Showing detailed description of variables.
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Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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These materials are characterized by short range atom ordering without translational periodicity of the structure. Kinetic and thermodynamic metastability is one of the main characteristics generally related to metallic glasses, while their thermally induced microstructural transformations could result in deterioration or improvement of the functional properties. Due to their favorable magnetic, electrical, mechanical, and anti-corrosion properties, metallic glasses as new and attractive materials have found application in many areas of modern industries - electronics, construction industry, aerospace industry; as well as chemistry, biomedicine, and surgery.',isbn:"978-1-78985-488-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-487-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-074-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77589",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"metallic-glasses",numberOfPages:98,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"665fb007e1e410d119fc09d709c41cc3",bookSignature:"Dragica Minić and Milica Vasić",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7775.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4488,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:8,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 30th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 18th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 17th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 5th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 4th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"30470",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragica",middleName:"M",surname:"Minić",slug:"dragica-minic",fullName:"Dragica Minić",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30470/images/system/30470.jpg",biography:"Professor Dr. Dragica Minic, married Popovic, was born in the town of Brus at the foot of the Kopaonik mountain area. There she completed her high school education and began her career as a professor of science at Brus Gymnasium and continued at the Belgrade University, Faculty for Physical Chemistry, having passed all titles from assistant to full professor, lecturing different courses in physical chemistry. During the rich pedagogical work, she mentored more than hundred graduates, around thirty master and twenty PhD students. She published more than 160 scientific papers (140 belong to the SCI list) and took part in more than 200 national and international scientific conferences. She wrote several university books, chapters in scientific editions of international significance, and scientific monographs. Dr. Minic continued working actively in science even after retirement in 2016.",institutionString:"University of Belgrade",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Belgrade",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"292527",title:"Dr.",name:"Milica",middleName:"M.",surname:"Vasić",slug:"milica-vasic",fullName:"Milica Vasić",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/292527/images/system/292527.jpg",biography:"Dr. Milica Vasic is a research associate at Belgrade University. She was born in Belgrade, Serbia, where she received elementary education and university diploma. She acquired additional skills in material science by attending training courses in home country and abroad, and received several acknowledgements for achievements during her education. She got the PhD degree in Physical Chemistry at Belgrade University, where she is also employed since 2011. Her research work belongs to the field of Physical Chemistry of Materials and it is mainly focused on thermal stability, mechanism and kinetics of thermally induced structural transformations in amorphous alloys. Besides research activities, she contributed to preparation of more than 20 students’ bachelor and master theses in her research field, and took part in the activities aimed to promote science.",institutionString:"University of Belgrade",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Belgrade",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"158",title:"Metals and Nonmetals",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals"}],chapters:[{id:"68704",title:"Introductory Chapter: Metallic Glasses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88891",slug:"introductory-chapter-metallic-glasses",totalDownloads:754,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Dragica M. Minić and Milica M. Vasić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68704",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68704",authors:[{id:"30470",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragica",surname:"Minić",slug:"dragica-minic",fullName:"Dragica Minić"}],corrections:null},{id:"70175",title:"Metallic Glasses: A Revolution in Material Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90165",slug:"metallic-glasses-a-revolution-in-material-science",totalDownloads:1431,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Metallic glasses represent one kind of advanced material, very popular in recent decades. These materials are very adaptable like plastics for their manufacturability in very complex shapes. TPF (Thermoplastic forming) based processes seem very good method to process them. These materials can compete with plastics but have metallic properties. They behave as magnetic materials with less hysteresis loss and less eddy current loss making them suitable for transformer and MEMS (Micro-Electromechanical System) applications. These materials exhibit good corrosion resistance, hardness and toughness. Based on the property and application, metallic glasses are good rivals to plastics, metals and ceramics. Chemical composition and kinetics of supercooling of these materials are the areas where young researchers can focus attention with a view to their improvement.",signatures:"Swadhin Kumar Patel, Biswajit Kumar Swain, Ajit Behera and Soumya Sanjeeb Mohapatra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70175",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70175",authors:[{id:"200867",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",surname:"Mohapatra",slug:"soumya-mohapatra",fullName:"Soumya Mohapatra"},{id:"298867",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Biswajit",surname:"Swain",slug:"biswajit-swain",fullName:"Biswajit Swain"},{id:"305563",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Swadhin",surname:"Patel",slug:"swadhin-patel",fullName:"Swadhin Patel"},{id:"305564",title:"Dr.",name:"Ajit",surname:"Behera",slug:"ajit-behera",fullName:"Ajit Behera"}],corrections:null},{id:"68500",title:"Thermal Stability and Phase Transformations of Multicomponent Iron-Based Amorphous Alloys",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88260",slug:"thermal-stability-and-phase-transformations-of-multicomponent-iron-based-amorphous-alloys",totalDownloads:721,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Due to their excellent functional properties enabling their applicability in different fields of modern technology, amorphous alloys (metallic glasses) based on iron have been attracting attention of many scientists. In this chapter, the results of multidisciplinary research of five multicomponent iron-based amorphous alloys with different chemical composition, Fe81Si4B13C2, Fe79.8Ni1.5Si5.2B13C0.5, Fe75Ni2Si8B13C2, Fe73.5Cu1Nb3Si15.5B7, and Fe40Ni40P14B6, are summarized in order to study the influence of chemical composition on their physicochemical properties and functionality. The research involved thermal stability, mechanism, thermodynamics, and kinetics of microstructural transformations induced by thermal treatment and their influence on functional properties. Determination of crystallization kinetic triplets of individual phases formed in the alloys is also included. The results obtained for different alloys are compared, correlated, and discussed in terms of the alloy composition and microstructure.",signatures:"Milica M. Vasić, Dušan M. Minić and Dragica M. Minić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68500",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68500",authors:[{id:"30470",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragica",surname:"Minić",slug:"dragica-minic",fullName:"Dragica Minić"},{id:"292527",title:"Dr.",name:"Milica",surname:"Vasić",slug:"milica-vasic",fullName:"Milica Vasić"},{id:"113034",title:"Dr.",name:"Dušan",surname:"Minić",slug:"dusan-minic",fullName:"Dušan Minić"}],corrections:null},{id:"68472",title:"Phase Separation in Ce-Based Metallic Glasses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88028",slug:"phase-separation-in-ce-based-metallic-glasses",totalDownloads:838,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, the results of our recent studies on the role of Ga substitution in place of Al in Ce75Al25 − xGax (x = 0, 0.01, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 6) metallic glasses (MGs) have been discussed with the aim to understand the genesis of phase separation. X-ray diffraction (XRD) study reveals two broad diffuse peaks corresponding to the coexistence of two amorphous phases. In order to see any change in the behavior of 4f electron of Ce, X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) has been carried out for Ce75Al25 − xGax MGs. From the XAS results, it is evident that for x = 0, the spectrum exhibits only a 4f1 component, which basically shows a pure localized configuration of electron. After the addition of Ga, 4f electrons of Ce atoms denoted by 4f0 are getting delocalized. Thus, the phase separation in Ce75Al25 − xGax is taking place, owing to the formation of two types of amorphous phases having localized and delocalized 4f electrons of Ce atoms, respectively. It has been discussed how change in the electronic structure of Ce atoms may lead to phase separation in Ce75Al25 − xGax alloys. Extensive TEM investigations have been done to study the phase separation in these alloys. The microstructural features have been compared with those obtained by phase field modeling.",signatures:"Dharmendra Singh, Kiran Mor, Devinder Singh and Radhey Shyam Tiwari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68472",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68472",authors:[{id:"191640",title:"Prof.",name:"R.S.",surname:"Tiwari",slug:"r.s.-tiwari",fullName:"R.S. Tiwari"},{id:"208863",title:"Dr.",name:"Devinder",surname:"Singh",slug:"devinder-singh",fullName:"Devinder Singh"},{id:"268399",title:"Dr.",name:"Dharmendra",surname:"Singh",slug:"dharmendra-singh",fullName:"Dharmendra Singh"},{id:"297992",title:"Mrs.",name:"Kiran",surname:"Mor",slug:"kiran-mor",fullName:"Kiran Mor"}],corrections:null},{id:"69009",title:"Adiabatic Shear Band Formation in Metallic Glasses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87437",slug:"adiabatic-shear-band-formation-in-metallic-glasses",totalDownloads:745,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Metallic glasses (MGs) are widely used in many applications due to their unique and attractive properties such as high strength, high elastic limit and good corrosion resistance. Experiments have shown that deformation in MGs is governed by either shear banding or cavitation process leading to a ductile or brittle material response, respectively. In this chapter, shear band formation process in metallic glasses is modeled using free volume theory in infinitesimal deformation. According to the free volume theory, local free volume concentration is considered as order parameter which can be changed by three processes, namely diffusion, annihilation and stress driven creation. Equations are set up for the evolution of free volume and stresses based on conservation of free volume, and mechanical equilibrium, respectively. Another important parameter to consider while modeling the shear bands is temperature as the temperature inside the shear band can reach up to glass transition temperature. This can be achieved by assuming shear band formation process as an adiabatic process whereby evolution equation for temperature is also included with plastic work as the heat source. Example of quasi-static deformation in thin MG strip is solved using this proposed formulation. Formation of the shear band and resulting stresses are studied through the introduction of small inhomogeneity along the thickness direction in the strip.",signatures:"Shank S. 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Nowadays, display technology is evolving at an exponential level. Consequently, an exciting future for generations of new displays can be guaranteed by the rapid-fire improvements in display technology. Major display technologies are well known as liquid crystal displays, organic light-emitting diodes, digital light processing technology, plasma displays, field emission displays, and electronic paper. Over the last decades, the human-machine interface (HMI) was improved by the achievement of display development. For example, it was demonstrated that OLED displays could replace LED-backlit displays in the not-too-distant future. The performance of this kind of display is equal to or better than LED or LCD screens. Or in the future, we expect new kinds of displays such as 3-D screens and holographic displays to be developed. In this book, we tried to review and introduce the received advances in display technology for readers.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-855-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-854-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-856-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"6b51a957a839ed3350b0785031c6343a",bookSignature:"Prof. Morteza Sasani Ghamsari",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11945.jpg",keywords:"Materials, Devices, Technology, Mini-LEDs, OLEDs, OD-OLEDs, Micro-LEDs, LCD, Passive and Active Technologies, Thin Film Transistor LCD, Phosphors, Large-Screen HDTV",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 29th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 30th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 29th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 17th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 16th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in monophonic and quantum material, appointed head of the quantum technologies research group, and holder of two registered patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"64949",title:"Prof.",name:"Morteza",middleName:null,surname:"Sasani Ghamsari",slug:"morteza-sasani-ghamsari",fullName:"Morteza Sasani Ghamsari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64949/images/system/64949.jpg",biography:"Dr. Morteza Sasani Ghamsari is a senior researcher in the Photonics and Quantum Technologies Research School of Iranian Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute. His research focuses on photonic materials including metamaterials, quantum\ndots, and plasmonic nanomaterials that can be used in a wide range of nanophotonics applications. His recent interests also include nano-bioimaging, 3D printing, nanostructures for tissue engineering (ZnO, TiO2, etc.) and biomaterials including carbon, graphene, and\ndiamond quantum dots. He is an editorial board member and reviewer for different\ninternational journals and has collaborated with local and international academics/\nresearchers on post-graduate research projects. He has edited four books and published four chapters and more than 105 articles in scientific journals and reviewed\nconference proceedings. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"71850",title:"Introductory Chapter: Polypropylene - Synthesis and Functionalization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92067",slug:"introductory-chapter-polypropylene-synthesis-and-functionalization",body:'First discovered by J. Paul Hogan and Robert L. Banks in 1951, polypropylene (PP) is polymerized from propylene out of crude oil and is the most widely used commodity thermoplastic by volume [1]. Over the past 70 years, significant progress has been achieved to manufacture and commercialize PP (Figure 1) [2, 3]. The most recent milestone in the field of polypropylene is from PureCycle Technology, where the waste carpet has been successfully purified into clear, odorless ultrapure recycled polypropylene (UPRP) resin [4]. Through not fully commercialized yet, the innovation opens up a new venue of recycling processed PP into raw materials as a resin.
Key milestones of the commercialization of polypropylene. Adapted from Ref. [
As one of the cheapest plastics with great processability, chemical resistance, and moisture barriers, PP with different tacticity found various downstream applications in textile, automotive, cosmetics, and consumer packaging. In 2016, 26% of polymer demand in the world by volume was from PP (Figure 2) [5].
Distribution of polymer demand worldwide in 2016 by volume. Adapted from Ref. [
Well-defined polymers with narrow polydispersity and controlled molecular weight are essential to delineate the structure–property relationship of polymeric materials [6]. Using N,N-diethyl hafnium derivative as active transition metal propagation center and ZnEt2 as metal alkyl chain transfer agent, Sita first demonstrated the living coordinative chain transfer polymerization of propene to produce amorphous atactic polypropylene (a-PP) with narrow polydispersity and various molecular weights from 12.6 kDa to 111 kDa [7]. Compared with a-PP, isotactic polypropylene (iPP) is more practical for applications in packaging and automotive parts. Coates designed a pyridylamidohafnium catalyst that produced PP with high iso-selectivity (91%) and living polymerization behavior (Figure 3) [8]. The study also confirmed a ligand-monomer interaction as the mechanism of stereo-control. The progress of using coordinative chain transfer polymerization has been thoroughly reviewed elsewhere [9, 10].
Living and iso-selective propylene polymerization (reprinted with permission from Ref. [
Block copolymers have contributed significantly to thermoplastic elastomers, soft lithography, and drug delivery [11]. Block copolymers containing polypropylene can serve as a compatibilizer to improve the interface interaction between polyolefin and other polar materials. Chen demonstrated an early example of polypropylene-block-poly(methyl methacrylate) (PP-b-PMMA) diblock copolymer using Group IV metal catalyst [12]. By taking advantage of the solubility, the resulting polymer could be purified into narrow distributed copolymers with hexane-heptane fractionation. Dong et al. used a brominated isotactic PP with styrene termination as a macroinitiator to copolymerize styrene or methyl methacrylate and studied the blending behavior between the resulting copolymers with PS/PP or PMMA/PP blend [13]. The same group prepared azide end-functionalized PP and prepared PP three-arm star polymer (Figure 4) [14] and PP-b-polycaprolactone (PP-b-PCL) block copolymers [15]. By terminating the coordination polymerization of iPP with (p-vinylphenyl)chlorosilane, iPP star polymers with 3–8 different numbers of arms were prepared in an H2O/toluene emulsion system [16].
Synthesis of three-arm PP star polymer by click chemistry (reprinted with permission from Ref. [
Using stereoselective insertion polymerization catalyst, Coates synthesized a group of block copolymers containing iPP as the rigid block and regioirregular polypropylene (rPP) as the elastic block. The mechanical characterization of the iPP-rPP-iPP-rPP-iPP pentablock copolymer indicated a strain at break of 2400% and a maximum true tensile stress of 250 MPa [17]. In collaboration with Bates and LaPointe, the group synthesized a polyethylene-b-iPP-b-polyethylene-b-iPP tetrablock copolymer and evaluated the blending behavior of the tetrablock copolymer with PE/iPP. By “welding” polyethylene (PE) and iPP, together with the tetrablock copolymer, previously impossible due to the immiscibility, the blend was transformed from a brittle glass into a tough plastic, paving a possibility to recycle the world’s two most-produced polymer materials [18].
Long-chain branching in polymers has shown interesting rheological behaviors [19]. Using norbornene-terminated syndiotactic PP as a macromonomer, Coates synthesized a group of well-defined s-PP bottlebrush polymers with a molecular weight from 46 kDa to 172 kDa using Grubbs’ metathesis catalyst (Figure 5) [20]. A decrease in both melting and crystallization temperature was observed and attributed to the constraints on the rigid backbone. Further research by Bates and Hillmyer revealed a scaling transition that depends on the length of the backbone [21]. Hazer evaluated the surface property and mechanical property of a group of graft copolymer containing polypropylene as the backbone and polyethylene glycol (PEG) as the side chain [22]. With 15% of PEG, the graft copolymer demonstrated ultimate stress of 22 MPa and elongation at break of 670%. Bielawski developed a direct C▬H azidation method to introduce azide functionalities into commercially available PP [23] and prepared PP-g-PEG using click chemistry. Tasdelen used a similar approach and synthesized PP-g-PCL copolymers [24].
Synthesis of PP comb polymers (reprinted with permission from Ref. [
“Reactive” polyolefin approach, adding functional monomer units into the polyolefin chain, has emerged as a powerful tool to chemically functionalize polyolefins [25]. Pan copolymerized p-(3-butenyl)styrene and propylene with (pyridylamido)Hf/[Ph3C][B(C6F5)4]/AliBu3 catalytic system, which selectively copolymerize α-olefin over styrene [26]. The pendant styrenic vinyl groups in the resulting polymer were quantitatively converted into carboxylic acid groups with thiol-ene addition. The same group further extended this methodology to prepare amino-containing iPP, which exhibited high thermal stability and melting temperature [27]. Chung synthesized a group of hydroxyl-functionalized PP using silane-protected 10-undecen-1-ol as a comonomer and converted the hydroxyl pendant group into butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) derivatives (Figure 6) [28]. The resulting BHT-functionalized PP demonstrated improved thermal stability and higher dielectric constant. With two methylene group spacers between BHT and ester linkage, the materials displayed superior thermal stability at 190°C compared with general and capacitor grade PP [29].
Synthesis of BHT-functionalized PP (reprinted with permission from Ref. [
Polypropylene is one of the most important plastics in our daily life. However, the materials itself also caused a significant amount of plastic pollution. As much exciting progress has been achieved recently to introduce functionalities and improve both mechanical and thermal stabilities, the research community should also emphasize on developing approaches to recycle PP and PE from the processed product.
Conversations on emission and its effects on the economy and environment are increasing especially in developed countries. Among the key issues surrounding discussions on emission is the impact of taxation on carbon emission and environmental sustainability. There is unanimity among researchers on the effect of emissions on the environment. That is to say, emissions cause environmental degradation, diseases, reduces household welfare and are detrimental to economic growth and development [1, 2, 3]. In this light, it is evident that climate change has become a global problem [4]. This global problem has awakened the need for governments worldwide to invent techniques to minimise environmental issues and emissions. Some of the methods include subsidies, ecological laws, taxes, environmental policies and awareness programs [5]. Of particular importance are taxes which are an integral instrument in dealing with emission [6]. The significance of taxation on emission and environmental degradation has captured the attention of researchers and policymakers in developing policies and recommendations on minimising emission.
\nThere is a noticeable increase in taxation on emissions and environmental sustainability in the European Union (EU). Taxation takes the form of energy tax, environment and transports tax especially, in Slovenia, Poland, France, Portugal, Finland, Latvia, Ireland and Denmark [7]. The main purpose of these taxes is to minimise emissions up to an acceptable level of 5 percent [8]. Furthermore, the government introduced environmental and emission taxes to reduce negative externalities caused by third parties in production and consumption since nobody takes responsibility for creating them [9]. The negative externalities include pollution, land degradation and the greenhouse effect that tends to cause diseases, low standards of living, low quality of products, reduction in income and energy consumption [10]. Since firms do not take any responsibility, the EU has taken the responsibility of reducing emissions to an acceptable standard [11]. Thus, fiscal authorities have imposed a certain amount of $50–100 per ton on production for any environmental misuse and emission [11]. Tax experts argue that the $50–100 per ton tax that is not shown in the final price of goods and services covers the social costs suffered by the third party [2]. Furthermore, environmental and emission taxes increase government revenue and contribute to economic growth significantly. A survey conducted by Sterner and Kohlin [12] found that environmental and emission tax contributes 8 percent of the government revenue and 3 percent of economic growth in the European Union region.
\nThe introduction of environment and emission taxes has sparked heated debates among scholars. The main crust of these debates is whether taxation is an effective way of reducing environmental emissions. Noteworthy is the complementary school of thought which contends that tax on environmental emission addresses market failures to an acceptable standard and reduces health diseases [3, 8]. This means that taxation on emissions brings about efficiency and effectiveness in the production of goods and services since firms get to develop new regulations that foster efficiency and reduce the cost of production. Also, environmental tax improves the quality of the products produced in production processes [13]. On the other, the substitutive school of thought argues that taxes on emission are inclined to fiscal policies rather than environmental policies [14]. The substitutive school of thought recognises that environmental and emission taxes focus more on raising government revenue than reducing emissions as such taxes tend to be regressive as prices of goods and services change [15]. In this sense, the substitutive school of thought concludes that taxation does more harm than good because it causes a greater degree of the loss of welfare as compared to emission. Therefore, this study envisaged contributing to the current debate on tax on emissions and environmental sustainability.
\nCentral to the problem is that environmental pressures are a global phenomenon. The European Union is not exempted from this problem. Environmental pressures have become an issue of concern as the emission threat has increased over the past years. Another factor that has become a cause for concern is the forecast by economists that emissions are likely to increase to 35 percent, and this poses a threat to environmental sustainability [16]. Of importance is that these environmental pressures pose a risk to people’s health, welfare, and economy. Astuti and Maryono [17] note that emissions cause health diseases such as eye irritation, asthma, and pneumonia. Emissions and environmental pressures do not only undermine the environment and health faculties but affect the economic operations of a country as well. There is no doubt that these challenges should be addressed. The economic theory prescribes many methods of solving these challenges. Such methods include environmental tax, fuel tax, awareness programs, subsidies to mention but a few. Relevant to this study is environment taxation and tax emission, which are the main focus of this study. Hence, this study investigated the influence of emission on selected EU countries.
\nThe purpose of the study is to contribute to the existing literature on environmental accounting significantly. Most of the studies have focused on the effects of tax on carbon emission [2, 6, 18, 19]. However; this study takes a different stance by examining the environmental influence of tax structures in selected EU economies by taking into account both short-run and long-run dynamics. The study focused on other variables that are immensely important to environmental issues and yet are barely used by other researchers. These variables include research and development, production scores, eco-innovation ratings and the different types of tax such as energy, transport, and environmental tax. The authors of this study conducted a thorough search of the relevant literature. They found no study that combined all the variables in one study to investigate the environmental influence of tax structures in selected EU economies. Hence, the current paper covers this research gap to find robust results that are important to policymakers. Furthermore, the results and the nature of the research provide a niche for future researchers focusing on few limitations of the study. The study also contributes to the body of existing knowledge on natural environmental studies.
\nTherefore, this paper is organised as follows. The literature review is summarised in the next section. The methodology and variables used in the study are discussed in Section 3. This also includes the source of the data and prior expectations. The empirical results and analysis are discussed in Section 4, while Section 5 consists of the summary, conclusion, recommendations, and limitations of the study.
\nThe introduction of environment tax in the European Union can be traced back to 1990 [20]. Since then, it has received attention from various governments intending to minimise environmental degradation. The idea was to charge polluters a certain fee per unit of the damage they have caused to third parties. In line with this objective, the European Union introduced four types of environment tax, namely energy, transport, pollution and resources tax [12]. For the purposes of this study, researchers focused on energy tax and transport tax as they are widely used in the European Union. Eurostat [21] defined energy tax as a certain amount paid by the energy sector for causing negative externalities. Energy tax target polluters who make use of petrol, diesel, biofuels, electricity consumption and carbon fuels [21]. The energy tax is mainly used in Italy, Germany, Netherlands, France, Sweden and Finland as they use heavy power plants and consumes much electricity compared to other countries [22]. This also implies that these countries receive more tax revenue from electricity tax while Sweden and Denmark get more revenue from fuel tax. Second is the transport tax, which is an amount paid for making use of vehicles and vehicle ownership [23]. It includes the importation of motor vehicles, flight tickets, toll gates, car registrations and insurances [21]. This form of tax was introduced to raise revenue and minimise greenhouse gas emissions. The European Commission [24] reports that 25 percent of greenhouse gas emissions are caused by the transport sector of which road transport contributes 75 percent to these transport emissions followed by civil aviation and navigation respectively. This type of emission is common in Norway, Netherlands, Finland, Greece, Spain and Denmark.
\nNoteworthy is that energy tax is widely used in the region to reduce greenhouse gas emission. There has been an increase in the use of tax that leads to an increase in the energy tax revenue since 2000–2018. The increase in revenue has also led to the rise in the Gross Domestic Product. The contribution of environmental tax to GDP was experienced a decade later after the introduction of the environment tax in 1990. Notably is the 5 percent contribution from 2013 to 2019. Despite the use of environmental tax, the Eurostat [21] found contrasting results in the European Union. On one hand, it is a significant increase in greenhouse emission in countries such as Germany, France and Italy. On the other hand, it is a significant decrease in greenhouse emission in countries such as Lithuania, Latvia and Romania [25]. From the discussions, the environment tax influences greenhouse gas emission differently in the European Union individual countries depending on the environment policies used by each country towards eradicating the environment hazards. The question still remains: Does environmental tax reduces greenhouse emission and improves environmental sustainability since its implementation is influenced by price elasticity of energy and transport demand?
\nThis section is divided into two parts. The first part examines how tax and other variables influence carbon emissions in selected economies. The second part evaluates how tax frameworks affect environmental sustainability in countries studied.
\nThe influence of emission tax cannot be separated from past studies on taxation, economy and environmental economics. For instance, a survey carried out by Miller and Vella [19] investigated whether taxes are effective in dealing with pollution. The study examined if taxes on emission help to produce quality products. The study targeted 50 countries across all the regions and used panelised dynamic regression models. The results of the study revealed that taxes reduce carbon emission in all the countries. Also, the study showed that the quality of products is improved if the polluters are taxed. Similarly, Metcalf [6] achieved the same results that carbon tax reduces carbon emissions in Britain, Columbia and the United States of America. Metcalf [6] further observed that taxation on emission improves employment and economic growth. Worthy of note is that the preceding studies present a negative relationship between carbon tax and carbon emission. Thus, taxation on emission is the most effective way of reducing emissions to an acceptable level. The studies concur that taxes reduce environmental pollution despite their difference in geographical location.
\nIn South Africa, carbon tax also has an inverse relationship with emission. This result was concluded by [2] who examined the effects of carbon tax on the economy. The study employed the dynamic Computable General Equilibrium modeling methodology and found an inverse relationship between carbon tax and emission. The study further showed that carbon tax is negatively related to economic growth. Thus, the more firms pay carbon tax the fewer goods and services they produce, thereby compromising economic growth. Klier and Linn [26] concur with these results as they reach the same conclusion after using the panel regression analysis in Sweden, France, and Germany. The authors’ objective was to investigate the relationship between vehicle carbon taxation and carbon vehicle emission. This relationship was prevalent in France compared to other countries. Since firms were taxed for emission, a decrease in emissions from vehicles was experienced in all the countries. The common denominator between these two studies is that taxation has a negative effect on economic growth despite the use of different methodologies and geographical locations. A salient point to note on the carbon tax is that it discourages firms to be innovative and this leads to a decrease in investment and eventually a decrease in economic growth.
\nLin and Li [18] using a panel regression analysis, examined the impact of carbon tax on carbon emission in selected European countries. The authors found three sets of results: a negative relationship between carbon tax and emission in Finland; a positive relationship between carbon tax and emission in Norway and no relationship was identified in Netherlands, Denmark, and Sweden. Since Norway is one of the heavy carbon polluters in Europe, taxing the firms reduced emission. The same result was achieved by Di Cosmo and Hyland [27] who concluded that carbon tax is an effective way of reducing emissions in Norway. On the other hand, in the Netherlands, Denmark and Sweden carbon tax did not influence carbon emission. This result is contrary to the findings of Lin and Li [18] who found an inverse relationship between carbon tax and emissions. The authors further propounded that fiscal authorities should increase tax on emitters for carbon tax to be effective. Moreover, an interesting result is the positive relationship between carbon tax and carbon emission found in Norway. This result is not common in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) since all the governments joined hands to reduce emissions through the Piogiouvot method.
\nAnderson [28] inquired whether a carbon tax is the solution to greenhouse emissions. The author used 11 European Union countries as his case study. To achieve the aim of the study, the author employed a quasi-experiment and found that tax curtailed emissions by 11 percent. The study confirmed the economic theory that prescribes that carbon tax deals with negative externalities whilst also reducing emissions. A similar result was found in Norway by Bruvoll and Larsen [29]. The authors employed simulations and a diverse index from 1990 to 1999 and the study revealed an emission reduction of 2.3 percent. Revoredo-Giha et al. [30] examined the impact of carbon taxes on greenhouse emissions in the United Kingdom. The study showed that carbon tax reduces greenhouse emissions. Gonzalez [31] and Haites [32] concur with the above-mentioned studies by reiterating that carbon tax is the best instrument to reduce greenhouse emissions and the most effective approach in reducing emissions.
\nConcerning the relationship between economic growth and emission, Ameyaw and Yao [33] analysed the impact of economic growth on carbon emission in West African countries from 2007 to 2014 using panel regression. The results show an unidirectional cause from GDP to carbon emission. Thus, an economy that taxes emissions is likely to improve economic growth. The same result was also achieved by Asongu et al. [34] who investigated carbon emissions and economic growth and found a relationship running from economic growth to carbon emission to energy consumption. An interesting result was found by [35] who examined the effects of economic growth on emission in developing countries. The study used panel analysis and found a negative relationship between economic growth and emissions while [36] found no link. The study examined the link between energy consumption, emissions and economic growth in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). The rationale behind this finding is that taxation discourages firms to produce more goods and services due to increased cost of production.
\nOther authors emphasised the fact that carbon tax on emission is regressive in nature and leads to loss of welfare [14, 15]. For instance, Devarajan et al. [15] found that taxes on carbon emission reduce household welfare by 40 percent, whilst also reducing carbon emission by 15 percent. In other words, carbon tax works better in reducing household welfare than in minimising emission, its main objective. The study further found that carbon tax is regressive as poor households spend more than 50 percent of their salaries on taxed goods and services. This result was also found by [14]. Marx and Slamang [37] and Sterner [38] examined the relationship between energy and carbon tax on emissions in European Union countries. The study concluded that transport taxes, energy and carbon taxes are regressive.
\nLiobikiene et al. [39] investigated the role of energy taxes on climate change in the European Union. The main focus was to check if environmental tax influences environmental sustainability. The authors applied panel data methods and found that environmental tax influences environmental sustainability in a positive way. The same results were found by Nerudova et al. [40] who examined the tax system and environmental sustainability in the European Union and found a positive relationship between the two. Park and Yoon [41] studied the link between environment tax and sustainable development in China, Japan and Korea using a survey. The study revealed a positive relationship between the two in all these countries. It seems the above-mentioned studies point to a positive relationship between taxation and environmental sustainability. Thus, taxation on environmental pollution improves environmental sustainability. A study by Radulescu et al. [42] in Romania employed the Ordinary Least Square and Vector Error Correction Model. The authors found a negative relationship between environmental sustainability and environmental tax. The authors argued that fiscal authorities should use other methods other than taxation to achieve environmental sustainability.
\nStreimikiene et al. [43] added economic growth as a variable that was not examined by [39, 42] by investigating the role of green tax on sustainable energy development in Baltic countries. The study found a positive relationship between environmental tax, economic growth and environmental sustainability. The authors propounded that taxation ensures environmental sustainability that has a direct influence on economic growth. Kurniawan and Managi [44] and Moisesca [45] arrived at the same conclusion by examining the relationship between economic growth and sustainable development in Indonesia from 1990 to 2014. The study used the inclusive wealth framework and found that economic growth influences environmental sustainability in a positive way. From all the studies that examined the link between economic growth and environmental sustainability, a positive relationship was achieved therein.
\nUrbaniec [46] conducted a study on eco-innovation and environmental sustainability. The main objective was to assess the role played by eco-innovation on environmental sustainability. The study concluded that eco-innovation minimises environmental damage. Similar results were also concluded by [47] who carried out a study on the role of eco-innovation and environmental sustainability in Malaysia. The findings of both studies point to the fact that an increase in environmental compliance improves the environment. Another common denominator is that both studies used the same methodology: the theoretical structural model and found similar results. The eco-innovation is also positively linked to Research and Development, thus Powe [48] found that research and development have a positive impact on environmental sustainability. The authors argued that Research and Development yields results in big sectors, while in small sectors a link was not found. The same results were also found by [49] who examined the green economy and sustainable development worldwide from 2002 to 2010. The study found that research and development have a positive impact on environmental sustainability. However, Sauvé et al. [50] found a negative relationship between Research and Development and environmental sustainability. The authors arrived at this conclusion after employing an ordinary least square first difference.
\nKim and Yoon [51] examined the relationship between environmental sustainability and production in manufacturing firms. The objective of the study was to check the impact of production on environmental sustainability. The results reveal that production has a positive influence on environmental sustainability. The same results were also found by [52] who examined environmental sustainability and production. The preceding results differ from those achieved in the study done by [53] who examined the relationship between sustainable environment and production using the trend and content analysis. The study found that production causes environmental hazards. The author concluded that production in developing countries over utilises resources with the objective of combating poverty. On the other hand, production in developed countries over utilises resources for export purposes.
\nSaud et al. [54] examined the link between energy use, government expenditure and financial development in Venezuela from 1971 to 2013. The study employed an autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) model and found a positive link between energy use and environmental degradation. The study further revealed a negative relationship between land degradation and government expenditure. A study carried out by Uwazi [55] and You and Haung [56] examined the link between green growth and environmental sustainability in the OECD. The study looked at 30 provinces using panel data. The results show a positive relationship between government spending and green growth. A similar study was done by Oyebanji et al. [57] who conducted a study on green growth and environmental sustainability in Nigeria. The study considered energy depletion, forestry, carbon dioxide and employed the ARDL model. The study found a negative relationship between carbon emission, environmental depletion, and greenhouse energy. On the other hand, a positive relationship was found between green growth and deforestation.
\nFrom the empirical literature reviewed, there is no consensus on how taxes influence emission. Certain authors support a positive relationship between the variable, others see no link, while others support a negative relationship. Given such a scenario, the study, therefore, contributes to the existing literature by examining the influence of tax on emission.
\nThis paper is based on associations among tax structures, environmental variables, income, production, transport, eco-innovation and green investments in a panel of 28 economies over a period of 7 years, that is, 2010 to 2017. The 7-year period was deemed sufficient due to data availability and sufficient cross-sections. These variables were chosen as they have a potential impact of reducing or increasing greenhouse gas emissions and environmental sustainability. The generalised below equations form the basis of the hypothesis.
\nAnd more specifically,
\nAnd also,
\nWhere,
\n\n
An environmental tax is a certain amount that is imposed to environment polluters [21]. For the purposes of this study, environment tax includes the energy tax and transport tax and it is expected to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase environment sustainability depending with the price elasticity demand of energy and transport. The rationale is that environmental tax should create awareness to switch to energy efficiency and turn to other clean alternative fuels. Energy tax is the tax that is levied on the energy sector for polluting the environment [58]. Energy tax includes the consumption of petrol, diesel, petrol, diesel, biofuels, electricity consumption and carbon fuels [21]. Transport tax is a tax that pertains to the use of all vehicles in the European Union [23]. The aforementioned taxes are expected to reduce the green house emission at the same time promote environmental sustainability. Energy consumption is the energy used in both industries and at household level which is measured in tonnes of oil [59]. The study expects energy consumption to increase greenhouse gas emissions and reduce environmental sustainability.
\nGreen Research and Development is defined as new innovations introduced to minimise emissions and climate change in the European Union [60]. A positive relationship between Green Research and Development and environment sustainability is expected while an inverse relationship on greenhouse gas emission is expected. The rationale is that new innovations provide better ways of energy use that minimises climate change. Likewise, eco-innovation includes all ideas from stakeholders to develop new products and processes that reduces environmental degradation [61]. Eco-innovation reduces the greenhouse emissions and increases the environmental sustainability.
\nProduction is a scientific procedure of turning all the inputs into consumable goods and services of a certain good and service [62]. Since production makes use of energy, the variable is expected to positively contribute to greenhouse gas emission and reduces the environmental sustainability in the European Union. Gross Domestic Product entails the value of all goods and services produced in the European Union countries over a specified period [63]. The priori expectation is that GDP increases greenhouse emission and decreases environment sustainability in the short-run while betters environment sustainability in the long-run. Government spending is the money spent by the government in acquiring public goods and services [64]. Government expenditure is expected to increase greenhouse expenditure if less or no expenditure is done on reducing climate change. On the other hand, the greenhouse expenditure is likely to reduce if the government spent much on improving climate change.
\nFrom Table 1, the logarithm of greenhouse gas along with logarithm of adjusted net savings (excluding particulate emission damage) depicts the dependent variables. The remaining variables are all explanatory variables. All the variables were extracted from the Eurostat database with the exception of the logarithm of adjusted net savings (excluding particulate emission damage) which is the only variable gathered from the World Development Indicators (World Bank) database.
\nVariable | \nDefinition | \nUnit | \nSource | \n
---|---|---|---|
\n | \nLogarithm of Environmental Tax | \nPercentage of gross domestic product (GDP) | \nEurostat | \n
\n | \nLogarithm of Energy Tax | \nPercentage of gross domestic product (GDP) | \nEurostat | \n
\n | \nLogarithm of Transport Tax | \nPercentage of gross domestic product (GDP) | \nEurostat | \n
\n | \nLogarithm of Greenhouse gas emissions | \nGreenhouse gas emissions per capita | \nEurostat | \n
\n | \nLogarithm of Energy consumption | \nThousand tonnes of oil equivalent | \nEurostat | \n
\n | \nLogarithm of Green Research & Development | \nPercentage of gross domestic product (GDP) | \nEurostat | \n
\n | \nLogarithm of GDP | \nCurrent prices, million units of national currency | \nEurostat | \n
\n | \nLogarithm of Government Expenditure | \nPercentage of gross domestic product (GDP) | \nEurostat | \n
\n | \nLogarithm of Eco-innovation Index | \nYearly scores against the EU = 100 averaged score. | \nEurostat | \n
\n | \nLogarithm of production | \nYearly scores based on Index, 2015 = 100 | \nEurostat | \n
\n | \nLogarithm of adjusted net savings, excluding particulate emission damage | \nCurrent US$ | \nWorld Development Indicators (World Bank) | \n
Showing detailed description of variables.
Note: The Logarithm of Greenhouse gas emissions and Logarithm of adjusted net savings, excluding particulate emission damage indicates the dependent variable. The remaining variables are all explanatory variables.
The paper deployed the panel dynamic Generalised Method of Moments (GMM) as the main approach to address problems connected with, heteroskedasticity serial correlation and heterogeneity [65]. The GMM captures several common estimators that offers a valuable basis for comparison purposes [66]. It is considered as one of the best methods since it not biased, consistent compared to Fixed effects, Pooled Estimates and Ordinary Least Squares [67]. Furthermore, the model allows researchers to make use of many independent variables without facing the endogeneity problems. Thus, the model provides the robust coefficients through the automatic correction of biasness. Several researchers such as Leve and Kapingura [68], Meraya et al. [69] and Nayan et al. [70] have employed the GMM.
\nFor the purposes of this study, it is apparent that Eq. (1) is comprised of country time effects as well as country fixed effects which is inevitably generates the problem of unobserved country-specific heterogeneity. Thus, Arellano and Bond [71] highlights that GMM is able to transform such particular equations through first difference estimators. Research also shows that the GMM approach is largely suitable in surveys where the cross-section identifiers are greater in quantity (in this study,
This part of the survey outlines the findings of the study which includes the descriptive statistics, panel unit root test and the GMM results. The following section discusses the descriptive statistics.
\n\nTable 2 illustrates a detailed view of the statistical characteristics of the variables used in this study. It is apparent that the mean of the considered variables is located between their own minimum and maximum values. As well, most of these factors are negatively skewed (63.6%) but only 36.4% demonstrates positive skewness. In this case, transport tax, energy consumption, green research and development, government expenditure, eco-innovation index, production, and environmental sustainability are negatively skewed. On the other hand, environmental tax, energy tax, greenhouse gas emissions, and economic growth are positively skewed. The positive values generated through kurtosis imply that all the variables have leptokurtic attributes.
\nVariable | \nMin. | \nMax. | \nMean | \nStd. Dev. | \nSkewness | \nKurtosis | \nObservation | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | \n0.196 | \n0.617 | \n0.405 | \n0.102 | \n0.114 | \n2.254 | \n224 | \n
\n | \n0.033 | \n0.521 | \n0.286 | \n0.103 | \n0.246 | \n2.575 | \n224 | \n
\n | \n−1.301 | \n0.190 | \n−0.393 | \n0.353 | \n−0.670 | \n2.867 | \n224 | \n
\n | \n0.699 | \n1.423 | \n0.959 | \n0.143 | \n0.637 | \n3.319 | \n224 | \n
\n | \n2.589 | \n5.315 | \n4.206 | \n0.620 | \n−0.323 | \n2.902 | \n224 | \n
\n | \n−0.420 | \n0.572 | \n0.128 | \n0.256 | \n−0.157 | \n2.009 | \n224 | \n
\n | \n3.820 | \n7.584 | \n5.517 | \n0.868 | \n0.074 | \n2.325 | \n224 | \n
\n | \n1.420 | \n1.814 | \n1.654 | \n0.066 | \n−0.389 | \n3.2358 | \n224 | \n
\n | \n1.301 | \n2.173 | \n1.915 | \n0.1728 | \n−0.709 | \n3.046 | \n224 | \n
\n | \n1.203 | \n2.124 | \n1.926 | \n1.926 | \n−4.948 | \n25.678 | \n224 | \n
\n | \n0 | \n11.7289 | \n8.969 | \n3.535 | \n−2.040 | \n5.464 | \n224 | \n
Statistical summary of variables.
Source: Authors compilation.
\nTable 3 shows that when the Augmented Dickey-Fuller test (ADF) tests; Levin, Lin, and Chu (LLC) and the Im-Pesaran-Shin (IPS) were employed the time series is not affected by the presence of unit roots. As such, through deploying a null hypothesis that a specific time series is non-stationary all the variables demonstrates that they are stationary at the first-order differenced series for all ADF, LLC and IPS tests (at 1% significant level) employing the first-generation panel unit-roots. Although variables such as transport tax, production, and environmental sustainability were not confirmed using the IPS test the other two remaining tests argument in favor of the general findings of the paper.
\n\n | At Level | \nAt 1st Difference | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | \nADF statistic | \nLLC Statistic | \nIPS Statistic | \nADF statistic | \nLLC Statistic | \nIPS Statistic | \n
\n | \n1.963 (0.025)** | \n−7.686 (0.000)*** | \n0.886 (0.8122) | \n9.339 (0.000)*** | \n−13.951 (0.000)*** | \n−3.378 (0.000)*** | \n
\n | \n2.467 (0.007)*** | \n−8.548 (0.000)*** | \n1.483 (0.931) | \n9.068 (0.000)*** | \n−10.568 (0.000)*** | \n−3.431 (0.000)*** | \n
\n | \n2.861 (0.002)*** | \n−8.234 (0.000)*** | \n— | \n19.540 (0.000)*** | \n−23.409 (0.000)*** | \n— | \n
\n | \n8.940 (0.000)*** | \n−8.525 (0.000)*** | \n−1.817 (0.035)** | \n5.490 (0.000)*** | \n−9.777 (0.000)*** | \n−2.454 (0.007)*** | \n
\n | \n7.125 (0.000)*** | \n−11.099 (0.000)*** | \n−1.622 (0.052)* | \n9.722 (0.000)*** | \n−19.600 (0.000)*** | \n−2.532 (0.006)*** | \n
\n | \n4.486 (0.000)*** | \n−6.545 (0.000)*** | \n−0.060 (0.476) | \n19.727 (0.000)*** | \n−10.522 (0.000)*** | \n−3.990 (0.000)*** | \n
\n | \n−1.634 (0.949) | \n9.158 (1.000) | \n10.826 (1.000) | \n2.395 (0.008)*** | \n−16.523 (0.000)*** | \n−0.606 (0.272) | \n
\n | \n7.899 (0.000)*** | \n−3.947 (0.000)*** | \n1.734 (0.9586) | \n10.764 (0.000)*** | \n−15.177 (0.000)*** | \n−3.398 (0.000)*** | \n
\n | \n3.003 (0.001)*** | \n−3.321 (0.004)*** | \n−1.948 (0.026)** | \n23.576 (0.000)*** | \n−13.886 (0.001)*** | \n−4.826 (0.000)*** | \n
\n | \n−2.484 (0.994) | \n5.508 (1.0000) | \n— | \n10.630 (0.000)*** | \n−9.284 (0.000)*** | \n— | \n
\n | \n9.972 (0.0000)*** | \n−2.517 (0.006)*** | \n— | \n18.614 (0.000)*** | \n−20.013 (0.000)*** | \n— | \n
Showing the panel unit root test results.
Notes: ***;**;* mean significant at 1%, 5%, 10% level of significance respectively. Numbers in brackets are
Using logarithm of greenhouse gas emissions as the dependent variable and total environmental tax as the main independent variable Table 4 outlines the results of the research about the Pooled Ordinary Least Square (OLS) model, Fixed Effect (FE) and Random Effect (RE) models widely regarded as the static models. The details in Table 4 demonstrates that Hausman test produces a chi-square value of 270.32 which is also significant at 5% (
\n | Pooled Model | \nRandom Effect Model | \nFixed Effect Model | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | Coefficient | \nStandard Error | \nCoefficient | \nStandard Error | \nCoefficient | \nStandard Error | \n
\n | \n0.018 (0.851) | \n0.093 | \n−0.032 (0.599) | \n0.062 | \n−0.094 (0.078)* | \n0.053 | \n
\n | \n0.028 (0.241) | \n0.024 | \n0.417 (0.000)*** | \n0.060 | \n0.563 (0.000)*** | \n0.086 | \n
\n | \n0.298 (0.000)*** | \n0.056 | \n−0.028 0.442 | \n0.037 | \n−0.076 (0.017)** | \n0.032 | \n
\n | \n−0.065 (0.000)*** | \n0.016 | \n−0.336 (0.000)*** | \n0.041 | \n−0.707 (0.000)*** | \n0.054 | \n
\n | \n−0.367 (0.041)** | \n0.178 | \n−0.046 0.489 | \n0.066 | \n−0.224 (0.000)*** | \n0.060 | \n
\n | \n−0.031 (0.667) | \n0.074 | \n0.026 0.399 | \n0.030 | \n−0.025 (0.339) | \n0.026 | \n
\n | \n−0.062 (0.011)** | \n0.024 | \n0.194 (0.001)*** | \n0.060 | \n0.678 (0.000)*** | \n0.078 | \n
Constant | \n1.942 (0.0000)*** | \n0.292 | \n0.729 (0.005)*** | \n0.260 | \n1.654 (0.000)*** | \n0.449 | \n
R2\n | \n0.239 | \n\n | 0.012 | \n\n | 0.003 | \n\n |
Wald (χ2) | \n\n | \n | 86.07 | \n\n | \n | \n |
\n | \n9.70 | \n\n | \n | \n | 34.14 | \n\n |
Breusch-Pagan test (χ2) | \n\n | \n | 654.5 (0.000)*** | \n\n | \n | \n |
Hausman test (χ2) | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | 270.3 (0.000)*** | \n\n |
No. of observations | \n224 | \n\n | 224 | \n\n | 224 | \n\n |
Estimates of static panel data for total environmental tax: Case of Greenhouse Emissions.
Notes: ***; **; * mean significant at 1%, 5% and 10% significance level, respectively. Numbers in brackets are
The results found in Table 4 are also generally congruent with outcomes found in Table 5. For example, the Hausman test generates a chi-square estimate of 15.24 which is also significant at 5% (
\n | Pooled Model | \nRandom Effect Model | \nFixed Effect Model | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | Coefficient | \nStandard Error | \nCoefficient | \nStandard Error | \nCoefficient | \nStandard Error | \n
\n | \n3.719 (0.076)* | \n2.088 (0.230) | \n3.199 | \n2.666 | \n1.963 (0.516) | \n3.017 | \n
\n | \n1.889 (0.000)*** | \n0.531 (0.385) | \n1.230 | \n1.414 | \n−11.462 (0.021)** | \n4.917 | \n
\n | \n4.266 (0.001)*** | \n1.240 (0.881) | \n−0.227 | \n1.517 | \n−3.132 (0.087)* | \n1.818 | \n
\n | \n0.893 (0.013)** | \n0.357 (0.127) | \n1.478 | \n0.968 | \n−1.589 (0.606) | \n3.077 | \n
\n | \n−13.285 (0.001)*** | \n3.977 (0.018)** | \n−6.706 | \n2.824 | \n−6.407 (0.061)*** | \n3.401 | \n
\n | \n0.200 (0.899) | \n1.653 (0.072)* | \n2.400 | \n1.330 | \n0.981 (0.507) | \n1.477 | \n
\n | \n−0.582 (0.278) | \n0.535 (0.948) | \n0.091 | \n1.398 | \n10.747 (0.016)** | \n4.403 | \n
Constant | \n16.742 (0.011)** | \n6.513 (0.942) | \n0.710 | \n7.025 | \n53.571 (0.038)** | \n25.632 | \n
R2\n | \n0.382 | \n\n | 0.324 | \n\n | 0.301 | \n\n |
Wald (χ2) | \n\n | \n | 26.43 | \n\n | \n | \n |
\n | \n19.07 | \n\n | \n | \n | 3.69 | \n\n |
Breusch-Pagan test (χ2) | \n\n | \n | 489.70 (0.000)*** | \n\n | \n | \n |
Hausman test (χ2) | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | 15.24 (0.033)** | \n\n |
No. of observations | \n224 | \n\n | 224 | \n\n | 224 | \n\n |
Estimates of static panel data for total environmental tax: Case of Environmental Sustainability.
Notes: ***; **; * mean significant at 1%, 5% and 10% significance level, respectively. Numbers in brackets are
The findings generated in Tables 4 and 5 are also generally confirmed with results in Table 6 (although in this case energy tax and transport tax are the main independent variables). For instance, the Hausman test shows a chi-square estimate of 195.27 which is also significant at 5% (
\n | Pooled Model | \nRandom Effect Model | \nFixed Effect Model | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | Coefficient | \nStandard Error | \nCoefficient | \nStandard Error | \nCoefficient | \nStandard Error | \n
\n | \n0.109 (0.215) | \n0.087 | \n−0.056 (0.293) | \n0.054 | \n−0.067 (0.148) | \n0.046 | \n
\n | \n−0.100 (0.001)*** | \n0.029 | \n0.032 (0.419) | \n0.039 | \n−0.015 (0.685) | \n0.036 | \n
\n | \n0.015 (0.498) | \n0.023 | \n0.411 (0.000)*** | \n0.060 | \n0.564 (0.000)*** | \n0.087 | \n
\n | \n0.245 (0.000)*** | \n0.056 | \n−0.029 (0.433) | \n0.037 | \n−0.075 (0.022)*** | \n0.032 | \n
\n | \n−0.060 (0.000)*** | \n0.016 | \n−0.334 (0.000)*** | \n0.040 | \n−0.703 (0.000)*** | \n0.054 | \n
\n | \n−0.060 (0.752) | \n0.190 | \n−0.045 (0.501) | \n0.066 | \n−0.226 (0.000)*** | \n0.060 | \n
\n | \n0.058 (0.447) | \n0.076 | \n0.022 (0.467) | \n0.031 | \n−0.025 (0.347) | \n0.026 | \n
\n | \n−0.092 (0.000)*** | \n0.025 | \n0.191 (0.001)*** | \n0.059 | \n0.672 (0.000)*** | \n0.078 | \n
Constant | \n1.290 (0.000)*** | \n0.337 | \n0.768 (0.003)*** | \n0.262 | \n1.618 (0.000)*** | \n0.451 | \n
R2\n | \n0.284 | \n\n | 0.010 | \n\n | 0.003 | \n\n |
Wald (χ2) | \n\n | \n | 87.09 | \n\n | \n | \n |
\n | \n10.68 | \n\n | \n | \n | 29.53 | \n\n |
Breusch-Pagan test (χ2) | \n\n | \n | 659.64 (0.000)*** | \n\n | \n | \n |
Hausman test (χ2) | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | 195.27 (0.000)*** | \n\n |
No. of observations | \n224 | \n\n | \n | \n | 224 | \n\n |
Estimates of static panel data for total energy tax and transport tax: Case of Greenhouse-gas Emissions.
Notes: ***; **; * mean significant at 1%, 5% and 10% significance level, respectively. Numbers in brackets are
In Table 7, the Hausman test generates a chi-square estimate of 18.41 which is also significant at 5% (
\n | Pooled Model | \nRandom Effect Model | \nFixed Effect Model | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | Coefficient | \nStandard Error | \nCoefficient | \nStandard Error | \nCoefficient | \nStandard Error | \n
\n | \n4.516 (0.025)** | \n1.999 | \n0.839 (0.717) | \n2.318 | \n−1.207 (0.639) | \n2.571 | \n
\n | \n0.382 (0.564) | \n0.662 | \n2.106 (0.113) | \n1.327 | \n5.084 (0.012)** | \n2.008 | \n
\n | \n1.787 (0.001)*** | \n0.522 | \n1.182 (0.412) | \n1.44 | \n−12.918 (0.009)*** | \n4.896 | \n
\n | \n4.484 (0.001)*** | \n1.286 | \n−0.362 (0.813) | \n1.525 | \n−3.436 (0.059)** | \n1.805 | \n
\n | \n0.902 (0.012)** | \n0.3572 | \n1.397 (0.159) | \n0.992 | \n−0.837 (0.784) | \n3.047 | \n
\n | \n−13.352 (0.002)*** | \n4.334 | \n−6.780 (0.016)** | \n2.827 | \n−6.056 (0.073)* | \n3.357 | \n
\n | \n0.422 (0.809) | \n1.742 | \n2.122 (0.116) | \n1.352 | \n0.578 (0.696) | \n1.475 | \n
\n | \n−0.737 (0.197) | \n0.569 | \n0.370 (0.786) | \n1.438 | \n9.717 (0.027)** | \n4.355 | \n
Constant | \n17.462 (0.024)** | \n7.699 | \n3.327 (0.647) | \n7.264 | \n60.900 (0.017)** | \n25.302 | \n
R2\n | \n0.3883 | \n\n | 0.274 | \n\n | 0.304 | \n\n |
Wald (χ2) | \n\n | \n | 27.19 | \n\n | \n | \n |
\n | \n17.06 | \n\n | \n | \n | 4.06 | \n\n |
Breusch-Pagan test (χ2) | \n\n | \n | 482.89 (0.000)*** | \n\n | \n | \n |
Hausman test (χ2) | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | 18.41 (0.0184)** | \n\n |
No. of observations | \n224 | \n\n | \n | \n | 224 | \n\n |
Estimates of static panel data for total energy tax and transport tax: Case of Sustainability.
Notes: ***; **; * mean significant at 1%, 5% and 10% significance level, respectively. Numbers in brackets are
\nTable 8 presents the outcomes acquired by running the two-step GMM analytical method within the short-run context with regards to total environmental tax as the main independent variable. We begin first by evaluating greenhouse gas emissions as the dependent variable. To begin, the lagged factor \n
\n | \n | \n\n | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
\n | Coefficient | \nStandard Error | \nCoefficient | \nStandard Error | \n
\n\n | \n0.218 (0.004)*** | \n0.075 | \n\n | \n |
\n\n | \n\n | \n | 0.235 (0.000)*** | \n0.009 | \n
\n | \n0.222 (0.006)*** | \n0.0803589 | \n2.877 (0.000)*** | \n0.681 | \n
\n | \n0.731 (0.000)*** | \n0.1221115 | \n5.556 (0.000)*** | \n1.159 | \n
\n | \n0.362 (0.000)*** | \n0.084 | \n−0.753 (0.053)* | \n0.389 | \n
\n | \n−0.403 (0.000)*** | \n0.083 | \n−1.324 (0.094)* | \n0.790 | \n
\n | \n−0.815 (0.000)*** | \n0.184 | \n−10.793 (0.000)*** | \n0.877 | \n
\n | \n−0.004 (0.091)* | \n0.038 | \n−1.542 (0.000)*** | \n0.109 | \n
\n | \n−0.396 (0.000)*** | \n0.131 | \n2.910 (0.000)*** | \n0.681 | \n
Constant | \n1.862 (0.000)*** | \n0.377 | \n5.028 (0.000)*** | \n2.380 | \n
Wald (χ2) | \n88.56 (0.000) | \n\n | 11340.75 (0.000) | \n\n |
Arellano-Bond test for AR(1) in first differences | \nz = −0.97 Pr > z = 0.003 | \n\n | z = −1.15 Pr > z = 0.025 | \n\n |
Arellano-Bond test for AR(2) in first differences | \nz = −0.52 Pr > z = 0.600 | \n\n | z = 0.29 Pr > z = 0.769 | \n\n |
Hansen test of overidentifying. Restrictions | \nChi-square = 30.79 Prob > chi2 = 0.683 | \n\n | Chi-square = 21.06 Prob > chi2 = 1.000 | \n\n |
Sargan test of overidentifying. Restrictions | \nChi-square = 16.49 Prob > chi2 = 0.284 | \n\n | Chi-square = 106.77 Prob > chi2 = 0.2 | \n\n |
No. of observations | \n196 | \n\n | 196 | \n\n |
Findings of GMM short-run results as the dynamic regression approaches: In case of total environmental tax.
Notes: ***; **; * mean significant at 1%, 5% and 10% significance level, respectively. Numbers in brackets are
Secondly, the total environmental tax shows a positive and highly significant association with greenhouse gas emissions. In this context, a single rise in total environmental tax leads to a 0.22 increase in greenhouse gas emissions. However, this study finding conflicts with [76] who noticed significantly small and even negative carbon leakage after unilateral environmental tax reforms were integrated in Europe between the studied periods 1995 to 2005. Third, a 1% increase in energy consumption also results in a significant 0.73% rise in emissions thereby agreeing with [77] analysis on 116 countries over the period 1990 to 2014. Fourth, a percentage rise in green research and development in the short-run is also leading to a 0.36% increase in greenhouse gas emissions. However, this finding contradicts Fernández, López and Blanco’s [78] survey on 15 European Union countries, the United States and China between 1990 and 2013 and spotlights that green research and development adds positively to a decline in emissions in developed countries.
\nHowever, other remaining variables indicates negative and significant links to greenhouse gas emissions. For example, a percentage increase in economic growth leads to a 0.40% significant decrease in emissions. Nonetheless, this study outcomes disagrees with Salahuddin et al. [79] research on Kuwait for the period 1980–2013 by applying the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) bounds testing approach and adds that economic growth motivates emissions in both short-run and long-run. In another context, a 1% rise in government expenditure significantly lowers greenhouse gas emissions by 0.815%. However, [80] studied the Venezuelan context over the period from 1971 to 2013 and contributes that government expenditure has a positive effect on environmental degradation-emissions. In addition, the eco-innovation rating is also responsible for decreasing emissions significantly by 0.0039% in these studied EU countries in the short-run. Using the GMM technique on China’s 30 provinces during 2000–2013, [81] also contributes that environmental innovation resources along with green knowledge innovation are essential components for emissions reduction. The results of this study also demonstrates that a 1% increase in production will also likely reduce emissions by a significant 0.40%. However, Ganda [82] survey on the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) using panel data from 1992 to 2014 express that production practice, through industrial initiative adds to emissions.
\nThe second part of this section will examine the short-run results by examining environmental sustainability as the dependent variable. In this case, a 1% rise in past adjusted net savings, excluding particulate emission damage, which is the proxy for environmental sustainability (\n
Fourth, when short-run green research and development increased by 1% then environmental sustainability will significantly decrease by 0.75%. This finding conflicts with [85] study on US electric generators who adds that short-run decisions to integrate green technologies also provide significant emission reduction opportunities even before new technologies have been fully integrated on a broadened scale. Furthermore, income is also found to be lowering environmental sustainability in the short-run for the studied EU countries. In this context, a percentage increase in economic development significantly decreases sustainability by 1.32%. Nevertheless, Ganda [86] study on OECD economies also highlights that disagrees with these outcomes as income is ascertained to increase environmental sustainability by 17.8% in the short-run. Another variable, government expenditure is also ascertained to significantly lower environmental sustainability by 10.79% when it increases by a single percent. Then, a 1% rise in eco-innovation is also accountable to a significant decrease estimated at 1.54% of environmental sustainability. However, a 1% increase in production will significantly heighten environmental sustainability by 2.91%. As such, Severo, de Guimarães, Dorion and Nodari [87] having explored the Brazilian Metal-Mechanic industry posits that cleaner production positively influences environmental sustainability.
\n\nTable 9 also depicts the results obtained by implementing a two-step GMM analysis process. The presentation disaggregates total environmental tax by identifying energy tax and transport tax as the main independent factors in this analysis. As previously done in the previous section, we commence by initially assessing greenhouse gas emissions as the dependent variable. In this context, it is evident that the lagged variable factor \n
\n | \n | \n\n | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
\n | Coefficient | \nStandard Error | \nCoefficient | \nStandard Error | \n
\n\n | \n0.286 (0.000)*** | \n0.062 | \n\n | \n |
\n\n | \n\n | \n | 0.163 (0.000)* ** | \n0.019 | \n
\n | \n0.100 (0.066)* | \n0.055 | \n−4.369 (0.011)** | \n1.719 | \n
\n | \n−0.130 (0.001)*** | \n0.038 | \n5.740 (0.000)*** | \n1.397 | \n
\n | \n0.466 (0.000)*** | \n0.059 | \n0.539 (0.644) | \n1.166 | \n
\n | \n−0.149 (0.001)*** | \n0.043 | \n1.750 (0.099)* | \n1.062 | \n
\n | \n−0.280 (0.000)*** | \n0.050 | \n1.304 (0.056)* | \n0.684 | \n
\n | \n0.176 (0.008)*** | \n0.066 | \n−12.552 (0.000)*** | \n3.015 | \n
\n | \n0.113 (0.000)*** | \n0.019 | \n0.341 (0.008)*** | \n0.128 | \n
\n | \n0.155 (0.012)*** | \n0.062 | \n−5.987 (0.001)*** | \n1.848 | \n
Constant | \n−0.615 (0.010)*** | \n0.244 | \n33.271 (0.000)*** | \n8.032 | \n
Wald (χ2) | \n411.85 (0.000) | \n\n | 3202.15 (0.000) | \n\n |
Arellano-Bond test for AR(1) in first differences | \nz = −2.09 Pr > z = 0.036 | \n\n | z = −1.10 Pr > z = 0.022 | \n\n |
Arellano-Bond test for AR(2) in first differences | \nz = 0.32 Pr > z = 0.752 | \n\n | z = 0.60 Pr > z = 0.547 | \n\n |
Hansen test of overidentifying. Restrictions | \nChi-square = 19.82 Prob > chi2 = 0.898 | \n\n | Chi-square = 20.10 Prob > chi2 = 0.890 | \n\n |
Sargan test of overidentifying. Restrictions | \nChi-square = 43.9 Prob > chi2 = 0.38 | \n\n | Chi-square = 38.51 Prob > chi2 = 0.111 | \n\n |
No. of observations | \n196 | \n\n | \n | \n |
Findings of GMM short-run results as the dynamic regression approaches: In case of energy tax and transport tax.
Notes: ***; **; * mean significant at 1%, 5% and 10% significance level, respectively. Numbers in brackets are
In addition, energy tax demonstrates a positive and significant connection with greenhouse gas emissions. As such, a 1% rise in energy tax is sufficient to increase emissions by 0.10%. However, Solaymani [88] study on Malaysia found out that energy tax can reduce emissions although carbon tax was found to be a more effective tax instrument for emissions reduction programs. Furthermore, the paper outcomes show that transport tax shows a negative and highly significant association with greenhouse gas emissions. In this context, a single rise in transport tax leads to a 0.13% decrease in greenhouse gas emissions. González and Hosoda [89] also conducted a study in Japan between 2004 and 2013 using the Bayesian structural time series model and they highlight that the integration of fuel tax has unequivocally minimised aircraft emissions.
\nAs well, the research illustrates that a 1% increase in energy consumption also results in a significant 0.47% rise in emissions thereby agreeing with findings presented in Table 8. Conversely, the results in Table 9 further indicates that a percentage rise in green research and development generates a 0.15% decrease in greenhouse gas emissions thereby supporting [79] study on 15 European Union countries. Furthermore, economic growth has a negative and significant association with emissions. As such, a 1% increase in income stimulates a 0.28% reduction in emissions. However, Magazzino [90] study on Italy over the period 1970 to 2006 demonstrates a bidirectional causality link between economic growth and emissions.
\nThe other outstanding variables indicate positive and significant links to greenhouse gas emissions. For instance, a percentage increase in government expenditure leads to a 0.176% significant rise in emissions. Contradicting with these findings [91] study on a panelised data of 94 countries between 1970 and 2008 illustrates that government expenditure exercise a significant direct influence in reducing the amount of emissions. As well, the eco-innovation rating is also responsible for rising emissions significantly by 0.11%. However, Costantini et al. [92] exploration of European industries confirm that both indirect and direct impacts of eco-innovations assist lessening environmental degradation although the strength varied throughout the industry value chain. The outcomes of the research also confirm that as production in the short-run increases by 1% emissions also heightens by 0.15%. Likewise, Phalan et al.’s [93] survey on the Brazilian beef industry expresses that production is highly unlikely to help lower emissions, and is possibly likely to exacerbate deforestation.
\nThe remaining segment of this section will evaluate the GMM findings through scrutinising environmental sustainability as the dependent variable. Thus, from Table 9, if lagged environmental sustainability (\n
The paper results also demonstrate that a 1% increase in energy consumption significantly rises environmental sustainability by 0.54%. Furthermore, it can be ascertained that if green research and development increased by 1% then environmental sustainability will significantly increase by 1.75%. Moreover, a percentage rise in income motivates a 1.30% rise in environmental sustainability. Hatfield-Dodds et al. [95] study on Australia also contributes that it is quite difficult to decouple economic growth and environmental outcomes and mobilisation of technologies and engagement of environmental incentives are essential for advancement towards sustainable prosperity. The research outcomes also show that a 1% increase in government expenditure is also ascertained to significantly lower environmental sustainability by 12.6%. In addition, a 1% rise in eco-innovation is also accountable to a significant increase estimated at 0.34% of environmental sustainability. Nevertheless, a 1% increase in production will significantly lessen environmental sustainability by 5.99%.
\n\nTable 8 which was presented earlier in this section outline the regression findings in the short-run scenario in case where environmental tax was identified as the main independent variable. Table 10 above extends the discussion by examining the association involving environmental tax as the primary independent factor to both emissions and environmental sustainability but on a long-run setting. In detail, it is evident that environmental tax form a positive relationship with both greenhouse gas emissions and environmental sustainability (although it is significant in this context). Likewise, energy consumption shows a significantly positive link with both emissions and environmental sustainability. Green research and development produce a positive link with emissions but its connection with environmental sustainability is significantly negative. The results further prove that economic growth, government expenditure, and eco-innovation show significant negative relationships to both emissions and environmental sustainability in the long-term. Lastly, production generates a significantly negative link with emissions but its association with environmental sustainability is significantly positive.
\n\n | \n | \n\n | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
\n | Coefficient | \nStandard Error | \nCoefficient | \nStandard Error | \n
\n | \n0.004 (0.970) | \n0.102 | \n2.642 (0.000)*** | \n0.674 | \n
\n | \n0.513 (0.000)*** | \n0.145 | \n5.320 (0.000)*** | \n1.157 | \n
\n | \n0.144 (0.241) | \n0.123 | \n−0.988 (0.012)** | \n0.394 | \n
\n | \n−0.622 (0.000)*** | \n0.110 | \n−1.560 (0.049)** | \n0.792 | \n
\n | \n−1.034 (0.000)*** | \n0.209 | \n−11.028 (0.000)*** | \n0.881 | \n
\n | \n−0.222 (0.025)** | \n0.099 | \n−1.778 (0.000)*** | \n0.108 | \n
\n | \n−0.614 (0.000)*** | \n0.164 | \n2.675 (0.000)*** | \n0.685 | \n
Findings of GMM long-run results as the dynamic regression approach: in case of total environmental tax.
Notes: ***; **; * mean significant at 1%, 5% and 10% significance level, respectively. Numbers in brackets are
\nTable 9 of this part of the study produced short-run associations by disintegrating total environmental tax through isolating energy tax and transport tax as the main independent variables. Table 11 expand this analysis by identifying the association of these explanatory variables against both emissions and environmental sustainability within a long-run basis. In brief, energy tax, government expenditure and production produces a significantly negative connection with both emissions and environmental sustainability. Other findings confirm that transport tax, green research and development, economic growth and eco-innovation demonstrate negative and positive associations with both emissions and environmental sustainability. The relationship involving energy use to both emissions and environmental sustainability is positive in both cases.
\n\n | \n | \n\n | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
\n | Coefficient | \nStandard Error | \nCoefficient | \nStandard Error | \n
\n | \n−0.185 (0.021)** | \n0.080 | \n−4.532 (0.008)*** | \n1.713 | \n
\n | \n−0.416 (0.000)*** | \n0.074 | \n5.577 (0.000)*** | \n1.400 | \n
\n | \n0.180 (0.058)* | \n0.095 | \n0.376 (0.745) | \n1.157 | \n
\n | \n−0.435 (0.000)*** | \n0.078 | \n1.587 (0.136)* | \n1.064 | \n
\n | \n−0.566 (0.000)*** | \n0.058 | \n1.142 (0.099)* | \n0.692 | \n
\n | \n−0.110 (0.292)* | \n0.104 | \n−12.714 (0.000)*** | \n3.005 | \n
\n | \n−0.173 (0.005)*** | \n0.061 | \n0.178 (0.156) | \n0.126 | \n
\n | \n−0.131 (0.193)* | \n0.101 | \n−6.150 (0.000)*** | \n1.842 | \n
Findings of GMM long-run results as the dynamic regression approach: In case of energy tax and transport tax.
Notes: ***; **; * mean significant at 1%, 5% and 10% significance level, respectively. Numbers in brackets are
This section presents a detailed analysis of the study also highlights the implications of the research.
\n\nTable 12 provide useful insights about the context involving the association between total environmental tax and both greenhouse gas emissions along with environmental sustainability. Total environmental tax appears to be increasing emissions both on the short-and long-run scenario although it is found to be also simultaneously increasing environmental sustainability. This implies that while overall natural environmental effect as a result of imposing environmental tax improves there is also a need for EU economies to introduce specific green taxes which directly focus on particular environmental indicators so that emission reduction is effectually achieved. Moreover, there is a need to transform or remove particular environmental taxes which are not effectively achieving zero-emission targets. As well, taxes can be modified by adding regulatory instruments so that they are aligned with natural environmental objectives and goals. It is also apparent that energy consumption has been increasing the level of emissions and environmental sustainability. In this case, EU economics should continue expanding the integration of renewable energy and oppose further consumption of fossil fuels. There is evidence of renewable energy use in EU economies [13, 60] in pursuit of lower emissions which can possibly explain the improved environmental sustainability context. However, there is also a need to upgrade energy systems of green energy technologies so that they do not add to heightening emissions.
\n\n | Environmental tax | \nEnergy tax and Transport tax | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | \n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n||||
\n | Short-Run | \nLong-Run | \nShort-Run | \nLong-Run | \nShort-Run | \nLong-Run | \nShort-Run | \nLong-Run | \n
\n | \n+ | \n+ | \n+ | \n+ | \n\n | \n | \n | \n |
\n | \n+ | \n+ | \n+ | \n+ | \n+ | \n+ | \n+ | \n+ | \n
\n | \n+ | \n+ | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n+ | \n+ | \n
\n | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n+ | \n+ | \n
\n | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n+ | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
\n | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n+ | \n— | \n+ | \n+ | \n
\n | \n— | \n— | \n+ | \n— | \n+ | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
\n | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | + | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
\n | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | — | \n— | \n+ | \n+ | \n
Summary of GMM short-and long-run results.
Green research and development is found to be highly effective when environmental taxes are emphasising of particular environmental measures instead of adopting a holistic environmental tax policy. For instance, when environmental tax was disaggregated the tax tools used managed to motivate green research and development to lower emissions and simultaneously raise environmental sustainability. Economic growth is quite effective in lowering the level of greenhouse gases whether environmental tax is aggregated and/or disaggregated. Of note is that economic growth effectively improve environmental sustainability in the short and long-run when EU economies use specific environmental taxes when adopting a comprehensive environmental tax instrument.
\nOn the one hand, government expenditure is very efficient in lowering emissions in the short and long-run but is also not able to promote environmental sustainability during these periods in case where aggregate environmental tax is employed. On the other hand, the situation is also predominantly noticeable when environmental tax has been disaggregated (energy tax and transport tax) except that it increases emissions in the short-run. This indication shows that government expenditure in EU economies needs to focus on an inclusive approach which supports all issues related to sustainability instead of putting much emphasis on emissions alone. In this case, government expenditure should also include environmental standards and regulations and measures which heighten environmental sustainability.
\nIt is also observable that eco-innovation is capable of lowering emissions whether environmental tax is aggregated or disintegrated. However, in the case where environmental tax is not aggregated, that is, specific eco-innovation improves environmental sustainability but it worsens environmental sustainability in case of total environmental tax. This shows the importance of introducing specific eco-innovation regulatory standards that fits different parts of the production and ultimate distribution of manufactured goods and services.
\nAlthough production in EU economies manage to lower emissions in cases where environmental is aggregated and/or not is has not been able to improve environmental sustainability. In this case, while production has managed emissions reduction targets the impacts of this procedure on other natural environmental components require to be upgraded.
\nLastly, it is apparent that energy tax has been lessening environmental sustainability but transport tax has been effective in creating required environmental sustainability scenarios. Both these taxes are also effective in the long-run in lowering emissions although energy tax is found to ineffective in lowering emissions in the short-run. It is evident that the transport tax appears to be a more effective instrument to meet environmental goals when compared to energy tax in EU economies. In this case, there is a need to revise energy policy and regulatory instruments that deal with energy in these countries so that such tools are harmonising with sustainability goals and objectives.
\nThe first findings presented regression results when the aggregate environmental tax was employed. These outcomes show that total environmental tax, energy consumption, green research and development significantly heightened emissions in the short-run scenario. The results further demonstrate that in the short-term economic growth, government expenditure, eco-innovation rating and production scores significantly lowered emissions. The results also confirm that total environmental tax, energy consumption and production significantly increase environmental sustainability in the short-run. Conversely, green research and development, economic growth, government expenditure, and eco-innovation significantly lower environmental sustainability in the short-run. The long-run results demonstrate that environmental tax and energy consumption develop a positive relationship with both greenhouse gas emissions and environmental sustainability respectively. In addition, green research and development generates a positive connection with emissions although its link with environmental sustainability is significantly negative. Economic growth, government expenditure, and eco-innovation illustrates a significant negative relationships to both emissions and environmental sustainability in the long-term. In the long-run, production produces a significantly negative association with emissions but a significantly positive relationship with environmental sustainability.
\nThe second part of the results section outlined regression when disaggregated environmental tax (energy tax and transport tax) was deployed. Thus, in the short-term, energy tax, energy consumption, government expenditure, eco-innovation rating, and production scores spur a significant rise in emissions. However, transport tax, green research and development, and income influence lessens emissions in the short-run. Furthermore, energy tax and production significantly reduce environmental sustainability in the short-term. Nonetheless, transport tax, energy consumption, green research and development, income and eco-innovation significantly increase environmental sustainability in the short-run. The long-run findings proves that energy tax, government expenditure and production produces a significantly negative relationship with both emissions and environmental sustainability. As well, transport tax, green research and development, economic growth along with eco-innovation produce negative and positive associations with both emissions and environmental sustainability. Lastly, energy use shows a significantly positive link to both emissions and environmental sustainability.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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Aronow"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:7,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"43500",doi:"10.5772/54723",title:"Pharmacology of Arterial Grafts for Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery",slug:"pharmacology-of-arterial-grafts-for-coronary-artery-bypass-surgery",totalDownloads:3012,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:null,book:{id:"3542",slug:"artery-bypass",title:"Artery Bypass",fullTitle:"Artery Bypass"},signatures:"Oguzhan Yildiz, Melik Seyrek and Husamettin Gul",authors:[{id:"164299",title:"Prof.",name:"Oguzhan",middleName:null,surname:"Yıldız",slug:"oguzhan-yildiz",fullName:"Oguzhan Yıldız"},{id:"164968",title:"Dr.",name:"Melik",middleName:null,surname:"Seyrek",slug:"melik-seyrek",fullName:"Melik Seyrek"},{id:"164969",title:"Dr.",name:"Husamettin",middleName:null,surname:"Gul",slug:"husamettin-gul",fullName:"Husamettin Gul"}]},{id:"43514",doi:"10.5772/54418",title:"The Role of The Angiosome Model in Treatment of Critical Limb Ischemia",slug:"the-role-of-the-angiosome-model-in-treatment-of-critical-limb-ischemia",totalDownloads:3804,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3542",slug:"artery-bypass",title:"Artery Bypass",fullTitle:"Artery Bypass"},signatures:"Kim Houlind and Johnny Christensen",authors:[{id:"165363",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kim",middleName:null,surname:"Houlind",slug:"kim-houlind",fullName:"Kim Houlind"},{id:"167383",title:"Dr.",name:"Johnny",middleName:null,surname:"Christensen",slug:"johnny-christensen",fullName:"Johnny Christensen"}]},{id:"43476",doi:"10.5772/54509",title:"Impact of Ischemia on Cellular Metabolism",slug:"impact-of-ischemia-on-cellular-metabolism",totalDownloads:2786,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"3542",slug:"artery-bypass",title:"Artery Bypass",fullTitle:"Artery Bypass"},signatures:"Maximilien Gourdin and Philippe Dubois",authors:[{id:"164978",title:"Prof.",name:"Philippe",middleName:"E",surname:"Dubois",slug:"philippe-dubois",fullName:"Philippe Dubois"},{id:"164982",title:"Dr.",name:"Maximilien",middleName:null,surname:"Gourdin",slug:"maximilien-gourdin",fullName:"Maximilien Gourdin"}]},{id:"61397",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76844",title:"The Ethics in Repeat Heart Valve Replacement Surgery",slug:"the-ethics-in-repeat-heart-valve-replacement-surgery",totalDownloads:1190,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The treatment of patients with intravenous drug use (IVDU) has evolved to include a wide range of medications, psychiatric rehabilitation, and surgical interventions, especially for life-threatening complications such as infective endocarditis (IE). These interventions remain at the discretion of physicians, particularly surgeons, whose treatment decisions are influenced by several medical factors, unfortunately not without bias. The stigma associated with substance use disorder is prevalent, which leads to significant biases, even in the healthcare system. This bias is heightened when IVDU patients require repeat valve replacement surgeries for IE due to continued drug use. Patients who receive a valve replacement and continue to use illicit drugs intravenously often return to their medical providers, months to a few years later, with a reinfection of their bioprosthetic valve; such patients require additional surgeries which are at the center of many ethical discussions due to high mortality rates, for many complex medical and social reasons, associated with continuous chemical dependency after surgical interventions. This chapter examines the ethics of repeat heart valve replacement surgery for patients who are struggling with addiction. Considerations of justice, the fiduciary therapeutic relationship, and guiding ethical principles justify medically beneficial repeat heart valve replacement surgeries for IVDU patient populations.",book:{id:"6556",slug:"advanced-concepts-in-endocarditis",title:"Advanced Concepts in Endocarditis",fullTitle:"Advanced Concepts in Endocarditis"},signatures:"Julie M. Aultman, Emanuela Peshel, Cyril Harfouche and Michael S.\nFirstenberg",authors:[{id:"64343",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael S.",middleName:null,surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"},{id:"227150",title:"Ms.",name:"Emanuela",middleName:null,surname:"Peshel",slug:"emanuela-peshel",fullName:"Emanuela Peshel"},{id:"229719",title:"Dr.",name:"Julie",middleName:"M.",surname:"Aultman",slug:"julie-aultman",fullName:"Julie Aultman"},{id:"232060",title:"Mr.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Harfouche",slug:"cyril-harfouche",fullName:"Cyril Harfouche"}]},{id:"43498",doi:"10.5772/54928",title:"Treatment of Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Failure",slug:"treatment-of-coronary-artery-bypass-graft-failure",totalDownloads:4819,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"3542",slug:"artery-bypass",title:"Artery Bypass",fullTitle:"Artery Bypass"},signatures:"M.A. Beijk and R.E. Harskamp",authors:[{id:"164896",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcel",middleName:"A.",surname:"Beijk",slug:"marcel-beijk",fullName:"Marcel Beijk"},{id:"165094",title:"Dr.",name:"Ralf",middleName:null,surname:"Harskamp",slug:"ralf-harskamp",fullName:"Ralf Harskamp"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"80213",title:"Evolution of Heart Transplantation Surgical Techniques",slug:"evolution-of-heart-transplantation-surgical-techniques",totalDownloads:277,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Organ transplantation has kindled the human imagination since the beginning of time. Prehistorically, transplantation appeared as mythological stories: from creatures with body parts from different species, the heart transplant between two Chinese soldiers by Pien Ch’iao, to the leg transplant by physician Saints Cosmas and Damian. By 19th century, the transplantation concept become possible by extensive contributions from scientists and clinicians whose works had taken generations. Although Alexis Carrel is known as the founding father of experimental organ transplantation, many legendary names had contributed to the experimental works of heart transplantation, including Guthrie, Mann, and Demikhov. The major contribution to experimental heart transplantation before the clinical era were made by a team lead by Richard Lower and Norman Shumway at Stanford University in the early 1960s. They played the vital role in developing experimental and clinical heart transplantation as it is known today. Using Shumway biatrial technique Christiaan Barnard started a new era of clinical heart transplantation, by performing the first in man human-to-human heart transplantation in 1967. The techniques of heart transplant have evolved since the first heart transplant. This chapter will summarize the techniques that have been used in clinical heart transplantation.",book:{id:"11236",slug:"heart-transplantation-new-insights-in-therapeutic-strategies",title:"Heart Transplantation",fullTitle:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies"},signatures:"Samuel Jacob, Anthony N. Pham and Si M. Pham",authors:[{id:"439327",title:"Prof.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Jacob",slug:"samuel-jacob",fullName:"Samuel Jacob"},{id:"439329",title:"Prof.",name:"Si M.",middleName:null,surname:"Pham",slug:"si-m.-pham",fullName:"Si M. Pham"},{id:"451575",title:"Mr.",name:"Anthony N.",middleName:null,surname:"Pham",slug:"anthony-n.-pham",fullName:"Anthony N. Pham"}]},{id:"70032",title:"Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting: Surgical Anastomosis: Tips and Tricks",slug:"coronary-artery-bypass-grafting-surgical-anastomosis-tips-and-tricks",totalDownloads:1424,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The definite feature of coronary artery disease is the focal narrowing in the vascular endothelium, and this leads to the decrease in the flow of blood to the myocardium. Atherosclerotic plaque is the main lesion. These patients can present with chest pain (angina or myocardial infarction) and need further workup noninvasively and invasively for the management. The main reasons for myocardial revascularization can be: (1) relief from symptoms of myocardial ischemia; (2) reduce the risks of future mortality; (3) to treat or prevent morbidities such as myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, or heart failure. Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) is the surgical technique of cardiac revascularization. In 1910, Dr. Alexis Carrel described a series of canine experiments in which he devised means to treat CAD by creating a “complementary circulation” for the diseased native coronary arteries. No clinical translation occurred at the time, but he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine. Experimental refinements of coronary arterial revascularization, including the use of internal thoracic artery (ITA) grafts, were later reported by Murray and colleagues, Demikhov, and Goetz and colleagues in the 1950s and early 1960s. Dr. Rene Favaloro performed his first coronary bypass operation in May 1967 with an interposed saphenous vein graft (SVG) and shortly thereafter used aortocoronary bypasses sutured proximally to the ascending aorta. The stenosed segment is bypassed using an arterial or venous graft. Left internal thoracic artery is the most commonly used artery, and long saphenous vein is the most commonly used vein for the coronary artery grafting to reestablish the blood flow to the compromised myocardium. This can be performed with or without the help of cardiopulmonary bypass machine and also with or without arresting the heart. These techniques are called as on-pump beating or on-pump arrested and off-pump beating coronary artery bypass grafting surgery. Distal and proximal anastomoses are usually performed in an end-to-side manner, but in the case of doing sequential grafting, side-to-side anastomosis is also performed proximal to the end-to-side anastomosis. In this chapter we are going to discuss the coronary artery bypass grafting tips and tricks in details.",book:{id:"9060",slug:"the-current-perspectives-on-coronary-artery-bypass-grafting",title:"The Current Perspectives on Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting",fullTitle:"The Current Perspectives on Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting"},signatures:"Mohd. Shahbaaz Khan",authors:[{id:"278633",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd. Shahbaaz",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"mohd.-shahbaaz-khan",fullName:"Mohd. Shahbaaz Khan"}]},{id:"65984",title:"Low Flow Low Gradient Severe Aortic Stenosis: Diagnosis and Treatment",slug:"low-flow-low-gradient-severe-aortic-stenosis-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:2301,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Approximately 40% of patients with aortic stenosis (AS) show discordant Doppler-echocardiographic parameters with aortic valve area (AVA) <1 cm2 and/or index iAVA <0.6 cm2/m2 (consistent with severe AS) and the mean gradient (MG) <40 mmHg, consistent with mild/moderate AS. Accurate diagnosis of true severe low flow low gradient AS versus pseudo-severe aortic stenosis is important for prognosis and optimal timing for intervention. Doppler echocardiography using intravenous low dose dobutamine challenge is widely used for differentiating pseudo-severe from true severe aortic stenosis. However, relying on echocardiography alone may have limitations in accurate diagnosis. Reliable diagnosis using echocardiography is dependent on multiple factors like the angle of interrogation of the aortic jet, the assumption that the LVOT area is circular in cross section, optimal echo windows, the presence of underlying subclinical coronary artery disease prior to dobutamine challenge etc. In this chapter, we describe non-invasive and invasive strategies to assess the aortic valve using dobutamine stress. Direct measurement of gradients across the aortic valve while estimating the change in cardiac output and aortic valve area with increments of dobutamine infusion dose is complementary, safe and useful when conventional echocardiography techniques are inconclusive. Finally, the chapter describes effective strategies of treatment for low gradient severe aortic stenosis, including the role for diagnostic balloon valvuloplasty, in the era of transcatheter valve replacement (TAVR).",book:{id:"8218",slug:"aortic-stenosis-current-perspectives",title:"Aortic Stenosis",fullTitle:"Aortic Stenosis - Current Perspectives"},signatures:"Faeez Mohamad Ali, Vindhya Wilson and Rajesh Nair",authors:[{id:"280651",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Nair",slug:"rajesh-nair",fullName:"Rajesh Nair"},{id:"280829",title:"Dr.",name:"Faeez",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamad Ali",slug:"faeez-mohamad-ali",fullName:"Faeez Mohamad Ali"},{id:"290351",title:"Dr.",name:"Vindhya",middleName:null,surname:"Wilson",slug:"vindhya-wilson",fullName:"Vindhya Wilson"}]},{id:"59547",title:"Left Ventricular Assist Device Infections",slug:"left-ventricular-assist-device-infections",totalDownloads:1480,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Left ventricular assist device (LVAD) infections are important causes of morbidity and mortality in patients who receive these mechanical circulatory supports as a bridge to transplantation (BTT) or as destination therapy (DT) (for individuals who are not candidates for cardiac transplant). Infections are more common among persons who received pulsatile flow LVADs as opposed to newer continuous flow (CF) devices. Other risk factors for infection include obesity, renal failure, depression and immunosuppression. An LVAD infection increases the risk of infections in persons who undergo cardiac transplantation. Infections include percutaneous site, driveline, pump pocket and pump/cannula infections; sepsis, bacteremia, mediastinitis and endocarditis. Diagnosis is achieved by monitoring LVAD flow parameters and observing typical clinical and laboratory manifestations of infection. Imaging such as PET-CT or SPECT-CT imaging can be helpful to establish a diagnosis of pump pocket infection. Echocardiography may aid in detecting native valve endocarditis and thrombus associated with the LVAD. The most common pathogens include Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium, Enterococcus, Pseudomonas and Candida spp. Treatment requires targeted antimicrobials plus surgical debridement of infected tissue and device components. In cases of pump/cannula/LVAD endocarditis, especially if fungal pathogens or Mycobacterium chimaera are involved, LVAD removal/reimplantation vs. transplant is necessary, combined with extended antimicrobial therapy.",book:{id:"6556",slug:"advanced-concepts-in-endocarditis",title:"Advanced Concepts in Endocarditis",fullTitle:"Advanced Concepts in Endocarditis"},signatures:"Marion J. Skalweit",authors:[{id:"186717",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Marion",middleName:null,surname:"Skalweit",slug:"marion-skalweit",fullName:"Marion Skalweit"}]},{id:"60658",title:"Humoral Rejection in Cardiac Transplantation: Management of Antibody-Mediated Rejection",slug:"humoral-rejection-in-cardiac-transplantation-management-of-antibody-mediated-rejection",totalDownloads:1097,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"After a successful heart transplantation, fundamental keys to achieve good results in the long term are to establish immunosuppressive therapy in the postoperative period in an appropriate manner and to ensure continuity of follow-ups. Despite the fact that these stages are maintained perfectly, patients may face one or more rejection episodes. T-cell-mediated acute cellular rejection of the cardiac allograft has well-established treatment algorithms, whereas antibody-mediated rejection (AMR) is challenging to diagnose, and its treatment varies between centers. Investigators reported that AMR is among the most important factors to improving long-term outcomes. Improved understanding of the roles of acute and chronic AMR has evolved in recent years following a major progress in the technical ability to detect and quantify recipient antihuman leukocyte antigen (HLA) antibody production. Recently, a study of the immunobiology of B cells and plasma cells that pertains to allograft rejection and tolerance has emerged. There are some questions regarding the classification of AMR, the diagnostic approaches, and the treatment strategies for managing. In this chapter, we are discuss the effector mechanisms that are used by antibodies to eliminate antigens and clinical experience about AMR and its treatment with a discussion about the latest articles.",book:{id:"6558",slug:"heart-transplantation",title:"Heart Transplantation",fullTitle:"Heart Transplantation"},signatures:"Umit Kervan, Dogan Emre Sert and Nesrin Turan",authors:[{id:"227772",title:"Prof.",name:"Umit",middleName:null,surname:"Kervan",slug:"umit-kervan",fullName:"Umit Kervan"},{id:"243592",title:"Dr.",name:"Dogan Emre",middleName:null,surname:"Sert",slug:"dogan-emre-sert",fullName:"Dogan Emre Sert"},{id:"243593",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Turan",slug:"nesrin-turan",fullName:"Nesrin Turan"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"984",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). 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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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