major source of mucosal injury, rather than the generated electrical current. In addition, “dead” batteries, meaning those that no longer have enough charge to power their intended electronics, can still have enough residual electrical current to cause mucosal injury (Figure 17).
Coins lodged in the esophagus can be managed with an initial period of observation, and if they fail to pass into the stomach, can be removed endoscopically.
Rigid esophagoscopy allows for the scope to be placed under constant direct visualization for removal of the foreign body using endoscopic optical graspers that are most suited for the object. In general, a second-look esophagoscopy can not only confirm the absence of any additional non-opaque foreign bodies, but also assess any injury to the esophageal wall. If a perforation is suspected, keeping the patient with nothing by mouth and obtaining an esophagram is best. When probable perforation or known severe circumferential injury exists, consideration of placing a nasogastric tube under direct visualization through the rigid scope can serve as temporary means of nutrition and keep the region stented open to avoid complete stricture. It should also be kept in mind that when severe injury exists, advancing the esophagoscope past the site of injury can potentially lead to greater injury.
The most feared acute complication of airway foreign bodies is complete airway obstruction with cardiopulmonary arrest and death. Wheezing is very common after the procedure and close monitoring in the hospital setting is required until symptoms have stabilized. Pneumonia is common due to lower airway obstruction and should be appropriately treated with antibiotics. Intraoperative cultures can be taken to help guide treatment. Given that injury can occur to the tracheobronchial tree, pneumomediastinum and pneumothorax can occur. When the airway is severely inflamed, bleeding and granulation tissue can limit visualization, and the decision to do a planned second-look bronchoscopy must be made to ensure no retained foreign body is present. Laryngeal injury when removing an airway foreign body can occur.
Children who develop a fever after removal of any esophageal foreign body should be assessed for an esophageal perforation by esophagram. Other potential complications include: bleeding or major arterial fistula, mediastinitis, mediastinal abscess, respiratory distress (secondary tracheomalacia/compression), tracheoesophageal fistula, vocal cord paresis/paralysis, esophageal stricture, and death. Repeat endoscopy to follow healing of significant esophageal injury is an alternative to follow-up esophagram, and has the advantage of allowing for debridement or dilation of early stricture formation.
The management of pediatric airway and esophageal foreign bodies carries the potential for morbidity and mortality, and can be challenging to diagnose if an unwitnessed aspiration or ingestion occurs in a young child. The symptoms can be somewhat nonspecific, not easily differentiated from common viral illnesses in children. Clinical decision making based on thorough history and physical examination is critical. Centers with airway surgeons and endoscopists trained in foreign body management, and with pediatric ICU care are best equipped to manage the most complex cases in the children.
Bananas and plantains (
These crops are produced in 135 countries in the tropical and subtropical regions. India contributes 31% of the total, followed by China with 10% and the Philippines with 9% of world production. In 2017, an area of 5,637,508 hectares and a production of 153 million tons were reported, with the main exporting countries being Ecuador, Costa Rica, the Philippines, Guatemala and Colombia, who ship their products to the United States, Canada, Europe, Russia, and the Asian Pacific region. The commercialization of this fruit represents an important source of income for the Latin American region. Most of the producers are farmers who grow it for domestic consumption or for local markets and only 15 percent of production is for export [3].
The production of bananas and plantains is seriously affected by various phytopathogenic agents, such as fungi, nematodes, viruses, bacteria, and insects. Some of the pathogens spread during the distribution of Musaceae germplasm native to Southeast Asian occurred in the 20th century to new agricultural areas (Latin America and the Caribbean), since by nature their spread occurs on a smaller scale and hardly at long distances [1].
Fusarium wilt caused by the fungus
Once Foc enters the fields, it is difficult to control; this is due to the fact that the pathogen persists in the soil for long periods. This is the reason because the use of plants derived from tissue culture have been considered as one of the disease management strategies, this in order to avoid the introduction of Foc in pathogen-free fields; as well as the implementation of safety practices to avoid its dispersion [5]. However, the most effective means of controlling the disease is the replacement of susceptible cultivars by those who are resistant, although today the main markets demand the ‘Giant Dwarf’ clone from the Cavendish subgroup.
History indicates that the pathogen probably originated in Southeast Asia; however, the first report was in Australia in 1876 affected by the cultivar ‘Silkʼ, also known as ʻManzanoʼ (AAB) [4] and in 1890 it occurred in plantations in Costa Rica and Panama. About 30,000 hectares were lost in this country between 1940 and 1960 [4]. In total, it was estimated that more than 40,000 hectares of bananas were lost in a 50-year period in Central and South America [4, 7]. Also, epidemics have been reported on other continents. For example, in Bali, banana production decreased from 134,000 to 54,000 tons in 1997, due to the disease [8].
Given the damage caused by Fusarium wilt, there is a probability that the pathogen could be distributed through the planting material (corms or suckers) of ‘Gros Michel’, since this was used for use in new plantations [4, 9]. At that time, large shipments of suckers and rhizomes may also have been transported between countries by transnational companies to supplement local stocks of commercial cultivars, thereby promoting the spread of disease. The stage was set for a major epidemic to emerge [10].
Banana and plantain (
Throughout history
In terms of total fruit crops production, the banana ranks after oranges, grapes, and apples, but when plantain production is added, it becomes the world’s number one fruit crop. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), in 2018 more than 11.3 million hectares of banana and plantain were harvested worldwide and were produced a total of 155.2 million tonnes: 115.7 million tonnes under their bananas crop item (75%) and 39.5 million tonnes under their plantains crop item (25%). However, the estimated production for the same year published by [11] is 139.5 million tonnes: 79.6 million tonnes of Cavendish (57%), 17.5 million tonnes of other dessert bananas (13%), 20.9 million tonnes of Plantain (15%), and 21.4 million tonnes of other cooking bananas (15%).
In the Table 1, the list of top 20 of banana-producing countries and overseas territories and the number of tonnes they each produced in 2018 is showed. Production is measured in tonnes and represent the total of the bananas and plantains categories into, according FAO statistics.
Rank | Country/territory | Production (tonnes) |
---|---|---|
1 | India | 30,808,000 |
2 | China | 11,221,700 |
3 | Philippines | 9,358,785 |
4 | Colombia | 7,287,997 |
5 | Indonesia | 7,264,383 |
6 | Ecuador | 7,157,603 |
7 | Brazil | 6,752,171 |
8 | Cameroon | 5,144,258 |
9 | Congo, Democratic Republic of the | 5,066,203 |
10 | Uganda | 4,337,747 |
11 | Guatemala | 4,294,121 |
12 | Ghana | 4,264,258 |
13 | Tanzania | 4,045,568 |
14 | Angola | 3,492,184 |
15 | Nigeria | 3,093,872 |
16 | Costa Rica | 2,633,788 |
17 | Mexico | 2,354,479 |
18 | Peru | 2,329,480 |
19 | Cote d’Ivoire | 2,280,368 |
20 | Dominican Republic | 2,224,403 |
Top 20 of banana-producing countries and overseas territories.
In the
The pathogenic isolates of
Taxonomic classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Ascomycota
Class: Ascomycetes
Subclass: Sordariomycetidae
Order: Hypocreales
One of the most devastating special forms is responsible for Fusarium wilt of bananas and plantains [9], which is caused by
The microconidia (5–16 × 2.4–3.5 μm) are oval in shape and consist of a single cell, generally without septa, may be oval, elliptical to reniform, and develop abundantly on false heads on short monophialides. While macroconidia (27–55 × 3.3–5.5 μm) are abundant, slightly curved, and relatively thin, they have 4–8 cells, with 3–5 septa (generally 3 septa) see Figure 1A. The apical cell is attenuated or hook-shaped in some isolates. The basal cells are shaped like a foot. Macroconidia develop into single hyphal fialids (Figure 1B). Micro and macroconidia occur on branched or unbranched monophial cuts [17, 18].
Reproductive structure of
Chlamydospores (7–11 μm in diameter) are generally globose and form individually or in pairs, they are abundantly formed in hyphae or conidia, single or in chains, generally in pairs, this type of spores constitutes resistance structures of the fungus, These have thick cell walls, and their production is abundant on infected tissues in advanced stages of the disease [4]. They can be interspersed or in the terminal part of the hyphae [17].
Colony morphotypes of
Some isolates rapidly mutate from pionnotal (with abundant fatty or shiny aggregates of conidia) to a flat, moist pale yellowish-white to peach mycelium grown on a PDA culture [9, 19].
The pathogen
After successfully infecting the roots, the pathogen grows towards the rhizome and pseudostem, causing a deficiency in the absorption of water and consequently an eventual wilting of the leaves and finally causing the death of the plant [9, 16]. This pathogen has the ability to invade all the organs of the plant with the exception of the fruit [16].
Externally, the first signs of the disease are usually wilting and yellowing of the older leaves around the margins (Figure 3A), the older chlorotic leaves collapse (Figure 3B), the old leaves hang down and dry forming a skirt (Figure 3C), the suckers are shown asymptomatic (Figure 3D), while internally the vascular bundles of the pseudostem turn reddish brown (Figure 3E), the corm shows an abnormal dark brown discoloration (Figure 3F), the base of the pseudostem shows fissures (Figure 3G) and the midrib of the leaves shows a dark brown discoloration (Figure 3H) [5, 6, 9].
External and internal symptoms caused by
To better understand the process of the Foc-banana interaction, some investigations have emerged using isolates transformed from Foc with the gene for the green fluorescent pigment (GFP), with the aim of studying the movement of the pathogen from the soil towards the roots and rhizome [22, 23].
Recently [24], using GFP they demonstrated the movement of the pathogen before the appearance of external symptoms, as well as the presence of inoculum on the external surface of the veins of senescent or decomposing leaves, followed by the substantial production of macroconidia and chlamydospores, these results demonstrate that there may be serious implications regarding the spread of the pathogen. In addition, chlamydospore production occurs inside and outside the veins of the leaves, which increases the risk of spores returning to the ground through leaf removal. Also, it was possible to identify the progress of the pathogen in the pseudostem before the development of external symptoms. The authors suggest that future studies are required on the possible wind-borne spread of inoculum and the potential of the pathogen to infect a healthy plant through aerial inoculation.
Fusarium wilt is a “polycyclic” disease. However, several cycles of infection can occur in affected banana plantations. Losses can eventually develop, even when very small amounts of the pathogen inoculum manage to infest fields and the disease is initially of little concern to growers [6]. For example, the first outbreaks of TR4 reported in China and the Philippines were not taken with great importance; this resulted in devastation and uncontrollable problems in the affected plantations [25].
In addition to prevention, early recognition and rapid containment of a disease outbreak is necessary to prevent epidemic development. A good understanding of the key factors responsible for the development of the disease is required when designing practical protocols for the destruction of infected plants, the treatment of the surrounding infested soil, and the reduction of inoculum in plant residues and soil [26].
Foc was shown to have the ability to survive for decades in infested soil, as “Gros Michel” production was generally impossible in plantations previously affected by Foc [9]. Chlamydospores of Foc in dead host material play a role in their survival, but their persistence for long periods is probably due to their ability to infect weed species [6]. For example, in studies in tropical America and Australia, Foc was isolated from the roots of various weed species (
Foc has been shown to spread in various ways, with infected suckers being the most efficient, since they are the most used as vegetative material for new plantations [9]. In many cases, the suckers are washed and treated with fungicides. However, infected suckers were the main material before tissue culture seedlings were available [6], being practically impossible to establish plantations free of the pathogen. However, even after it was possible to produce tissue culture material, secondary contamination of plantations by Foc was common. For example, TR4-affected Cavendish plantations were routinely established with tissue culture seedlings [6].
Foc has the ability to spread in the soil, which indirectly contaminates in and around plantations, but unfortunately it is also used in nurseries for the propagation of seedlings used for field establishment [25]. Surface waters are easily polluted and use for irrigation of polluted river or pond water is highly risky. In addition, Foc is spread by contaminated tools (shovels, machetes, hoes, etc.), agricultural machinery, clothing and footwear [9, 28]. Any or all of these ways can facilitate the spread of Foc in and around a plantation, and may be possible through other means [6, 28].
Studies carried out in Australia detected TR4 spores in the exoskeletons of the banana weevil (
The recent transcontinental disseminations of TR4, suggest that something other than vegetative material (suckers) was responsible for these long-distance disseminations. Although these outbreaks may have been the result of something as simple as workers’ boots impregnated with soil contaminated by Foc spores from plantations in Southeast Asia, or some other means could be responsible such as the entry of machinery from affected areas. Better knowledge is needed to understand the long-distance spread of this pathogen [6].
Recent studies on molecular genetics of
Knowledge of the genetic diversity of populations of phytopathogenic fungi and their mode of reproduction are important for the application of management strategies, this with the aim of reducing the impact of the disease [35]. In the case of Foc, this pathogen shows a relatively diverse population genetic structure for a fungus apparently of asexual reproduction and is composed of different evolutionary lineages [33], which has 24 groups of vegetative compatibility (VCGs, VCG0120 to VCG0126 and VCG0128 to VCG01224) distributed worldwide [34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40].
However, in recent samplings in Latin America it was possible to identify 20 new VCGs (new VCG 1 to new VCG 20), these were distributed over the three main clades (clade 1, clade 2 and clade 3), these results show that the majority of the new VCG are grouped in clade 3 and these originate from Latin America [41], this supports the hypothesis on the evolution of Foc, in which it is mentioned that the local populations of
Studying VCGs has been a useful means of subdividing Foc into genetically isolated groups, but it does not, however, measure the genetic relationship between the isolates. Furthermore, VCG are phenotypic markers that can undergo a selection process. Direct identification of VCG is a relatively objective, but time-consuming test, and the results indicate genetic similarity rather than genetic difference [31]. Therefore, VCGs represent good phenotypic traits for assessing diversity within populations, but the genetic relationships between VCGs must be assessed using other molecular tools.
Fourie and collaborators [39], classified Foc into two clades, clade 1 and clade 2, these based mainly on their evolutionary origins. In the case of clade A, the Foc groups that co-evolved with bananas of genome A belong, while those that belong to clade B evolved with their hosts having genome B or both genome A and genome B.
The teleomorph for Foc has never been reported and the pathogen is likely to manifest mutations or parasexualism, as the main basis for its genetic diversity. Although PCR analysis has shown the presence of both MAT idiomorphs, therefore the pathogen can potentially reproduce by sexual means.
The race concept has been widely used in the
Three races of Foc are known; but nevertheless, the term race is used in a less formal way in relation to this pathosystem (
A Foc race 4 variant was reported in Taiwan affecting Cavendish cultivars in the tropics in 1967 [4, 38]. Therefore, it was necessary to separate the populations that only affected Cavendish cultivars in the subtropics from those populations that affected in the tropics, so two divisions of Foc R4 were generated: race 4 sutropical (STR4) and race 4 tropical (TR4) [38], however, TR4 was pathogenic under tropical and subtropical conditions affecting Cavendish cultivars [25, 39]. In the case of VCGs, they have been associated with STR4 (0120, 01201, 01202, 01209, 01210, 01211, 01215, 0120/15; 0129/11), while only one VCG to TR4 (01213/16) [25, 40].
Visser and collaborators [46], carried out a study on the characterization of tropical Foc race 4 populations affecting ‘Cavendishʼ plantations in South Africa. Only VCG 0120 and idiomorph MAT-2 could be identified, while phylogenetic analysis of the TEF sequence revealed that the isolates from South Africa were pooled with other isolates belonging to VCG 0120 from Australia and Asia. Suggesting, the introduction and dispersal mainly by infected material within the country.
In Latin America and the Caribbean, the composition of the populations has been limitedly studied. For example, the Cuban populations belong to VCG 01210 (mostly race 1), 0124, 0124/0125 and 0128 (mostly race 2); the isolates did not produce lacinias in K2 medium and the production of volatiles was independent of the race, while in Venezuela VCG 01215 and race 1 are reported. A study using AFLP markers grouped VCG 01210 into a subgroup and showed the presence of common alleles with VCG 0124 [47]. On the other hand, the pathogenicity studies with representative isolates of each VCG in Cuba, showed a differentiated aggressiveness on different clones between VCG 0124 and 0128, belonging to race 2, indicating lack of genetic sense in the racial classification. It is required to determine in Latin America and the Caribbean the VCG present in the different countries and the pathogenic relationships between them.
In order to better understand how races 1 and 4 are related, genome and transcriptome analysis of
Foc genetic diversity studies were initiated using various molecular methods, including random amplified polymorphic DNA markers (RAPDs) [49]; Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLP) [43]; Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) [50]; DNA sequence analysis [32, 44]; microsatellites or simple repetitive sequences [51]; simple repetitive inter sequence (ISSR) [52]. These studies showed that the population of this fungus in Southeast Asia shows a high degree of variation, suggesting that the Foc lineages evolved together with their hosts in Southeast Asia.
Alternatively, Foc has been suggested to have multiple independent evolutionary origins, both within and outside the
Furthermore, strains belonging to various VCGs infect particular banana cultivars and, therefore, were grouped in the same race, suggesting that the pathogenicity towards a specific cultivar evolved in a convergent way [32, 38, 44] or as a result of horizontal gene transfer between members of the
High resolution genotyping sequencing analyzes using (DArTseq) validated and expanded these findings [55]. According to the DArTseq markers of 24 Foc strains (representing all the known VCG so far) they were divided into two groups. These results strongly corroborate the clades mentioned in previous studies, except VCG0123, VCG01210, VCG01212 and VCG01214, which were occasionally grouped into opposing clades, VCG 01221 and 01224, which were never classified before but now clearly belong to clade 2 [55].
In the advent of high throughput DNA sequencing technology [56] has allowed scientist to better understand the molecular weaponry used by this pathogen. The pathogen molecular tools include genes involved in root attachment, cell degradation, detoxification of toxins produced by the plant’s defense mechanism and signal transduction, among others [16]. In Ref. [57], the authors have reported a predicted genome size for several
Recently, in a study samples of musaceae with wilt symptoms were collected in the regions of Indonesia, Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Papua and Nusa Tenggara, this demonstrated by phylogenetic analysis that the Foc lineages were genetically different, and it was achieved to identify 11 new species of
Fusarium wilt disease of banana caused by soil-born pathogen
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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:245,paginationItems:[{id:"196707",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa Numan",middleName:null,surname:"Bucak",slug:"mustafa-numan-bucak",fullName:"Mustafa Numan Bucak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196707/images/system/196707.png",biography:"Mustafa Numan Bucak received a bachelor’s degree from the Veterinary Faculty, Ankara University, Turkey, where he also obtained a Ph.D. in Sperm Cryobiology. He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human Activity, Pollutants, Reduced Risks, Population Growth, Waste Disposal, Remediation, Clean Environment",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. 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The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"82956",title:"Potential Substitutes of Antibiotics for Swine and Poultry Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106081",signatures:"Ho Trung Thong, Le Nu Anh Thu and Ho Viet Duc",slug:"potential-substitutes-of-antibiotics-for-swine-and-poultry-production",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Antibiotics and Probiotics in Animal Food - Impact and Regulation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11578.jpg",subseries:{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition"}}},{id:"82905",title:"A Review of Application Strategies and Efficacy of Probiotics in Pet Food",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105829",signatures:"Heather Acuff and Charles G. 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