\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"225",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Peptic Ulcer Disease",title:"Peptic Ulcer Disease",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Peptic ulcer disease is one of the most common chronic infections in human population. Despite centuries of study, it still troubles a lot of people, especially in the third world countries, and it can lead to other more serious complications such as cancers or even to death sometimes. \nThis book is a snapshot of the current view of peptic ulcer disease. It includes 5 sections and 25 chapters contributed by researchers from 15 countries spread out in Africa, Asia, Europe, North America and South America. It covers the causes of the disease, epidemiology, pathophysiology, molecular-cellular mechanisms, clinical care, and alternative medicine. Each chapter provides a unique view. The book is not only for professionals, but also suitable for regular readers at all levels.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-976-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6776-1",doi:"10.5772/749",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"peptic-ulcer-disease",numberOfPages:502,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"d739f4ee9bd8e8521a50ab44d67dd160",bookSignature:"Jianyuan Chai",publishedDate:"November 4th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/225.jpg",numberOfDownloads:97765,numberOfWosCitations:63,numberOfCrossrefCitations:31,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:85,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:5,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:179,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 20th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 17th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 31st 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 23rd 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 22nd 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"28281",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianyuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"jianyuan-chai",fullName:"Jianyuan Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/28281/images/system/28281.png",biography:"Dr. Chai received his Ph.D. in Biology from the City University of New York in 1998 and completed his postdoctoral training in molecular medicine at Harvard University in 2001. Then, he served the Department of Veterans Affairs of the United States as a Principal Investigator (2002–2016), in affiliation with the School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine. Currently, Dr. Chai is a professor at Baotou Medical College, China. He has published dozens of research articles on various subjects including zoology, cardiovascular biology, gastroenterology, and cancer biology. He has been a member of the American Gastroenterological Association (AGA), American Heart Association (AHA), American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (ASBMB), and several other professional organizations and has served on the editorial board of multiple journals.",institutionString:"Baotou Medical College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Baotou Medical College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1021",title:"Hepatology",slug:"gastroenterology-hepatology"}],chapters:[{id:"22939",title:"Gastric Ulcer Etiology",doi:"10.5772/20796",slug:"gastric-ulcer-etiology",totalDownloads:6312,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Maria Izabel Gomes Silva and 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For our group, the utilization of computers; and electronic systems and devices has permitted to develop several projects to control processes. Some of them will be described in this chapter.
\n\t\t\tIn section 1, the development of irradiance meters based on electronic automation are shown. The design details and the results produced by the analysis of illumination sources in visible range are discussed. In the second section of this chapter, a description of the computer tool called Micro Engraved with Laser (MGL) to characterize materials is realized. The Reasoning Based on Cases (RBC) and its implementation in the software using Java are presented. In order to guaranty the lithography precision, a control system based on a microcontroller was developed and coupled to the mechanical system. On the other hand, in section 3, an alternative of engraving, considering the use of a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), instead of a Personal Computer (PC) is described. In this case, C language is used for programming. With RBC, the application has the capacity to keep information in the cases library. Its use optimizes the materials characterization, recovering information of materials previously characterized. The communication between the PDA and the displacement table is achieved by means of a system based on a micro-controller DSPIC. The developed computers tool permits us to obtain lithography with channels narrower than an optical fiber, of approximately 145 µm, with minimum equipment. In section 4, perspectives of micro drilling are also analyzed. Micro drilling with smaller channel diameters is a challenge, with a complete analysis of mechanical material properties. The benefits of Laser-induced plasma machining technique are mentioned. Finally, in section 5 our conclusions are provided.
\n\t\tThe light detection constitutes a wide field of analysis in optics. As we know, the light can be detected by the eye, but it has several disadvantages, compared with electronic devices designed to this purpose, such as a very slow response, a not adequate sensitivity to low-level signals, and it is not easy connected to electronic receiver for amplification, or other signal processing (Palais, 1984). The selection of the appropriate detector is very important in the irradiance meter design. It must be considered the costs, spectral responsivity, noise levels, and the type of meter where it will be inserted.
\n\t\t\tOn the other hand, the type of meter can be determined in accordance to the objective that could be the determination of the total irradiance or the distribution produced by an illumination source. For the first case it is well known the Ulbrich Sphere, is generally used to determine the lamps performance and the energy emitted in visible, infrared, and ultraviolet radiation. For the second case, different types of meters have been developed in order to provide an empirical base of information for specific characteristics, such as: photometer and portable intensity light meters. The use of electronics and programming tools has been determinant in the development of these devices. For example, some of the portable meters use microprocessors to increase the accuracy and to give them special characteristics. Other ones are equipped with memory or datalogger for the data recording. In both cases, the addition of these characteristics represent a considerable increase in the cost.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
A high interest in illumination intensity measurement has been shown in several fields, for example in architecture design and public illumination (Westinhouse, 2000), where the selection of the appropriate sources is fundamental and constitutes one of the biggest reasons for the realized studies. Another area of interest is generated by the necessity of manufactures of illumination sources to provide complete information for users, making necessary the characterization of the irradiance profiles. In research activities, the interest in the energy propagation produced by an illumination source has lead to widest studies in the total irradiance and the corresponding distribution.
\n\t\t\tThe power of optic beam is proportional to the light intensity (defined as the square of the electric field). Intensity is proportional to
Among the current projects on this area, at first, we developed a semi-spherical irradiance meter prototype (Roman G., et al, 2006), Figure 1, based on Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) detectors array, distributed in order to produce an uniform covered area (Figure 2).
\n\t\t\t\tThe selection of the optical detector was realized in this case considering basically the costs, because its number in the static array is considerably big.
\n\t\t\t\tThe optic power generated by a LED is linearly proportional to the forward driving current (Palais, 1984). The linear relationship can be understood by the following argument: The current I is the injected charge per second is then N=i/e, where e is the magnitude of the charge on each electron. If η is the fraction of these charges that will recombine and produce photons, the optic power output will be:
\n\t\t\t\tFor emission, the diode is forward biased, and charges injected into the junction recombine to produce photons. For detection, the process is reversed: the inversed biased and incoming photons generate electron-hole pairs, producing electrical current.
\n\t\t\t\ta) Complete irradiance meter, based on a detectors array. (b) Photograph.
Detectors distribution.
Spectral responsivity of LED E5/AMB-C.
The largest response proving LEDs of different colors, as detectors was given by an amber LED used as detector, so, it was chosen to form part of the semi-spherical arrangement, in order to analyze white illumination sources profiles.
\n\t\t\t\tAs the LEDs are commonly acquired without a data sheet, it is necessary to characterize them, this action can be realized by means of a monochromator, in this case, the ACTON 300. The spectral responsivity of this detector (E5/AMB-C) is shown in Figure 3, from 350 up to 900 nm. The setup designed to characterize the detectors (LEDs) is shown in Figure 4(a) and (b). As the response to illumination on a semiconductor junction, is a very small current, we use the amplification circuit shown in Figure 4(b), with an amplification factor determined by the back-feed resistance (Horowitz, 2001). The capacitor was implemented to establish the analyzed signals. The linearity of the circuit can be appreciated in figure 4c, which was kept until the saturation region that means, approximately until 4.15 μA. The maximal response was obtained at 570 nm (Figure 3). The linear relation between the irradiance and the voltage is considered due to the linearity of the detection circuit.
\n\t\t\t\tLinear response of I-V converter circuit.
A multiplexing stage was necessary due to the number of detectors (61), which is bigger than the number of the analogical inputs (16) of the used acquisition card (PCI-MIO-16E-1 de National Instruments). The data collection rate was of 1.25/16 MS/s, using a dual (74HC4052) multiplexer. Each of the 8 conditioner cards is formed by the amplification and the multiplexing circuits (Figure 5). The 8 conditioner cards were placed on the meter base (Figure 1).
\n\t\t\t\tSignal conditioner circuit.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
The flowchart shown in Figure 6 was used in the development of the collection and average data program. The data collection is realized by the acquisition data card and displayed using a program realized in LABVIEW, the data are storage, and this process is repeated 4 times, completed this cycle all is repeated again. When 100 data are collected in each detector, the corresponding average is calculated, which forms part of the useful data. After, the process is repeated again, and the new averaged data replace to the previous ones, this process continues until the user gives a stop.
\n\t\t\t\tThe irradiance profiles, generated with this semi-spherical prototype, were presented using bubbles schemes. An X-lamp LED (Figure 7) of warm white light, with an emission diameter of 1.9 cm, was tested. Its irradiance profile and irradiance pattern are shown Figure 8 and 9, respectively. This meter can be used as a quality control device for illumination sources such as lamps and bulbs. In the obtained discrete profiles, the following fact was considered: according to the Pointing vector physics, the irradiance is proportional to the voltage intensity detected in each sensor of the meter. These voltage values permit to obtain the corresponding profile of each source and give the capability to choice of more adequate sources for specifics tasks.
\n\t\t\t\tflowchart of the developed program.
Photograph of X-lamp LED.
Irradiance profile of the X-lamp LED.
Irradiance pattern of the X-lamp LED.
Some disadvantages of this static meter are given by the use of the detectors array produce, which produces a not uniform response also at the same co-latitude angle, as can be appreciated in Figure 6, especially in the last two external trajectories of detectors. These differences in the spectral response were produced basically for the fabrication processes. As it is known, even in LEDs from the same manufacturing batch, a difference in response exists, although it could be minimal. This fact produces errors in the determination of the irradiance profile from 12% up to 90% in critical cases. The error could be reduced being more careful with the sensor selection, and replacing them when it is necessary, but always it would be present due to their inherent differences. This fact shows the importance of the individual characterization before the selection final elements of the array. The alignment of the illumination source is another important source of error, that can be appreciated in the corresponding data fitting using Zernike polynomials (Sanchez-M. et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\t\tThe irradiance pattern (Figure 7) generated considering the line sensors shown in Figure 2 has another inconvenient, the appearance of a piece linear graph produced by the small number of sensors (only 9), and the variations in symmetry produced by their differences in the spectral responsivity. In order to reduce these inconvenient, the use of a single detector is suggested, coupled to a mobile mechanical structure. Although the XY table is very expensive, its availability in several optical labs permits to think in them as a very practical solution, after a certain adaptation, and considering its precision. The automation of the movements could be realized, using step motors or servomotors, without an excessive inversion. The use of recyclable convenient surfaces are recommended. In this case, the use of a CD ROM platform is analyzed.
\n\t\t\tManufacturers employ photometric curves for electric lamps, referring them at 1000 lumens, when their emitted fluxes are different of this quantity a normalization is used. These curves are obtained as a section of 3D intensity distribution, for all the solid angles, generally are indicated in polar coordinates, but for specific applications are also provided in Cartesian coordinates, such as in the case of projectors. The attention in this section is focused on the last representation, convenient to convergent sources, for whom the utilization of rectangular irradiance meters is suitable.
\n\t\t\t\tThe use of XY tables for different applications has been widely reported (Gwirc, S., et al, 2007, Jaimes-V., et al, 2005) and the case of three grades of liberty has also analyzed (Yañez V., et al, 2008). In this section, a rectangular prototype, based on an XY table, used as irradiance meter is proposed. The use of only one detector makes necessary the implementation of a mechanical mobile support. The implemented detector is a photodiode OPT301. The semiconductor photodiodes have some advantages, above the LEDs used as detectors, that must be mentioned: they are small, light, sensitive, fasts, and can operate with just few bias volts. In order to increase the response, a preamplifier must be integrated onto the same chip as the photodiode, producing an Integrated Detector Preamplifier (IDT), which is the case of the OPT301. The spectral responsivity and its linear response to irradiance can be consulted in www. Alldatasheet.com. Clearly this response is bigger than the LED one, which generally have widths of 20-50 nm (Palais, 1984).
\n\t\t\t\tThe rectangular prototype was designed on a CD ROM unit, in order to build a very low cost mechanical structure, with the following characteristics:
\n\t\t\t\tThe mobile part of the XY table is used to describe the linear trajectories on X and Y axes. It has a total area of 19x14 cm2. The scanning area is of 4.5x3.5 cm2. The total height of the base is of 7 cm.
\n\t\t\t\tThe square grid was established for simplicity of 14x15 detection points.
\n\t\t\t\tThe displacement was controlled by means of servomotors.
\n\t\t\t\tThe detector is assembled at one corner of the mobile base (Figure 10).
\n\t\t\t\tThe illumination source is located over the central part of the mobile area.
\n\t\t\t\tMeter (a) diagram and (b) photograph.
The XY movements were programmed on the base of the diagram flux shown in Figure 11. A photograph of the complete detection circuit and the diagram, using an OPT301M as detector, a dsPIC30F4011 for the movements programming and a display as a graphical interface to the user are shown in Figure 12 and 13, respectively.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t
The servomotors normally have a capability to move from 0 to 180 grades in accordance to a signal control (Figure 14). The control program is based on the generation of a very precise rectangular signal, with a period of 200 ms, the width of the pulse is modified depending of the desired position of the rotor, if a position of 90 degrees is required, the sent pulse must be of 1.5 ms. In this application, for the control pulse generation, two timers of 16 bits were implemented, one for the period and the other one for the pulse duration (Figure 15).
\n\t\t\t\tFlow diagram.
Photograph of the rectangular meter composed by a XY table and the detection circuit.
Schematic of the detection circuit.
Relationship among the control signal and the movement of the servomotor.
Main program of scanning, reading and sending data to PC.
They were also implemented interruptions (Figure 16), which permit to each timer “to notify” to the CPU when each temporization finishes. The control signals for the two motors of the system XY are implemented at the pines 3 and 1 of the D port, respectively.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t
The serial port US-232 is used to transfer all data read by the optical sensor in each swept point of the table (x, y coordinate) to the computer. A program developed in C, and compiled in the compiler for C of Microchip for family DSPIC30F was implemented.
\n\t\t\t\tThe obtained data are storage in a txt file in the PC, and after, the corresponding graphs are generated using suitable software, as ORIGIN.
\n\t\t\t\tInterruptions.
Data sending and configuration function for UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter).
\n\t\t\t\t\t
The photodetector was biased with 13V, and without a source of illumination, a lecture of 0.606 V was registered. Three luminaries were analyzed with this meter (Figure 18), a dirigible X-lamp LED IL51, a lamp conformed by an array of three LEDs IL1 LED3; and a single ultra bright white LED. The distance between the X-lamp LED and the photodetector was fixed at 13 cm, and due to the different sizes of the lamp with three LEDs, the distance was reduced at 10 cm. In the case of the single white LED, the distance was of 17 cm.
\n\t\t\t\ta) Dirigible X-lamp LED IL51, as a sample and the XY table. (b)Lamp IL/1 L3 (with a 3 LED array; and (c) single white LED.
As can be appreciated in figure 19b, the illuminated area produced by a dirigible X-lamp is almost regular, showing a deviation of only 0.25 units considering a radius of 4.35 distance units. These deviations can be attributed basically to the differences in the gear teeth driven by each servomotor. The high directivity of this illumination source permits to suggest its use in architecture and landscape lighting, for visual inspection, among other possible applications. The level of analysis achieved with this prototype permits us to observe very little details, which are very difficult to observe with other devices, as the case shown in Figure 20, where we present the irradiance pattern generated by a spherical mobile prototype developed also by our research group, using the same detector and the same detection circuit. In the last case, the beamwidth is easily determined, and complements the information about the source under test.
\n\t\t\t\tIrradiance profile of dirigible X-lamp LED (a) complete and (b) top view.
Irradiance pattern of the dirigible X-lamp LED.
The use of high brightness LEDs in lamps improves several fields of interest in illumination, such as energy-saving, uniform covering and longer lifetime. The level of directivity of lamps based on LED technology has been modified with the use of special metallic covers, as in the case of the dirigible X-lamp LED IL51. For other applications, such as for decorative exterior in gardens, or for paths illumination, lamps like the IL/1 L3 can be used. Its corresponding radiance profile is given in Figure 21. As can be observed, it provides a wider illumination angle than the dirigible X-lamp, covering almost uniformly to the total scanning area. In Figure 22, the irradiance pattern obtained with the same spherical prototype of the Figure 20 is presented. In both cases, the flat surface on the illuminated area is evident.
\n\t\t\t\tIrradiance profile of lamp with three LEDs (a) complete and (b) a zoom in on the left side.
Irradiance pattern of the single ultra bright white LED generated by the spherical prototype.
Finally, a single ultra bright white LED was tested with the prototype. The corresponding irradiance profile is shown in Figure 23. This LED showed problems of stability that means variability in the voltage measurements, and a little asymmetrical response. The same behavior was observed using the spherical irradiance meter and a lux-meter. Its maximum illuminance was of 84 lux at a distance equal to 27 cm, very lower compared with the illuminance produced by the lamps based on a power star LEDs of high brightness, such as the dirigible X-lamp LED, where 1700 lux was measured on the top.
\n\t\t\t\tIrradiance profile of the single ultra bright white LED.
XY table used as irradiance meter.
In order to increase the scanning area other suitable recyclable surface could be used, such as the conformed by the photocopiers rails (Figure 24). Its optical sensor, photodiodes for visible light like BS520 (www.datasheetcatalog.com), designed to applications in precise optical instruments, is useful to use for our purposes, due to its higher stability compared to the semiconductor photodiode used in the CD ROM platform. The BS520 photodiode is most expensive, but the possibility of recycling permits to consider it as a good option. Generally, the absence of the serial numbers of the elements in the photocopier diagrams makes necessary to characterize the detector spectral responsivity before to use it. The data fitting for rectangular geometries can be realized by means of Chevyshev Polynomials (Tecpoyotl, 2006). As we known, the disperse data may lead to large errors unless we use a discrete reduction, as it happens commonly in image analysis.
\n\t\t\t\tIt can be concluded that the implementation of a single detector in irradiance meters reduces the measurements error due to variations in the spectral responsivity. The precision in this case is determined by the control of the XY displacements. In absence of the servo motors implementation, manual control can be also carried out, keeping the reliability of the measurements, due to the worm drives coupled to the XY table. Similar structures can be realized on the base of the meter presented here, for example, using recycled printer rails or making mechanical structures of low cost. The bigger inversion would be realized on the detection circuit, which involves the DSPIC programming. A total scanning area, at least at 20x20 cm2 is suitable in order to realize measurements of the luminaries of larger sizes. Also it is suggested to be very careful in the selection of all parts of the prototype, because as we mentioned, the little variations for example in the gear teeth can produce deviations in the generated profiles.
\n\t\t\t\tThe implementation of the rectangular meter permits to observe with a great detail the profile produced as a result of the beamwidth of the illumination source under test. The generated information permits us to realize a comparison with other spherical prototype developed by our research group, and to have complete information about the total irradiance profile. The rectangular prototype provides empirical information necessary not only for manufacturers, but also for research activities. We found this prototype very useful due to the controllability of position, which increases the feasibility of the measurements, and provides a very complete irradiance pattern for the case of directive illumination sources. The application of the XY table automation shows the high potential of this type of devices.
\n\t\t\tThe purpose of this project is to make devices that can be used in the optical fiber sensors, which requires micrometric dimension engrave. The process consists of two AutoCAD design that acts as reproduction by controlling 2 steps motors adapted to move X, Y axis mechanism. Case Based Reasoning (CBR) methodology is used to optimize the process. In a simple way, CBR resolves a new problems (new case) by a comparison with the other resolved problems (case library), it takes one or more solutions from the most similar cases, the proposed solution is evaluated and if it is necessary, this is adapted. Finally, if the proposed solution solves the problem, the new case is saved in the case library, in contrary case, it is not saved and the comparison continues. In this way, the systems infers knowledge or experience, given better results in accordance with its case library extension. The laser power approach is obtained under this procedure, as a function of the new material properties (per example, the hardness). The comparison of the specific properties with other cases or materials already characterized, makes possible to optimize the process by reducing engraving probes in new materials.
\n\t\t\tNowadays, any line of development or research depends on the existing materials and equipment in other areas or development lines very near to it. This it is the case of the area of sensors and optical fibers, which depends mainly on the development of equipment in the communication area, where they are mutilated or modified with other pieces to be able to be used. This kind of problem can be reduced, if each device, considering its material, is designed and made in accordance to the proposed procedure.
\n\t\t\tThe main problem is to make devices in order to apply them in the area of sensors from common materials. This entails two new problems:
\n\t\t\tTo characterize the materials
\n\t\t\tMethod of engraving
\n\t\t\tThe devices fabrication can be realized by several methods, such as (Trimmer, 2005):
\n\t\t\tMicro mechanized by ablation laser
\n\t\t\tMicro mechanized by diamond
\n\t\t\tMicro perforated
\n\t\t\tStereolithography or micro molded photo
\n\t\t\tLEAGUE (X-ray lithography with metalized)
\n\t\t\tUsing Excimer laser
\n\t\t\tFrom the previous methods, if the purpose is to reduce the costs of the project to the minimum, the most viable for us is the one of engraving laser. For its utilization, it is necessary to account with a high-power laser and the possibility of using different materials from waste (like wood, plastic, paper, among others) to realize the engraving tests. The laboratory of Optics of CIICAp has all these conditions, making possible to realize here all test for the engrave laser process.
\n\t\t\tBased on the previous research, two lines of work are considered:
\n\t\t\tTo characterize the materials to use (like the dimension and depth of penetration of the channel) by means of the CBR Technique (Software), and
\n\t\t\tTo design a mechanical device to control the displacements in X and Y axes
\n\t\t\tIn CBR systems, in order to adapt and evaluate a possible solution, frequently it is necessary to consider new recovered cases (representing the problem as a case). There are many cycles in the process (Figure 25). Each case typically contains a description of the problem (attributes or characteristics of the problem), a solution and its result (García et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\tBasic Cycle of CBR.
In order to find the laser power to use in a new material: the new case (material) is compared against the cases in the case library by means of the near neighbor technique based on the Equation 2.
\n\t\t\twhere:
\n\t\t\tT is the new case
\n\t\t\tS is the case source
\n\t\t\tn is the number of attributes in each case
\n\t\t\ti is an individual attribute from 1 until n
\n\t\t\tf is the function of similarity for attributes i in cases T and S
\n\t\t\tW is the importance (the weight) of attribute i
\n\t\t\tThe weights of each attribute are assigned by the expert (a person that assigns the weight to the attributes based on the quality of the engraving), which are designated by an annotation generally going from 0 to 1. For example: the hardness of the material has a weight of 0.60 whereas the translucence has a weight of 0.05. But, not all the attributes (characteristic of the material) are not taken into account, such as the case of the material color, since it is not useful for the analysis.
\n\t\t\tThe values of similarity between the materials change whenever a new material is added to the case library. While greater it is the number of attributes (n) and it is counted on an extensive Case Library, the time in calculating this similarity will be greater for example, if we have 5 attributes in each case and a case library with 100 cases, 500 calculations cases will be realized (5*100). Some authors recommend having a base of cases smaller than 100 cases (Lake, 1996).
\n\t\t\tThe recovered more similar cases are used to suggest a solution that is reused and tried on successfully. In case of being necessary, the solution will be reviewed and adapted by the expert. In addition the expert can make a suggestion like adding wet paper or other techniques that help to obtain an engraving with greater quality. Finally, the present problem and the final solution are conserved as a new case (material characterized). Any solution and/or characteristic of some material can be modified later by the user; while more cases have the system will be able to approach an ideal solution for the engraving of a new more case.
\n\t\t\tThe calculation tool was developed with the programming language Java SDK standard edition 1.42 with more than 3.000 classes (Chan, 2002), along with JBuilder X, they are used to create applications in graphics mode multiplatform (Easttom, 2003). It was necessary to use usesPort and parport-win32 libraries for the shipment and reception of data by the parallel port. The user interface is based on the principle of easy and friendly software (Schildt, 2001).
\n\t\t\tThe system is based on the following process for the accomplishment of the engraving (see Figure 26):
\n\t\t\tThe user uses software to interchange the design created in AutoCAD to another one with DXF extension, in ASCII code (Tajadura, 1999). At the moment, designs with lines are only processed (command line).
\n\t\t\tThe software only has the data necessary to realize traces (lines made in Autocad), reducing the size of the DXF archive. It transforms the simpler archive MGL (with the same name but with the extension mgl).
\n\t\t\tThe user selects the material of the materials base. In case of being a new material, it is added to the system providing its characteristics. The system realizes the CBR process to suggest the power for the new material, on the base of the resolute cases (material characterized) and the tests of the new material. The fundamental parameters considered for the engraving quality are: the power for engraving and the focal distance, while for the material are: basically the hardness and the roughness, for future analysis the new cases also would consider: information about translucent, heat resistance, and metallic or not metallic characteristics.
\n\t\t\tContinuing with the process, the user selects the lens for the engraving considering the focal length and the diameter of the focal point.
\n\t\t\tThe software based on the Autocad file of the design, kept with the extension mgl, realizes the outlines through a communication stage (parallel port), to control the displacement of a milli-machined table. The objective is to control the rotation of the two motors. An improve in the mechanical system was realized by adding the a variable height, and a third motor, which functions as an shutter in order to avoid not desired engravings.
\n\t\t\tAt the end the tool, the description of the engraving will be required to the user, using the RBC. The information is stored in the bookstore of cases to make future comparisons between engravings, in order to find an optimized design giving a solution improved for the task that the user wishes to realize. The RBC contribution in the control software is to suggest the power required for engraving in order to reduce the range of the necessary tests for the characterization of the new material. The characterized cases are considered to realize the similarity process.
\n\t\t\tSchematic diagram of the operation of the calculation tool for the engraving with laser.
The material characterization has been realized considering 4 different tests, based on:
\n\t\t\tThe focal distance
\n\t\t\tThe laser power
\n\t\t\tVariations on the exposition time
\n\t\t\tTraces and sizes (using an Autocad template)
\n\t\t\tThe focal distance tests permits to determine the smallest possible diameter of the focal point. The variable power test produced, depending of the material characteristics, a proportional dependence between the damage and the applied power; the utilization of RBC, by the accumulated experience permits to reduce the range of realized tests. The variation in the exposition time produced the best defined channels, but it takes a lot of time. The variations in trace and sizes tests provide satisfactory results, in spite of some mechanical problems.
\n\t\t\tThe application of CBR to the system produced satisfactory results, better than of those than it was expected, such as the realization of engravings with channels less wide than the same optical fiber (approx. 145 µm) and engravings become attached to the dimensions in the design obtaining in this way a significant advance in spite of the used equipment. The quality of the engraving also depends of the used material. The system continues under development. The present work outlines a prototype with currently obtained results.
\n\t\t\tIt can be concluded that the system has wide possibilities to be more than a tool used in the devices design for sensing area, due to its capacity for both, to engrave and to realize cuts in different materials. The following stage of this project will be the accomplishment of a communication interface between a Palm and a mechanical system by means of electronics to control the precise movements of servo motors, as well as a more reliable and precise mechanical system. Another stage would be to control a new parameter, the displacement in Z axis, which would permit to control the depth of the engraving as well as arcs, ellipses and other more complex geometric figures.
\n\t\tThis section describes a computing tool on the Interface Development Environment (IDE), that was developed in an environment of development Code Warrior V9, in "C" language. This IDE accounts with an emulator, which allows to make tests before installing the program in the PDA. The goal of this tool is to characterize materials through the Artificial Intelligence technique named Case-Based Reasoning (CBR), with the help of this technique and a few of instructions, the characterization of the materials can be optimized. The development consist in choosing a few of parameters that allow us to do the search in the case library through the CBR and then process the data in the PDA. The information is send to the serial port, which after is sent to the receptor that transmits it to the motors.
\n\t\t\tThe engraving techniques in their origins were realized by equipment of great sizes. Nowadays the computers are more and more small and economic, and so the use of the CNC (Computerized Numerical Control) has been extended to all type of machinery: winches, rectifiers, machines to sew, among others.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
The objective is to characterize materials besides executing the program in a portable device that allows the adaptation of the user to the work area. The device that will serve like control is a PDA that has capacity of processing and data storage. These devices count with series and infrared ports. The difference between them is that first one depends on a physical connection, while the infrared does not. The series port requires of wires, but they can be larger than the corresponding to parallel port, and the number of wires is smaller. The pines Tx, Rx and GND of the connector DB9 are used to connect the PDA to the microcontroller. The data conversion is realized by means of the UART module.
\n\t\t\tThe final mission is to characterize material through a complete system that includes our proposed calculation tool, a control module and actuators, as well as a laser.
\n\t\t\tThe CBR is a technique of Artificial intelligence, its methodology is used in our computer tool. The CBR allows having an optimization in the characterization of the materials; some of the data that are being handled to be keeping in the case library are: material name, thickness, translucence, and the figure to be engraved. The CBR accounts with a basic cycle (See Figure 27) that includes the four r’s:
\n\t\t\tTo recover the case(s) more similar;
\n\t\t\tTo reuse the case(s) to try to solve the problem;
\n\t\t\tTo review the propose solution in case of necessity, and
\n\t\t\tTo retain the new solution as it leaves from a new case.
\n\t\t\tThe Basic Cycle of RBC [adapted of the proposed by (Aamodt & Plaza, 1994)].
A new problem is compared against cases in the cases library and the more similar cases are recovered. A solution is suggested as a result of the similarity analysis, which later is reused and tested in order to achieve the success of the solution. Unless the recovered case is a very similar case, the solution will probably have to be reviewed producing a new case that can be conserved. This cycle happens, currently, rarely without the human intervention (see Figure 28). For example many tools of CBR (Ochoa et al., 2004) act mainly as recovery of the case and reutilizing systems. The revision of the case (also call adaptation) is realized often by the ones in charge of the Case Library. Nevertheless, this does not have to be seen like debility of the CBR, since it permits to work as a tool of making decision, with the human collaboration in aid of the best decision (Wainer et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\tThe Code Warrior V9, under the "C" programming language, provides an atmosphere, which allows to build an interface of easy handling for the user. The diagram of Figure 28 shows how the system works.
\n\t\t\tBlocks under which the developed tool works.
This process begins when choosing the kind of the design to realize from:
\n\t\t\tPredetermined design or
\n\t\t\tDesign at free hands,
\n\t\t\tIf the first option is chosen, a window is opened, where the user has a series of designs previously made, after the selection of one of them is realized, the next step is to introduce data of the material to use. A new window with a list of materials is displayed; if the desired material is not previously registered previously in the list, the program provide a series of fields for fulfill its corresponding information. With this information the system realizes tests if it is desired, to acquire a suggested power for engraving. This last data is obtained with all the previously acquired data and processed by the methodology of CBR (Morales et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\tIn this way, the program accounts with all necessary information to complete the process and send the information through the series port to the control module of the actuators. The procedure concludes with the laser engraving (Figure 29).
\n\t\t\tConceptual diagram, showing the Process of control by means of PDA.
The computer tool was development to realize different tests of engraving, as in the case of the system shown in section 2. About the hardware, the motors are moved bi-directionally, they are controlled by a PALM and have the capability to realize different types of trajectories to engrave surfaces. Several tests were realized with texts engraving. The use of recyclable material permits the development of the system with minimum costs.
\n\t\t\tThe system is in the stage of finals tests and runs in a PALM 100m (Wilding-McBride, 2004), the electronic module already is in operation; and the bookstore of cases accounts with information of different materials. It is tried that this system can be used from any place where the user is located by means of Internet (WWW). In addition, the possibility to storage more parameters of the materials provides more precision in their characterization.
\n\t\tThe technique called Electrochemical Machining (ECM) is an anodic dissolution process. It utilizes an electrolytic cell formed by a cathode tool and an anode workpiece with a suitable electrolyte flowing between them. The anode workpiece is dissolved according to Faraday’s law when a sufficient voltage is applied across the gap between the anode and the cathode in which electrolyte is filled. Electrochemical processes for drilling small and fine holes by controlled anodic dissolution invariably use a weak acidic solution as electrolyte (Shan, 2004). These include electrochemical drilling (ECD) and acid based ECM drilling processes: shaped tube electrolytic machining (STEM), capillary drilling (CD), electro-stream drilling (ESD), and jet electrolytic drilling (JED). The advantages of acid based electrochemical hole drilling processes are:
\n\t\t\tGood surface finish;
\n\t\t\tAbsence of residual stress;
\n\t\t\tNo tool wear;
\n\t\t\tNo burr and no distortion of the holes;
\n\t\t\tSimultaneous drilling of large number of holes.
\n\t\t\tThe use of acid electrolytes in ECM hole drilling processes facilitate dissolution of metals and the removed material is carried away as metal ions thus making it possible to achieve smooth finish with closer tolerances and deep holes of high aspect ratio (Bellows and Kohls, 1982).
\n\t\t\tAnother Laser (continuous or pulsed) technique named Laser Beam Machining (LBM) is one of the most used techniques, based on thermal energy, of type non-contact. This process can be applied for almost whole range of materials. The lasers used for machining in the industries are CO2 and Nd:YAG. This two lasers are the most stable. In this kind of work, the use of power and focusing are everything needed to monitor.
\n\t\t\tThe mechanism of material removal during LBM includes different stages such as
\n\t\t\tMelting,
\n\t\t\tVaporization, and
\n\t\t\tChemical degradation (chemical bonds are broken which causes the materials to degrade).
\n\t\t\tIf a high energy density laser bream is focused on the work surface the thermal energy is absorbed, which heats and transforms the work volume into a molten, vaporized or chemically changed state that can easily be removed by flow of high pressure assist gas jet (which accelerates the transformed material and ejects it from machining zone) (Hirao et al., 2001). The schematic of LBM is shown in Figure 30.
\n\t\t\tThe interesting part is that each material possess a different response to the light. Some interesting materials have been studies as drilling of gamma-titanium aluminide (Biswas et al, 2009). Among the most important materials in optoelectronic devices, the Glass is found, with a high transmission from the UV to IR wavelength region, excellent thermal and electrical properties, and high chemical resistivity (Weber, 2003; Hirao et al., 2001). Furthermore, the glass properties are controllable by adjusting the composition during
\n\t\t\tBasic setup of LBM.
development and fabrication. However, these properties make the glass a challenging material to machine (Herman, 2000). Due to poor thermal properties, fabrication of finely machined features using laser-based processes e.g. grooves, channels, microholes, stand-alone levers, etc., in glass materials has been quite a difficult task.
\n\t\t\tLaser technologies based on nanosecond (ns), femtosecond (fs) and laser-induced plasma processing were investigated in order to obtain high quality laser micro-fabricated features on glass materials. Direct write laser using short pulses from ns and fs lasers influences the quality of processed glass significantly and produces crack-free, clean machining with careful control of the associated thermal processes. Laser-induced plasma machining technique allows fabrication of small-size, shallow features along with superfine surface finishes within the channels. The potential of these technologies have benefits in the fabrication of complex features for biomedical, microfluidic, MEMS and optoelectronic devices.
\n\t\tThis work confirms the relevance of the automation in optics applications. For the realization of all the prototype, it was required of a multidisciplinary team, involving basically programming, electronics and optics knowledge.
\n\t\tGravitational waves are ripples in the curvature of spacetime that propagate like waves, traveling outward from the source; they travel at the speed of light (299,792,458 m/s) and squeeze and stretch anything in their path as they pass. Do not confuse it with gravity waves that are waves generated when the force of gravity in a fluid medium or, when it is the case, at the interface between two different media, tries to restore equilibrium, as an example of these waves there are the wind waves on the interface between the atmosphere and the ocean.
Predicted in 1916 [1, 2] by Albert Einstein based on his theory of general relativity, [3] and detected in 2015, gravitational waves transport energy in the form of gravitational radiation, oscillation of spacetime itself. This theory predicts that the presence of mass causes spacetime to warp. When massive objects move around themselves, this curvature is altered, sending ripples of gravitation out of the universe carrying unbelievable amounts of energy. As these sources are very distant by the time, these disturbances catch up with us; they are almost imperceptible because they are weaker and gravitational waves interact very weakly with matter. Because of that, it was only a century after Einstein’s prediction that scientists developed a sensitive enough detector—a Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Detector, some kilometers long interferometer and were able to confirm the existence of gravitational waves [4].
The existence of gravitational waves is also a consequence of the Lorentz covariance of general relativity since it brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of gravity. Gravitational waves did not exist in the Newtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that physical interactions propagate at infinite speed.
There was already indirect evidence of gravitational waves before its first direct detection. Measurements of the Hulse-Taylor binary system suggested that gravitational waves were more than a hypothetical concept. This system is one of the potential sources of detectable gravitational waves. These potential sources include binary compact star systems composed of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes.
0ne way of thinking about gravitational radiation is as the messenger that carries information about changes in gravitational fields that attract one thing to another [5].
Several gravitational wave observatories (detectors) are under construction or in operation around the world [6]. In 2017, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Rainer Weiss, Kip Thorne, and Barry Barish for their role in detecting gravitational waves [7]. In these gravitational wave detectors and previous ones, the use of interferometry was essential for the operation of such a detector.
The possibility of gravitational waves was discussed in 1893 by Oliver Heaviside using the analogy between the inverse square law of distance in gravitation and electricity [7]. In 1905, Henri Poincaré proposed for the first time the existence of gravitational waves, which emanated from accelerated bodies and propagated at the same speed of light, this is dictated by the transformations of Lorentz [8] and implies an analogy that, accelerating electric charges produce electromagnetic waves, accelerating masses must emanate gravitational waves. When publishing his theory of gravitation (the general theory of relativity) in 1915, Einstein did not agree with Poincaré’s proposal, as in his theory there are not gravitational dipoles, essential for the emission in the electromagnetism theory. However, based on a weak field approximation, he concluded that there should be three kinds of gravitational waves (named by Hermann Weyl as longitudinally-longitudinally, transversely-longitudinally, and transversely-transverse).
These approximations made by Einstein were criticized by several researchers and even Einstein had doubts. In 1922, Arthur Eddington wrote a paper entitled: “The propagation of gravitational waves” [8], in which he showed that two of the three types of waves proposed by Einstein were only mathematical artifacts produced by the system of coordinates and they were not really waves. This also cast doubt on the physicality of the third type (transversely transverse); however, Eddington proved that these would travel at the speed of light in all coordinate systems, so he did not rule out their existence.
In 1956, Felix Pirani corrected the confusion caused by the use of several coordinate systems by reformulating gravitational waves as the manifestation of the Riemann tensor observables. The Pirani work was ignored at that time mainly because the scientific community was concerned with another issue of whether gravitational waves could transport energy. This question was solved by Richard Feynman using a thought experiment presented at the first conference for General Relativity in 1957 known as the Chapel Hill Conference. His argument, known as the sticky bead argument, presents that: if a gravitational wave passes orthogonally to the beaded rod (a rod if some bead), the effect of it is to deform the bead and the rod, but as the rod is longer, the bead moves beads over the rod; this movement causes friction and then heat, which meant the passing gravitational wave would have energy. Afterward, Hermann Bondi (who was skeptical of the existence of gravitational waves) published a more complete version of this argument.
After this conference, the scientific community took the existence of gravitational waves more seriously. Joseph Weber began to design and build a gravitational wave detector. It was the start of many gravitational wave detectors that are called Weber bars. Weber claimed to have detected gravitational waves in 1969 and 1970, the signals coming from the Galactic Center [9]. However, the high detection frequency quickly cast doubt on the validity of his observations, as the Milky Way’s implied rate of energy loss would drain our galaxy’s energy on a much shorter timescale than the galaxy’s inferred age. It got worse when in the middle of the 1970 decade, the build of other Weber bar experiments by other groups around the world failed to detect such signs. By the end of the 1970 decade, the consensus was that Weber’s detections were some kinds of noise.
The first indirect evidence of gravitational waves was discovered in 1974 by Russell Alan Hulse and Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr., using their discovery of the first binary pulsar. Results were published in 1979, showing the measure of the orbital period decay of the, so-called, Hulse-Taylor pulsar, which precisely describes the angular momentum and energy loss due to gravitational radiation emission predicted by general relativity. A discovery that gave them the 1993 Physics Nobel Prize.
This indirect detection of gravitational waves motivated further searches, despite Weber’s discredited result. Some groups continued to improve on Weber’s original concept. Using very low temperatures (cryogenic) for the bars, in high-vacuum systems and under vibrational isolation. There were many of these projects around the World. One of these groups built a Niobium bar resonant-mass gravitational wave detector [10]. In this detector, the vibrations caused by the passage of gravitational waves in the niobium bar are measured by a microwave parametric transducer. In this system, microwaves are pumped into a microwave cavity and the vibrations of the microwave cavity are connected to the niobium bar causing microwave signals in the microwaves to leave the cavity. This signal now must be amplified, but it mixes with the original microwave signal, which is too strong for the low-noise microwave amplifier; then the microwave carrier signal is removed by the use of an interferometer that cancels only the microwave carrier. A similar system can be seen in Figure 1. This is another use for interferometers in gravitational wave detectors; unfortunately, this kind of detector never made a detection, maybe because of a poor choice in the frequency range [11].
Schematics of a similar electronics of Niobè gravitational wave detector showing a microwave interferometer (between the cryogenic circulator and the cryogenic low-noise amplifier) used to cancel the microwave carrier signal that will degrade the performance of the cryogenic low-noise amplifier.
Other experimental groups pursued gravitational wave detection using laser interferometers. This idea of using appears to have been around for a long time by several independent groups, for example in 1962 ME Gertsenshtein and VI Pustovoit [12] and in 1966 by the group of Vladimir B. Braginskiĭ. The first prototype appeared in the 1970 decade built by Robert L. Forward and Rainer Weiss. In the following decades, increasingly sensitive detectors were constructed, culminating in LIGO and Virgo detectors.
After years and years of null results, the first detection of gravitational waves was made by LIGO on September 14, 2015, as the signal, named GW150914, probably came from the merger of two black holes [13, 14]. A year earlier, LIGO could have been brought down when scientists from the BICEP2 (Background Imaging of Cosmic Extragalactic Polarization 2) experiment claimed to have detected a weak signal in the CMB (Cosmic Microwave Background) that appeared like evidence of gravitational waves originating in the beginning universe. This evidence, according to researchers, could have been a smoking gun proof of the theory of cosmic inflation, which postulates that very shortly after the Big Bang (10−32 seconds after), the expanding universe experienced a period of very rapid expansion (a factor of 1026 times). This fast expansion would have created ripples over the CMB, the fossil cosmic radiation that fills the universe being the first detectable electromagnetic radiation in Universe history. However, the BICEP2 signal detected could be explained also by Milky Way dust, making the scientists withdraw the claim that gravitational waves had been detected.
The interferometry system essentially works by measuring the variations that occur in light beams, which are arranged along two different arms. This analysis occurs when we observe the variations and interferences in the return of the light beams, which overlap, since according to the Theory of Relativity light always travels the same distance using the same time, this is our ideal ruler, eliminating the error of a form of measurement that also suffers from the geometric variations caused by ripples. All this technology must be sensitive enough to be able to detect variations of less than a thousandth of a proton.
A powerful laser beam passes through the beam splitter allowing the two generated beams to have the same phase and to be separated perpendicularly by the arms of 4 km each; at the end, they are reflected by the mirrors [13]. Everything was designed so that normally the phases of the waves of the originally emitted light beam and the reflected one generate a destructive effect, so nothing is detected by the photodetector. For the occasion of a gravitational wave passing by the Earth, causing spacetime expand and contract infinitesimally in one direction, thus generating interference arising from the physical property of the wave behavior of light when the phases produce a more constructive effect, thus a signal is detected. Figure 2 shows the schematics of such a detector.
Schematics of a laser-interferometric GW detector.
This is not so straightforward, as the gravitational wave passes through the detector, the gravitational wave also changes the spacetime between the two mirrors, if this space was made of some material, the length of this material will also change by the gravitational wave, but the passage of gravitational wave does not change the speed of light, then the laser will travel in a shorter time in one arm and a larger time in the other arm then changing the interference pattern in the photodetector.
The fact that there are two observatories is a way of circumventing the possibility of confusing the detection of small earthquakes or some other local source of noise since when detecting a signal, this signal will be compared with that detected by the other observatory. It is only confirmed that this jolt was generated by gravitational waves if the generated signal has the same characteristics, for example, exactly the same profile in frequencies, since the observatories are exactly the same. Importantly, this all takes place in a vacuum, thus ensuring that the light will not have an unstable medium that could alter it in some way. Among the improvements to the observato-ries, the laser was updated to generate a higher frequency, there was an implementation of fused silica in the mirrors to reduce random mirror movements, and also their suspension was improved to reduce thermal noise and seismic isolation, making the observatories more sensitive for detection [14].
In 1974, the most plausible indirect detection of gravitational waves was made by Joseph Taylor, Jr. and Russell Alan Hulse, when observing pulsars surrounding a neutron star (neutron stars are less dense cousins of black holes). That is the Hulse-Taylor binary, a pair of stars, which is a pulsar [15]. The characteristics of its orbit can be deduced from the Doppler shift of radio signals emitted by the pulsar. Each of the stars is about 1.4 M (M being the mass of the Sun) and the radius of their orbits is around 0.013 of the distance between Earth and Sun, smaller than the diameter of the Sun. The combination of smaller separation and bigger masses means that the energy emitted by the Hulse and Taylor binary will be much larger than the energy emitted by the Earth and Sun system by a factor of approximately 1022 times.
Information about the orbit can be used to estimate the amount of energy and angular momentum that would be emitted in the form of gravitational radiation. As the energy is emitted, the pulsars must get closer to each other. Measurements in the Hulse-Taylor system were performed over 30 years ago. The change in the orbital period corresponds to the prediction of gravitational radiation, assumed by general relativity to be within 1 part in 500. Russell Hulse and Joe Taylor, in 1993, were awarded the Physics Nobel Prize for this remarkable work, which was the first indirect evidence of gravitational radiation. This binary system, from the present until the time of the merger, is estimated to have a lifespan of a few hundred million years [16].
After that scientists were motivated to prove its existence. In the mid-1990s they were simulating the Black Hole merger, until the arrival of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) and the Italian Gravitational Wave Interferometer Detector (Virgo) at the end of the 20th century made slow progress needing much improvement. The challenge was not the physics itself or the equipment only, but the math behind it. Einstein’s equations are called constraint equations, in which the solutions must always satisfy specific conditions, which is difficult since there are 10 equations with thousands of terms [17]. These simulations were necessary as the detectors needed a set of templates for the detected signal in order to establish the source of the signal, but using numerical relativity the set of these templates is still being built. Just to remember that Bayesian statistics is used in the detection.
In late 2015, researchers from the LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory) project observed “distortions in spacetime” caused by a pair of black holes, about 30 solar masses each, in the process of merging [14, 17]. The signal was detected in the two LIGO sites on September 14, 2015 at 6:50:45 a.m. PDT, the event was named GW150914. The signal oscillated from 35 Hz to 250 Hz, with a time difference of 7 × 10−3 s between the detection of each observatory, and a maximum amplitude of 1.0 × 10−21. Thus, coinciding with the shape predicted by Einstein almost exactly 100 years ago for an encounter of massive bodies, in the case of black holes that surround each other until they meet and merge, thus resulting in a significant warping in spacetime. To the relief of many, the merger took place at a distance of ~1.3 billion light-years from Earth. The masses of the initial black holes were 29 M and 36 M, (solar mass, M, approximately 1.99 × 1030 kg); the mass of the resulting black hole was 62M, and approximately 3.0 Mc2 of energy was converted into gravitational waves to the rest of the Cosmos [14]. The signal of this measurement can be seen in Ref. [14]: the detected signal measured in the two observatories (located in Hanford, WA e Livingston, LA) are shown. First row shows the signal detected in the interferometers; it is shown a difference in time signal over the signal at the Louisiana observatory due to difference in the signal arrival time. Second row shows the expected signal of signal for the optimal source template previously calculated. Third row shows the residuals from rows 1 and 2. Row 4 shows the signal in the frequency domain against time.
In June 2016, the second burst of gravitational waves from merging black holes was announced, suggesting that such detections will soon become routine and part of a new kind of astronomy [18].
On June 1, 2017, for the third time, scientists announced that they had detected the infinitesimal reverberations of spacetime [19].
The interferometric gravitational wave detectors are very complex machines, besides being very big vacuum systems, need to have very powerful lasers, and so on. The interferometer must be set in a dark fringe condition, but the mirrors are con-nected to the ground by the suspension, so they vibrate what could change the dark fringe condition. Then a very good suspension that attenuates the vibrations is used, Figure 3 shows an example of such suspension (this example is about the LIGO detector). The Italian detector Virgo has a more sophisticated suspension which makes this detector more sensitive at lower frequencies.
Schematics side view of the mirror suspension system of the LIGO detector showing the electrostatic actuator which is used to keep the detector locked in.
The Virgo suspension is more complex, it is composed of an inverted pendulum and 6 masses suspended by its center, plus a collection of 18 LVDTs (Linear Variable Displacement Transducers), 5 accelerometers, 23 coils, three piezoelectric devices and 21 motor drivers. All these devices together are called the super attenuator. With a super attenuator for every suspended mirror.
These details show that it is very difficult to keep the interferometer locked in, it also depends on active systems.
But how sensitive the interferometer must be to make such measurements. The first measurement of gravitational waves was of displacement 10−18, as the arms are 4 km long, and the variation in length was 4 x 10−15. As the power inside the arms is 100 kW with an input power of 20 W, has a recycling factor of 5000 which makes the real sensitivity of the interferometer close to 10−12 m.
The Gravitational wave interferometric detector successfully detected gravitational waves with unprecedented sensibilities, for the position of the mirror the measurement precision was done in an order of 10−18 meters over square root of Hz. For such achievement, the mirror position should be stable for a factor of 10−13 m r.m.s.
The author acknowledges Conselho de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Cientifico (CNPq, Brazil) for Grant #312454/2021-0 and Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Sao paulo (FAPESP) Grant #2013/26258-4.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
",metaTitle:"Team",metaDescription:"Advancing discovery in Open Access for the scientists by the scientist",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"page/team",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\\n\\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\\n\\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\\n\\nSara Uhac, COO
\\n\\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\\n\\nDr Alex Lazinica
\\n\\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\n\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. 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The main global health organizations have incorporated patient safety in their review of work practices. The data provided by the medical laboratories have a direct impact on patient safety and a fault in any of processes such as strategic, operational and support, could affect it. To provide appreciate and reliable data to the physicians, it is important to emphasize the need to design risk management plan in the laboratory. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is an efficient technique for error detection and reduction. Technical Committee of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) licensed a technical specification for medical laboratories suggesting FMEA as a method for prospective risk analysis of high-risk processes. FMEA model helps to identify quality failures, their effects and risks with their reduction/elimination, which depends on severity, probability and detection. 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Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. 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Calls are widespread for better diagnostic approaches and innovative programs that benefit children, because current levels of malaria-related morbidity and mortality are so high. Problematically, most national malaria control programs do not specifically target school-aged children; although the literature describes options for child-focused strategies, there is no consensus on the optimal intervention; and where a strategy is advocated, it is almost always one identified through systematic review. While understandably the scientific “gold standard,” such reviews exclude many potentially useful and valid approaches, because reports describing them do not meet the inclusion criteria of being randomized controlled trials. Such trials are inevitably limited in number due to cost and complexity, and many excluded reports describe locally developed innovation based on World Health Organization diagnostic and therapeutic guidelines with the potential to benefit children. This chapter frames how practical interventions such as these can be put in place by school communities, and in parallel, how approaches advocated by the WHO and Lancet Commission to promote health literacy and access to essential health services can create ways to reduce the burden of malaria on school-aged children.",book:{id:"11576",title:"Malaria - Recent Advances, and New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11576.jpg"},signatures:"Andrew Macnab"},{id:"83051",title:"Review of Gastroesophageal Reflux Pharmacotherapy Management",slug:"review-of-gastroesophageal-reflux-pharmacotherapy-management",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106338",abstract:"Acid suppressive therapy (AST) has been the primary mechanism to provide gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) symptomatic relief and prevent complications in many individuals with GERD. Many AST options exist, but proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) have developed popularity in symptomatic relief for refractory GERD patients. To help reduce persistent symptoms, the use of AST therapy optimization is imperative and involves timing doses appropriately and increasing the dose and dosing frequency. Recently, more data has become available regarding the safety profile of AST, specifically PPI use. This data has raised awareness about its potential for toxicity with long-term use. This chapter focuses on the pharmacological management of GERD with a focus on the current updates regarding AST safety and efficacy.",book:{id:"11717",title:"Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease - A Growing Concern",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11717.jpg"},signatures:"Anthony Wilks, Ladan Panahi, George Udeani and Salim Surani"},{id:"82349",title:"Stress-Induced Cardiomyopathy",slug:"stress-induced-cardiomyopathy-1",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105584",abstract:"The irreversible termination of individual life activities and metabolism means all fatal problems ultimately terminate the heart function. It’s very important to protect the patient’s life if we have treatment to maintain heart function and care about patients’ heart response. It is known that many diseases induced heart dysfunction including Chagas disease, burn injury, smoking and other bad stresses. Chronic stress causes these physical symptoms and emotional symptoms. Due to the awareness created by the media and internet, patients are generally aware that they should seek help immediately for chest pain. Therefore, attention and studies on stress-induced heart dysfunction would help uncover the pathophysiological mechanisms of cardiac response to non-heart diseases and provide an insight of heart-protection drugs. At the same time, physicians should be aware of this new condition and how to diagnose and treat it, even though the causal mechanisms are not yet fully understood. This special chapter will discuss on the cardiac response to the stresses especially on our associated research in recent decades such as Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi)-induced cardiomyopathy and burn injury–induced cardiomyopathy, and on some very popular stresses such as behavior, motion, mental, and smoking.",book:{id:"11739",title:"Cardiovascular Diseases",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11739.jpg"},signatures:"Jake J. Wen and Ravi S. 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The abnormal macrophage phenotype in diabetes is not fully understood but is believed to mainly result from epigenetic changes in macrophages and altered interactions between macrophages and other cell types, such as fibroblasts, endothelial cells, neutrophils and T-cells. Recent research on DFUs has focused on developing strategies to improve diabetic wound repair through modulation of macrophage polarization. Treatment of DFUs will greatly benefit from a multi-modal therapy that includes controlling high blood glucose, topical support, prevention of secondary infection, resolution of sustained inflammation and application of cellular therapies targeting macrophages.",book:{id:"11855",title:"Diabetic Foot - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11855.jpg"},signatures:"Lingyan Zhu, Yu Xiao, Yao Xiao, Yinan Jiang, Maha Adama and George K. Gittes"},{id:"83031",title:"Oncological-Therapy-Associated Liver Injuries",slug:"oncological-therapy-associated-liver-injuries",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106214",abstract:"Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) represents a large group of hepatic disease caused by various treatments, including oncological agents. The liver is an important organ with a role in drug metabolization and excretion and may be affected when oncologic treatment is initiated. The most common liver disease patterns induced by oncologic therapy are steatosis and steatohepatitis, focal nodular hyperplasia, pseudocirrhosis, acute hepatitis, hepatic necrosis, immune-mediated hepatitis, cholestasis, fibrosis and cirrhosis, sinusal obstructive syndrome. In rare cases, chemotherapy treatment is associated with a high-risk hepatic adenoma or hepatocellular carcinoma development. It was demonstrated that the majority of chemotherapy classes can induce these effects on the liver, for example, alkylating agents, antimetabolites, and antitumor antibiotics, but also immunotherapy agents can be involved. The majority of patients that receive oncological treatment who developed liver injury as adverse reactions are identified by symptoms and/or blood test abnormalities. Imaging techniques may be helpful in the diagnosis of oncological-therapy-associated liver injuries, for example, focal nodular hyperplasia, pseudocirrhosis, and sinusal obstructive syndrome. If liver disease occurs as an adverse effect of these agents, the recommendation to stop or continue the administration of oncologic treatment with close monitoring relies upon the risk and benefits of this medication.",book:{id:"11265",title:"Hepatotoxicity",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11265.jpg"},signatures:"Victor-Mihai Sacerdoțianu, Costin-Teodor Streba, Ion Rogoveanu, Liliana Streba and Cristin Constantin Vere"},{id:"81663",title:"Cultural Competence and the Education of CSD Professionals in Times of COVID-19",slug:"cultural-competence-and-the-education-of-csd-professionals-in-times-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104649",abstract:"This manuscript aims to discuss the experiences and expectations regarding the cultural competence of Brazilian CSD students and the challenges brought by the COVID-19 pandemic. Cultural awareness has been one of the competencies focused on by CSD programs in Brazil. However, travel and face-to-face contact with persons from different cultures and environments is just one of the possible ways of experiencing cultural awareness. The interruption of these opportunities due to the COVID-19 pandemic did not reduce the interest in learning and improving cultural abilities. It is possible to think about alternatives for embedding discussions and experiences regarding cultural sensitivity in students’ routine studies and practice.",book:{id:"11592",title:"COVID-19 Pandemic, Mental Health and Neuroscience - New Scenarios for Understanding and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11592.jpg"},signatures:"Fernanda Dreux M. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"90",type:"subseries",title:"Human Development",keywords:"Neuroscientific Research, Brain Functions, Human Development, UN’s Human Development Index, Self-Awareness, Self-development",scope:"