Differences between pediatric and adult condyle.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9686",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Brassica Breeding and Biotechnology",title:"Brassica Breeding and Biotechnology",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The family Brassicaceae constitutes one of the world’s most economically important plant groups. These plants are important sources of vegetable oil, vegetables, and condiments. Most of these crops belong to the genus Brassica, which includes common crops such as oilseeds (oilseed rape, mustard) and vegetables (broccoli, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, cabbage, turnip, Chinese cabbage, etc.). Brassica species play an essential role in horticulture and agriculture as well as contribute to the health of populations around the world. The current global climatic model predicts a significant decrease in growth, yield, and productivity of Brassica due to various biotic and abiotic stress factors. Thus, high-yielding, climate-resilient, and disease-resistant Brassica varieties are required to maintain as well as increase future agricultural production. The development of improved cultivars of these crops may become exhausted and improvement could become stagnant when plant breeding is merely based on a single breeding approach. Therefore, the goal of a breeding program should be to develop genetically superior Brassica cultivars suitable for a wide range of environments. This book examines the introgression of insect and disease resistance and other desirable traits into Brassica crops using inter-and/or intra-specific hybridization as well as biotechnological and molecular techniques, which could be useful for improving Brassica crops to ensure food security.",isbn:"978-1-83968-697-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-696-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-698-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87490",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"brassica-breeding-and-biotechnology",numberOfPages:174,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1afe175ea39b01d4e6e0c9d6427486a6",bookSignature:"A. K. M. Aminul Islam, Mohammad Anwar Hossain and A. K. M. Mominul Islam",publishedDate:"July 7th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9686.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3283,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:13,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:25,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 4th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 2nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 1st 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 19th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 20th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"191072",title:"Prof.",name:"A. K. M. Aminul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"a.-k.-m.-aminul-islam",fullName:"A. K. M. Aminul Islam",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191072/images/system/191072.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. A. K. M. Aminul Islam is Professor of Genetics and Plant Breeding at Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh, where he is also a director of research. He received bachelor’s and master’s degrees from Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh, Bangladesh, and a Ph.D. in Chemical and Process Engineering from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Dr. Islam is the author of 120 articles published in nationally and internationally reputed journals, twenty book chapters, and four books. He is an editorial board member and referee for several national and international journals. He is also the general secretary of the Plant Breeding and Genetics Society of Bangladesh, the seminar and research secretary of JICA Alumni Association of Bangladesh, and a lifetime member of several professional societies. Dr. Islam developed and released nineteen varieties of different crops for commercial cultivation by farmers. He supervised twenty-two MS and two Ph.D. students as major professor and forty MS and two Ph.D. students as a committee member. His major areas of research are the development of hybrid vegetables, canola-grade Brassica napus using a CMS system, and salinity-tolerant rice, as well as renewable energy research with Jatropha curcas.",institutionString:"Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"321236",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Anwar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"mohammad-anwar-hossain",fullName:"Mohammad Anwar Hossain",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/321236/images/system/321236.png",biography:"Dr. Mohammad Anwar Hossain is a professor in the Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh, Bangladesh. He received his BSc in Agriculture and MS in Genetics and Plant Breeding from BAU. He also received an MSc in Agriculture from Kagawa University, Japan, in 2008, and a Ph.D. in Abiotic Stress Physiology and Molecular Biology from Ehime University, Japan, in 2011 through a Monbukagakusho scholarship. As a JSPS postdoctoral researcher in 2015–2017, he worked on isolating low-phosphorus, stress-tolerant genes from rice at the University of Tokyo, Japan. His current research program focuses on understanding physiological, biochemical, and molecular mechanisms underlying abiotic stress tolerance in crop plants and the generation of stress-tolerant and nutrient-efficient plants through breeding and biotechnology. He has more than sixty peer-reviewed publications to his credit and has edited twelve books, including this one.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"234696",title:"Prof.",name:"A. K. M. Mominul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"a.-k.-m.-mominul-islam",fullName:"A. K. M. Mominul Islam",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/234696/images/system/234696.png",biography:"Dr. A. K. M. Mominul Islam is a professor in the Department of Agronomy, Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh, Bangladesh. He received both bachelor’s and master’s degrees from BAU. Dr. Islam obtained a second master’s degree in Physical Land Resources from Ghent University, Belgium, and a Ph.D. in Plant Allelopathy from United Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Ehime University, Japan, with his dissertation “Allelopathy of five Lamiaceae medicinal plant species.” Dr. Islam also completed his post-doctoral research at the Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, Indiana, USA. Dr. Islam is the author of seventy-four articles published in nationally and internationally reputed journals, six book chapters, and three books. He is an editorial board and referee for several national and international journals. To date, he has supervised twenty-one MS students. Dr. Islam is currently supervising the research of two MS and six Ph.D. students in the areas of field crop production and management.",institutionString:"Bangladesh Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Bangladesh Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"341",title:"Olericulture",slug:"olericulture"}],chapters:[{id:"74816",title:"Advances in Breeding in Vegetable Brassica rapa Crops",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95769",slug:"advances-in-breeding-in-vegetable-em-brassica-rapa-em-crops",totalDownloads:352,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Brassica rapa includes oil and vegetable crops having a variety of forms, such as oilseeds, leafy vegetables and turnips. Leafy types, which are called turnip greens and turnip tops, are popular crops in NW Spain, and they represent an important part of the diet. However, their cultivation is limited in southern areas or in the Mediterranean basin, probably due to a lack of adaptation. Still, they could occupy a prominent place in the Mediterranean diet, which is based on a high consumption of fruits and vegetables. In this review, we summarize the studies on the agronomical and nutritional value of these crops when grown under Mediterranean climate conditions. Data reported here might be useful for a deeper understanding of these crops for both nutritional quality and bioaccessibility, and for selecting varieties adapted to the two abovementioned Mediterranean conditions, as well as for organic farming systems, thus contributing to the diversification of traditional Brassica vegetable production systems.",signatures:"María Elena Cartea, Fernando Cámara-Martos, Sara Obregón, Francisco Rubén Badenes-Pérez and Antonio De Haro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74816",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74816",authors:[{id:"142197",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Cámara-Martos",slug:"fernando-camara-martos",fullName:"Fernando Cámara-Martos"},{id:"229534",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"De Haro-Bailón",slug:"antonio-de-haro-bailon",fullName:"Antonio De Haro-Bailón"},{id:"334691",title:"Dr.",name:"María Elena",surname:"Cartea",slug:"maria-elena-cartea",fullName:"María Elena Cartea"},{id:"335952",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Obregon-Cano",slug:"sara-obregon-cano",fullName:"Sara Obregon-Cano"},{id:"342339",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Badenes-Pérez",slug:"francisco-badenes-perez",fullName:"Francisco Badenes-Pérez"}],corrections:null},{id:"75542",title:"Rapeseed-Mustard Breeding in India: Scenario, Achievements and Research Needs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96319",slug:"rapeseed-mustard-breeding-in-india-scenario-achievements-and-research-needs",totalDownloads:692,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Brassica spp., commonly known as rapeseed-mustard, plays a significant role in the Indian economy by providing edible oils, vegetables, condiments and animal feed. Globally, India holds second and third position in rapeseed-mustard area under cultivation and production, respectively. However, anthropogenically accelerated climate change thwarts yield potential of rapeseed-mustard by employing abiotic (drought, flood, temperature variation and salinity) and biotic (disease and insects) stresses. Various approaches such as molecular breeding, pre-breeding, −omics and biotechnological interventions have been used to develop varieties for improved yield and oil quality, climate resilient and resistance or tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses. In this context, this chapter highlighted the different cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) sources and their potential use for hybrid development. At the end, this chapter also enlisted salient achievement by the government and non-government institutes and briefly described the future perspective for improvement of rapeseed-mustard in India.",signatures:"Subhash Chand, Om Prakash Patidar, Rajat Chaudhary, Ranjit Saroj, Kailash Chandra, Vijay Kamal Meena, Omkar M. Limbalkar, Manoj Kumar Patel, Priya P. Pardeshi and Prashant Vasisth",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75542",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75542",authors:[{id:"249796",title:"Dr.",name:"Kailash",surname:"Chandra",slug:"kailash-chandra",fullName:"Kailash Chandra"},{id:"326742",title:"Dr.",name:"Subhash",surname:"Chand",slug:"subhash-chand",fullName:"Subhash Chand"},{id:"348860",title:"Dr.",name:"Om Prakash",surname:"Patidar",slug:"om-prakash-patidar",fullName:"Om Prakash Patidar"},{id:"348861",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajat",surname:"Chaudhary",slug:"rajat-chaudhary",fullName:"Rajat Chaudhary"},{id:"348862",title:"Dr.",name:"Ranjit",surname:"Saroj",slug:"ranjit-saroj",fullName:"Ranjit Saroj"},{id:"348863",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay Kamal",surname:"Meena",slug:"vijay-kamal-meena",fullName:"Vijay Kamal Meena"},{id:"348865",title:"Dr.",name:"Omkar M.",surname:"Limbalkar",slug:"omkar-m.-limbalkar",fullName:"Omkar M. Limbalkar"},{id:"348867",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoj Kumar",surname:"Patel",slug:"manoj-kumar-patel",fullName:"Manoj Kumar Patel"},{id:"348868",title:"Dr.",name:"Priya P.",surname:"Pardeshi",slug:"priya-p.-pardeshi",fullName:"Priya P. Pardeshi"},{id:"348869",title:"Dr.",name:"Prashant",surname:"Vasisth",slug:"prashant-vasisth",fullName:"Prashant Vasisth"}],corrections:null},{id:"75023",title:"Innovative Strategies to Develop Abiotic and Biotic Stress Tolerance in Mustard (Brassicaceae)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95973",slug:"innovative-strategies-to-develop-abiotic-and-biotic-stress-tolerance-in-mustard-brassicaceae-",totalDownloads:336,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mustard crop is the third important source of vegetable oil randomly below soybean L. and palm, all over the world. Brassica crop is extremely susceptible to some biotic and abiotic stresses and they significantly influence the quality and quantity of the crop. In the past generally breeding techniques are used to develop resistance in mustard to avoid diseases though various pathogens are soon able to overcome that resistance by modifying their metabolic cycles. To bear the challenge there is an urgent need to develop abiotic as well as biotic stress tolerant plants using advanced techniques by understanding metabolic and biochemical pathways of plants and pathogens. Several techniques such selection of stress tolerance microbes, metabolite, enzymes, and genes are very important to avoid stresses. Whereas several techniques such as deployment of molecular markers for breeding, identification of Quantitative trait loci (QTL), in vitro tissue culture etc. can be more useful to improve biotic and abiotic stress tolerance in mustard. To develop healthy and high yield varieties, the mix of these techniques is needs to be implemented.",signatures:"Bahaderjeet Singh, Amanpreet Singh Sran and Gagandeep Singh Sohi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75023",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75023",authors:[{id:"331114",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Bahaderjeet",surname:"Singh",slug:"bahaderjeet-singh",fullName:"Bahaderjeet Singh"}],corrections:null},{id:"75263",title:"Embryo Culture and Embryo Rescue in Brassica",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96058",slug:"embryo-culture-and-embryo-rescue-in-em-brassica-em-",totalDownloads:344,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Somatic embryogenesis is the best demonstration of totipotency in higher plants in which somatic cell produce whole plant like zygotic embryo. It is also demonstrated that immature, weak, hybrid or sometimes inviable embryos can be saved through in vitro culture to prevents its degradation. It may help to cross the reproductive barriers when interspecific hybrids developed. Brasssica is an economically valuable oil yielding and vegetable crop and India is the largest producer of oil seed rape in the world. Various factors affect the embryo rescue in Brassica like growth stage of the embryos, types and composition of the rescue medium etc. The embryo regeneration potential can improve through the modification of culture conditions in both zygotic as well as somatic embryo. Except the embryo culture other parts like ovule, ovary culture can also be done to developed interspecific hybrids. This chapter is focused on the embryo rescue techniques in the genus Brassica and summarizes possible ways of improving the technique used.",signatures:"Mohammad Akmal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75263",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75263",authors:[{id:"181036",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Akmal",slug:"mohammad-akmal",fullName:"Mohammad Akmal"}],corrections:null},{id:"74043",title:"Breeding Mustard (Brassica juncea) for Salt Tolerance: Problems and Prospects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94551",slug:"breeding-mustard-em-brassica-juncea-em-for-salt-tolerance-problems-and-prospects",totalDownloads:279,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Salt stress is currently one of the most critical factors, reducing agricultural production. Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) is a major oilseed crop in these areas. However, salt affects as much as 50–90% worldwide yield reduction. Salt tolerance is a very complex factor controlled by a number of independent and/or interdependent mechanisms and genetic modification that lead to many changes in physiology and biochemistry at the cellular level. The classical methods of plant breeding for salt tolerance involves the widespread use of inter and intraspecific variations in the available germplasm which is essential for any crop development program. This large germplasm is then tested under various salt levels in microplots, which is a quick, reliable, reproducible and inexpensive method of salt tolerance. Genotypes that have shown better indications of stress tolerance without significant yield reduction are considered to be tolerant and are also used as potential donor in the breeding programs. In this way, ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (ICAR-CSSRI), Karnal developed and produced five varieties of Indian mustard that tolerate high salt namely, CS 52, CS 54, CS 56, CS 58 and CS 60 in the country, and many other high-quality pipeline lines exploration and development. These salt-tolerant species work better under conditions of salt stress due to various manipulations (physiology, genes and molecular level) to fight salt stress has led to detrimental effects. Recent molecular tools to add classical breeding systems to improve saline-tolerant mustard varieties in a short span of time, including the Marker Assisted Selection (MAS) and backcrossing, that have helped using simple sequence repeats (SSR) and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) markers to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) that control the polygenic traits like tolerance of salt and seed yield.",signatures:"Jogendra Singh, Parbodh Chander Sharma and Vijayata Singh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74043",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74043",authors:[{id:"245615",title:"Dr.",name:"Jogendra",surname:"Singh",slug:"jogendra-singh",fullName:"Jogendra Singh"}],corrections:null},{id:"75554",title:"Salinity Tolerance in Canola: Insights from Proteomic Studies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96649",slug:"salinity-tolerance-in-canola-insights-from-proteomic-studies",totalDownloads:329,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Salinity considerably lowers crop yield worldwide. Production of salt stress-tolerant species will be essential to maintain the food supply in the coming decades. Brassicas, including various members of the family Brassicaceae, are very necessary sources of human food. Importantly, the key crop species that are members of the Brassicaceae family are genetically diverse and therefore their response reaction and adaptation to salinity varies greatly. Canola (Brassica napus L.) is commonly grown for edible oils and other uses such as biodiesel fuel production. Although most types of canola are identified as salt-resistant, plant yield and development are reduced significantly by rising salinity levels. In saline situations, the plant’s genome supports a range of physiological changes in some plant characteristics. Since the function of genes cannot indicate the exact condition of cells, proteomic approaches are emerged as methods to investigate the plant’s responses to stresses in the molecular levels. Exploring the proteome complements research at the genome and transcriptome level and helps elucidate the mechanism of salt tolerance in plants. Proteins are reliable indicators of salinity responses, as they are directly involved in forming the new phenotype providing adaptation to salinity. In this chapter, we review the response of the rapeseed proteome to salinity stress.",signatures:"Ali Bandehagh, Zahra Dehghanian, Robert Henry and Mohammad Anwar Hossain",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75554",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75554",authors:[{id:"321236",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Anwar",surname:"Hossain",slug:"mohammad-anwar-hossain",fullName:"Mohammad Anwar Hossain"},{id:"333759",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Bandehagh",slug:"ali-bandehagh",fullName:"Ali Bandehagh"},{id:"333782",title:"BSc.",name:"Zahra",surname:"Dehghanian",slug:"zahra-dehghanian",fullName:"Zahra Dehghanian"},{id:"349347",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",surname:"Henry",slug:"robert-henry",fullName:"Robert Henry"}],corrections:null},{id:"75610",title:"Epidemiology, Genetics and Resistance of Alternaria Blight in Oilseed Brassica",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96454",slug:"epidemiology-genetics-and-resistance-of-em-alternaria-em-blight-in-oilseed-em-brassica-em-",totalDownloads:287,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Alternaria blight is one of the most deadly diseases of oilseed Brassica. This recalcitrant disease causes up to 50% yield loss across the globe. The disease is mainly caused by Alternaria brassicae and Alternaria brassicicola. These pathogens lack sexual stages and survive as conidia or condiospores on the debris of previous crops and susceptible weeds. Developing resistant oilseed Brassica cultivars to this disease has become a prime concern for researchers over the years. In absence of resistant oilseed Brassica cultivar, identification and introgression of resistance related genes can be a potential source for Alternaria blight resistance. As resistance toward Alternaria blight is governed by polygenes, intercrossing between the tolerant genotypes and subsequent selection will be the most appropriate way to transfer the quantitative resistance. For that reason, future breeding goal should focus on screening of germplasms for selecting genotypes containing resistance genes and structural features that favors resistance, like thick epicuticular wax, biochemical components such as phenols, phytoalexins and lower soluble sugars, reducing sugars and soluble nitrogen. Selected genotypes should be brought under appropriate breeding programs for attaining Alternaria blight resistance.",signatures:"Subroto Das Jyoti, Naima Sultana, Lutful Hassan and Arif Hasan Khan Robin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75610",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75610",authors:[{id:"322667",title:"Prof.",name:"Arif Hasan Khan",surname:"Robin",slug:"arif-hasan-khan-robin",fullName:"Arif Hasan Khan Robin"},{id:"329291",title:"Prof.",name:"Lutful",surname:"Hassan",slug:"lutful-hassan",fullName:"Lutful Hassan"},{id:"330722",title:"Mr.",name:"Subroto Das",surname:"Jyoti",slug:"subroto-das-jyoti",fullName:"Subroto Das Jyoti"},{id:"342026",title:"Ms.",name:"Naima",surname:"Sultana",slug:"naima-sultana",fullName:"Naima Sultana"}],corrections:null},{id:"75379",title:"Breeding for Disease Resistance in Brassica Vegetables Using DNA Marker Selection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96263",slug:"breeding-for-disease-resistance-in-brassica-vegetables-using-dna-marker-selection",totalDownloads:360,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Brassica genus comprises of agro-economically important vegetables. Disease causes great yield loss of Brassica vegetables worldwide. Different traditional methods such as crop rotation and chemical control have limited effect on different diseases of Brassica vegetables and cannot completely eradicate the pathogens by these methods. Development of disease resistant cultivars is one of the most effective, ecofriendly, and cheapest measure to control Brassica diseases. With the development of genomics, molecular biology techniques, and biological methods, it is possible to discover and introduce resistance (R) genes to efficiently control the plant diseases caused by pathogens. Some R genes of major diseases such as Fusarium wilt and clubroot in Brassica vegetables have been already identified. Therefore, we will focus to review the Fusarium wilt and clubroot resistance in Brassica vegetables and the methodologies for identification, mapping, and pyramiding of R genes/quantitative trait loci (QTLs) to develop disease resistant cultivars. These techniques will be helpful for sustainable crop production and to maintain global food security and contribute to ensure protection of food supply in the Asian country as well as throughout the world.",signatures:"Mst Arjina Akter, Hasan Mehraj, Takeru Itabashi, Tomoe Shindo, Masaaki Osaka, Ayasha Akter, Naomi Miyaji, Naoki Chiba, Junji Miyazaki and Ryo Fujimoto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75379",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75379",authors:[{id:"233726",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryo",surname:"Fujimoto",slug:"ryo-fujimoto",fullName:"Ryo Fujimoto"},{id:"233727",title:"Ms.",name:"Ayasha",surname:"Akter",slug:"ayasha-akter",fullName:"Ayasha Akter"},{id:"345922",title:"Ms.",name:"Mst Arjina",surname:"Akter",slug:"mst-arjina-akter",fullName:"Mst Arjina Akter"},{id:"345923",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",surname:"Mehraj",slug:"hasan-mehraj",fullName:"Hasan Mehraj"},{id:"345924",title:"Mr.",name:"Takeru",surname:"Itabashi",slug:"takeru-itabashi",fullName:"Takeru Itabashi"},{id:"345925",title:"Ms.",name:"Tomoe",surname:"Shindo",slug:"tomoe-shindo",fullName:"Tomoe Shindo"},{id:"345926",title:"Mr.",name:"Naoki",surname:"Chiba",slug:"naoki-chiba",fullName:"Naoki Chiba"},{id:"345927",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaaki",surname:"Osaka",slug:"masaaki-osaka",fullName:"Masaaki Osaka"},{id:"345928",title:"Ms.",name:"Naomi",surname:"Miyaji",slug:"naomi-miyaji",fullName:"Naomi Miyaji"},{id:"345929",title:"Dr.",name:"Junji",surname:"Miyazaki",slug:"junji-miyazaki",fullName:"Junji Miyazaki"}],corrections:null},{id:"75968",title:"Brassica-Aphid Interaction: Modulated Challenges and Sustainable Approach for Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96903",slug:"brassica-aphid-interaction-modulated-challenges-and-sustainable-approach-for-management",totalDownloads:304,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Insect pests act as main barrier in enhancing yield potential of Brassica crops. Lipaphis erysimi is considered as one of the most destructive insect species in mustard production due to its voracious type feeding and multiplication. Therefore application of insecticide is inevitable for cultivation of cruciferous crops, although systemic insecticides has been found to be suitable for management of aphid, despite of high cost, residual effect and ecological ramification have necessitated the application of bio and botanical insecticides as novel approach and are recorded significant in research. Aphids having exclusively viviparous parthenogenesis type reproduction from January to March month with the completion of eight generations are helpful in quick mass multiplication. Natural enemies Coccinella spp., Syrphid larvae and bio-pesticide found effective in suppress aphid numbers. Manipulation in sowing dates of mustard crop provides good yield and less incidence of aphid which is proved through research. Lack of environmental resistant varieties has dispensed toward non feasibility of conventional breeding approaches for developing aphid-resistant Brassica. Although application of genetic engineering plan has resulted in moderate success in development of aphid resistance, so far commercialization of such genetically modified crops has not conceivable, intimate the necessity of further insights in to host plant and aphid communication to form effective approach against aphid resistance. Therefore in this chapter the components involved in Brassica aphid communication are highlighted and present statuses and problem in aphid management are discussed.",signatures:"S.A. Dwivedi, Lelika Nameirakpam and Ajay Tomer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75968",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75968",authors:[{id:"330948",title:"Dr.",name:"S.A.",surname:"Dwivedi",slug:"s.a.-dwivedi",fullName:"S.A. Dwivedi"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3226",title:"Abiotic Stress",subtitle:"Plant Responses and Applications in Agriculture",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8063f7215a8655b897424c418ed0f4bc",slug:"abiotic-stress-plant-responses-and-applications-in-agriculture",bookSignature:"Kourosh Vahdati and Charles Leslie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3226.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"59106",title:"Dr.",name:"Kourosh",surname:"Vahdati",slug:"kourosh-vahdati",fullName:"Kourosh Vahdati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6492",title:"Vegetables",subtitle:"Importance of Quality Vegetables to Human Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9b3988b64bc40ab0eb650fe8a2b2493",slug:"vegetables-importance-of-quality-vegetables-to-human-health",bookSignature:"Md. 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The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"180f75e534b01de65128ef52c6c75a84",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9768.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 6th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 27th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 26th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 14th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 13th 2020",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Mandible is the second most commonly fractured after nasal bone, though it is the largest and strongest bone. Mandibular condyle fractures accounts for about 10–40% when compared to other anatomical sites of mandible [1]. The proportion of condylar fractures is higher in children than adults, and has been reported to account for 40–67% of mandibular fractures [2]. According to Widmark and Santler, condylar fracture is the most common fracture in the maxillofacial region [1]. Direct or indirect trauma can lead to fracture of the condyle; the degree of displacement depends on the direction and magnitude of the force. Falls, road traffic accident, sports injuries, work-related injuries and assault are frequently related to condylar fracture [3].
Condyle develops from Meckel’s cartilage and it is intramembranous in ossification. The secretion of bone matrix directly within the connective tissue without any intermediate cartilage leads to bone formation. The condensation of mesenchyme just lateral to the Meckel’s cartilage forms the primitive condyle.
Condyle is a knuckle like structure. It is a strong upward projection from the postero-superior part of the ramus. The condyle has a backward angulation of 15–33° to the frontal plane and is elliptical in shape. The condyle has an angulation of 145–160° at the region where it meets at the anterior ligament of foramen magnum on basion. The medio-lateral width is 15–20 mm and the antero-posterior width is 8–10 mm. The condyle has a roughened, bluntly pointed lateral pole and a rounded medial pole which extends from the plane of ramus. Superficial temporal artery, posterior tympanic artery, posterior deep temporal artery and transverse facial artery provides the arterial supply to the condyle. Venous drainage is by the corresponding tributaries. Nerve supply is from facial and auriculotemporal nerves. Lateral pterygoid muscle is attached at the pterygoid fovea which is helpful in protrusive and lateral excursive movements [4].
The bifurcation of facial nerve lies 1.5–2 cm away from the bony external auditory canal. The Temporal branch of the facial nerve lies 8–35 mm from the bony external auditory canal. The marginal mandibular branch of the facial nerve lies 1.2 cm away from the inferior border.
The anatomical variations between an adult and a pediatric condyle are given in Table 1 (Figures 1 and 2).
Anatomical structure | Child | Adult |
---|---|---|
Cortical bone | Thin | Thick |
Condylar neck | Broad | Thin |
Articular surface | Thin | Thick |
Capsule | Highly vascular | Less vascular |
Differences between pediatric and adult condyle.
Anatomy of Paediatric condyle.
Anatomy of adult condyle.
The Mandible resembles a Hunting bow which is weak at the ends and strong in the midline and the condyles are enclosed by the glenoid fossa. So any blow to the midline of the mandible can cause bilateral condylar fracture and any blow to the parasymphysis may cause a contralateral fracture. This is based on the impact of the force (Figure 3) [5].
Hunting bow concept.
The fracture of condyle following trauma to the chin is an example of contrecoup injury. This is commonly found in soldiers who remain standing for a long time and hence referred to as Parade ground/Guardsman fracture.
Numerous classifications of condylar fractures are found in literature based on clinical and radiographic features.
Based on:
Comminuted head fractures
Chip fractures
Condylar neck fractures
Vertical neck fractures secondary to shearing
Transverse neck fractures secondary to bending
Oblique neck fractures caused by a combination/bending [6]
Based on dislocated fractures of the condyle:
Type I: bony contact between the fractured fragments with 10–40° angulation of the condylar head.
Type II: bony contact between the fractured fragments with 50–90° angulation of the condylar head.
Type III: no bony contact with severe medial displacement [6].
Based on the fracture location, deviation, and/or displacement and position of the condylar head within the articulating fossa:
Sub condylar fracture: fracture line extends from the sigmoid notch to the posterior border of the mandible.
Condylar neck fracture: fracture located below the level of condylar head at the condylar process.
Condylar head fracture: fracture enclosed by the capsule of the temporomandibular joint (Figure 4)
Fracture level
Condylar head
Condylar neck
Sub condylar/condylar base
Deviation and displacement
Medial overlapping with bending or deviation
Lateral overlapping with bending or deviation
No overlapping with bending or displacement
No deviation or displacement
Relation between condylar head and fossa
Absence of dislocation
Mild dislocation
Moderate dislocation
Complete or severe dislocation
Condylar head fracture
Horizontal
Vertical
Compression fracture [6]
Lindahl classification.
This Classification described “Line A,” which is a perpendicular line that extends from the deepest part of the coronoid notch to the posterior border of mandibular ramus.
Diacapitular fracture: involves the articular surface and may extend outside the capsule of the temporomandibular joint
Condylar neck: more than half of the fracture line is above line A
Condylar base: more than half of the fracture line is below line A originating behind the mandibular foramen
Minimal displacement: less than 10 mm of displacement or less than 2 mm of overlap by the bony edges or both [6]
Based on:
The first line parallels the posterior border of the mandible.
The sigmoid notch line runs perpendicular to the first line at the deepest portion of the sigmoid notch.
There is a line below the lateral pole of the condylar head that is also perpendicular to the first line.
A line is drawn half way between the lateral pole line and the sigmoid notch line.
A “high-neck” fracture is above this line, whereas a “low-neck” fracture is below [6].
Based on the disc and condylar head:
Condylar head: the condylar head reference line runs perpendicular to the posterior ramus below the lateral pole of the condylar head.
Condylar neck: the sigmoid notch line running through the deepest point of the sigmoid notch perpendicular to the ramus line extending superiorly to the condylar head.
Base of the condylar process: the sigmoid notch line running through the deepest point of the sigmoid notch perpendicular to the ramus line extending inferiorly [7].
Classification of condylar head fracture based on vertical height of the ramus and disc displacement:
Type A— no disc displacement or decrease in vertical height of the ramus
Type B—disc displacement without decrease in vertical height of the ramus
Type C—decrease in vertical height of the ramus with/without disc displacement [8]
Condyle fractures are diagnosed with the help of both clinical and radiological assessment. Condylar fractures are most commonly missed on clinical examination. Extracapsular condylar fractures are frequent and may be associated with displacement of the condylar head. The condylar head may be in contact with the ramus or can be displaced laterally or medially. Anteromedial displacement is more common due to the pull of lateral pterygoid and weak medial capsule.
Unilateral condylar fracture:
Swelling over the temporomandibular joint, may be associated with hemorrhage from the external ear (due to laceration of external acoustic meatus by the violent impact of condyle on the skin).
Proper examination with an autoscope/auriscope is essential to differentiate bleeding from external auditory canal and middle ear. Temporal bone may be accompanied by cerebrospinal fluid leak which is termed as otorrhea.
Hematoma surrounding the fractured condyle
Hematoma in the mastoid region called the Battle’s sign
If the condylar head is displaced medially, characteristic hollow in the region of condylar head can be observed once the edema subsides.
Ear bleed will persist if the head of the condyle is impacted in the glenoid fossa.
Deviation of mandible toward the side of fracture
Decreased range of movements, pain and deviation toward the contra-lateral side while mouth opening.
Gagging of occlusion on the ipsilateral side due to telescoping of fracture fragments on the contralateral side due to contraction of the masseter, temporalis and medial pterygoid and upward pull of the ramal segment (Figure 5)
Bilateral condylar fracture:
Overall mandibular movements are usually more restricted
If the condyle is displaced bilaterally, shortening of ramus occurs resulting in derangement of occlusion
Overriding of the fractured segments result in anterior open bite (Figure 6)
Associated fracture of symphysis or para-symphysis can also be present; thus careful examination is mandatory (Contre-coupe fracture)
Ipsilateral open bite.
Anterior open bite.
The condyles are palpated by standing in front of the patient. The little fingers are placed inside the external auditory canal and the patient is asked to open and close their mouth, by this method the position and movement of the condyles are determined.
Tenderness over the condylar area
Displacement of the condylar head within the external auditory meatus.
Paresthesia of the lips may be present as the hemorrhage from the condylar region tracks across the base of skull and exerts pressure on the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve as it emerges from the foramen ovale.
Routine radiological investigations that aids in the diagnosis of condylar fracture are:
Posteroanterior skull projection or Reverse Towne’s (Figure 7)
Oblique-lateral X-ray
Orthopantomographic radiograph (Figure 8)
TMJ tomography
Waters projection or Para nasal sinus view
Clementschitsch view or occipital
Nasal projection [9]
Posterior anterior skull view.
Orthopantomogram.
CT in all three planes, i.e., coronal, axial, and sagittal remains a gold standard for the diagnosis of mandibular condyle fractures. 3D CT provides better orientation of the fractured fragments in relation to the normal anatomic structures (Figure 9) [10].
Computed tomography.
Determining the degree of dislocation, relationship between the fractured fragments and the direction of dislocation remains a challenge in the diagnosis of mandibular condyle fractures. It may be difficult to ascertain position and rotation of the articular head of the condyle with the use of conventional imaging techniques. MRI may provide a better outlook in assessing both the hard tissue and soft tissue part of the condylar head. One must remember that re-establishing only the bony component of the joint is not sufficient and the soft tissue anatomy (Articular disc) must also be restored to achieve satisfactory functional outcomes [11].
Aims of treatment includes
Restoration of form
Restoration of function
This is achieved by proper repositioning and immobilization of the fractured fragments.
Treatment options for mandibular condyle fractures can be divided into conservative treatment and surgical management [9].
Conservative therapy remained the primary mode of treatment of mandibular condyle fracture for many years. This is now overshadowed by surgical therapy due to increase in surgical expertise and the advent of new technological advances in both instrumentation and radiological diagnosis. But there exist certain scenarios where conservative treatment is preferred.
In closed reduction achievement of good occlusal relationship acts as the guidance for proper reduction. The upper and lower jaws are fixed together in occlusal relationship by means of intermaxillary fixation or maxillomandibular fixation done using wires or splints. The wires that pass through the embrasure space of the adjacent teeth of the same arch are called interdental wires. These are later engaged during intermaxillary wiring.
Various modalities of intermaxillary fixation used commonly for condylar fracture are:
Wiring:
Ivy loop wiring
Continuous ivy loop wiring
Gilmer wiring
Arch bars:
Erich’s arch bar
Splints:
Cap splint in pediatric patients
Gunning splints in edentulous patients
Indications for conservative treatment:
Minimally displaced fracture (Not more than 30°),
Pediatric fractures,
Presence of systemic comorbidities which may be an absolute contraindication for surgery,
Condylar head fracture where there is an increased risk of injury to the joint and the adjoining structures. (Vascularity of the fragment may also be compromised by osteosynthesis).
Minimal pain complaints and no occlusal discrepancies with acceptable range of movements.
Diacapitular fracture of the condyle [9].
Conservative treatment consists of maxillo-mandibular fixation by means of arch bars, IMF screws or dental splints (cap splint or gunning splint) and intermaxillary traction using elastics or wires. Immobilization of the joints are done for a period of 4–6 weeks in case of adults whereas 7–10 days for children. Antegrade physiotherapy is mandatory until full adhesion of the fractured fragments [9]. The treatment span is shortened in the pediatric population as they have an increased growth potential and prolonged immobilization may lead to ankylosis of the joint [12].
Advantages:
Noninvasive, simple, easy to master
Does not require exposure to general anesthesia
Economical
Less chance of infection [13]
Disadvantages:
Immobilization might not be adequate which delays healing. Especially in subcondylar fractures where control over proximal segments is not established, unfavorable muscle pull can cause displacement of fragments.
Increases patient morbidity
Not safe in epileptic patients [13]
Conservative treatment using maxillo-mandibular fixation does not always provide satisfactory outcomes. Persistent malocclusion may be present where the necessity for open reduction and internal fixation.
Open reduction and internal fixation helps in faster restoration of both form and function unlike conservative treatment. The patient is rehabilitated in a shorter period of time unlike conservative treatment. Some of the indications for open reduction and internal fixation of mandibular condyle fracture includes.
Severe displacement of the condyle
Mal-united fracture
Bilateral condylar fractures with severe displacement or dislocation affecting the occlusion
Associated fractures of the mandible
Multifragmented fracture of the condylar head
Zide and Kent’s criteria for open reduction are as follows.
Displacement of condyle into the middle cranial fossa
Impossibility of restoring occlusion
Invasion of foreign body
Lateral extracapsular displacement
When intermaxillary fixation is contraindicated for medical reasons
Bilateral fracture with open bite deformity
Bilateral fracture with associated comminuted mid face fracture
Periodontal problems and loss of teeth
Unilateral condylar fracture with unstable base [14]
According to AAOMS 2017 the indications for closed and open reduction of condylar fractures are tabulated in Table 2 [15].
Closed reduction | Open reduction |
---|---|
|
|
Indications for open and closed reduction of mandibular condyle fracture AAOMS 2017 guidelines [12].
A variety of incisions to approach the TMJ have evolved over the years with each one having their own advantages and disadvantages. These incisions have been categorized into [16]
Preauricular and its modification (Figure 10)
Post-auricular and modification (Figure 10)
Endaural and modifications
Submandibular (Risdon) (Figure 10)
Retromandibular or post ramal (Figure 10)
Rhytidectomy (Face-Lift)
Intraoral approach
Approaches to condylar fracture.
Approach is based on the level of fracture [17].
The approaches for different levels of fractures with minimal complications are listed below.
Condylar head fracture—pre-auricular approach or retroauricular approach
Condylar neck fracture—retromandibular approach with preauricular extension
Condylar base fracture—submandibular, retromandibular and intra-oral approach
Reduction is the procedure done for restoring the functional alignment of the fractured bone fragments. Reduction is done to bring the fractured fragments together close to their previous anatomical position so that healing is proper and rapid. Once access is gained to the surgical site reduction is done with the help of bone clamps, forceps, screw and wire and towel clips [13].
Fixation is the surgical procedure that is done to stabilize and join the ends of fractured bones by mechanical devices such as metal plates, pins, rods, wires, or screws (Figure 11).
Miniplate fixation.
The condyles are subjected to major stress during mastication. Meyers gave the ideal lines of osteosynthesis for the mandibular condyle through his research works as follows:
Zone of tension: lies along the anterior border of the condyle and the sigmoid notch
Zone of compression: lies along the posterior border of the ramus
The long axis of the condylar neck acts as a beam which is subjected to flexion in the sagittal plane. All these biomechanical properties must be taken into consideration while fixation of the fracture pertained to the region (Figures 12 and 13) [18].
Zone of tension and compression.
Ideal line of osteosynthesis.
Fixation is done after ensuring anatomic reduction and normal occlusion.
The treatment plan is summarized and depicted in a flow chart (Figure 14) [13].
Treatment algorithm for adult condylar fracture.
In children displacement of the fractured condyle is uncommon and it is mostly a greenstick fracture. This is due to the fact that the facial bone in children is enclosed by thick soft tissues; the bone is elastic in nature, presence of a large amount of immature trabecular bone and thin cortical bone. Fractures in the pediatric population can easily be overlooked and if untreated may lead to delayed complications like:
Ankylosis
Poor development of the body and ramus of the mandible on the affected side
Gross facial asymmetry
Bird face and microgenia in case of bilateral condylar fractures [12]
Treatment in children differs from adults taking the growth and development into consideration. There are certain conditions where surgical treatment is mandatory. Surgical treatment is indicated under the following conditions:
Complex or open fractures
Severe displacement
Sub condylar fractures with associated facial or calvarial fractures
Multiple fractures of the condyle
Surgical treatment may affect the normal growth of the mandible due to the surgical trauma to the soft tissue and the rigidly fixed bony fragments. Moreover, due to the risk of damage to the facial nerve and the invasiveness of surgery conservative treatment is mostly preferred. Maxillomandibular fixation is preferred for a period of 7–10 days followed by physiotherapy (Figure 15) [23].
Treatment algorithm for pediatric condylar fracture.
The cross-sectional area of an atrophic mandible is usually decreased when compared to a mandible with dentition. The vascularity of the bone is decreased and the bone is sclerotic in nature which will hinder or delay the normal healing of the mandible following open reduction. Due to the lack of dentition the fractured fragments are easily displaced. The poor quality of the bone is not suitable for plating the fracture. Conservative treatment with a Gunning splint is advantageous as it provides a stable maxillomandibular fixation and also preserves the periosteal vascularity. Thomas brain gunning designed the “Gunning splint” for maxillomandibular fixation of edentulous or partially edentulous jaw. It consists of two dentures held together in a mono-block. It holds the fracture fragments together and immobilizes the jaw. There is no means of retention or stabilization in an edentulous patient therefore the maxillary denture is secured to the maxilla through per alveolar wiring and the mandibular denture is secured to the mandible with circum-mandibular wiring. The two splints are connected with wire loops or elastics and intermaxillary fixation is achieved [24].
Rehabilitation can be begun just on the first day of operation in patients who are treated surgically. It mainly consists of exercises which adduces and dissuades the mandible. The exercise is done in front of the mirror so that the mandible is adduced in the correct position. The exercise is done for about 3 to 5 times a day for a timing of 5–10 minutes. In patients who are treated nonsurgically rehabilitation starts at the end of removal of maxillomandibular fixation. Majority of the authors recommend shortening the period of immobilization for 1o to 14 days to prevent the risk of ankylosis. Zaccharides recommends removal of the maxillomandibular fixation once a week during the treatment, the patient should practice opening and closing for half an hour to 1 hour before re-installation of MMF [12]. After conservative treatment physiotherapy is recommended for 3–4 weeks. Rehabilitation is finished when the patient is able to open and close the mouth similar to pre-trauma [9].
Complications in the management of mandibular condyle fractures depends on the severeness of trauma, fracture type, degree of fracture displacement, presence of associated fractures, the type of management (open/closed) and the timing of intervention.
Common complications [12]
Joint motility disorders
Occlusal discrepancies
Ipsilateral asymmetry on the side of trauma
Ankylosis (0.2–0.4%)
Rare complications
Articular head necrosis which is related with surgical method
Surgical complications
Transient or permanent facial palsy
Marginal mandibular nerve palsy
Ear lobe hypoesthesia
Post-surgical scarring
EAC stenosis
Formation of sialocele and salivary fistulas
Auriculotemporal nerve syndrome or Frey’s syndrome
Masseter myotonia
Mini plate fracture
Condylar head resorption
The surgical complications are temporary and may persist for about 12 months from the time of operation. Adjunctive pharmacotherapy can be prescribed during this phase (Vitamin B and Vitamin B12 preparations) [9].
An appropriate treatment, that is, either a conservative treatment or an open reduction and internal fixation must be considered weighing the advantages and disadvantages, respectively. The treatment must also be based on various factors involved such as age, systemic status, affordability, type of fracture, etc. When a surgical treatment is planned, soft tissue (articular disc) repair must also be considered rather treating the bony component alone as it may lead to delayed temporomandibular joint disorders.
We would like to thank Dr. Krishna Kumar Raja, M.D.S. Professor and Head of the Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, SRM Dental College, for providing us this opportunity.
We would also like to thank Dr. Elavenil Panneerselvam, M.D.S., Reader, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, SRM Dental College, for encouraging and guiding us through the entire process.
We would also like to thank Dr. Z.H. Husna Sofia, B.D.S, for providing technical support in the form of diagrams and flowcharts.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
An injury that occurs in a quick manner, which often leaves the skin torn, cut, or punctured, or wherein the skin or any other tissues of the body undergoes acute trauma resulting in a contusion, is defined as a ‘wound’. This is when the body’s repair mechanism works to repair the damage by replacing the damaged tissue with newly synthesized tissue. This is characterized by a cascade of highly coordinated reactions that occur at the tissue damage region, working to restore normal tissue, which is called wound healing mechanism. This process requires nutrients and amino acids in adequate amounts to ensure the smooth repair of damaged cells, the supplementation of which has been viewed as a possible solution to augment the process and provide better strength and elasticity to the newly developing tissue [1].
It is known that collagen, being an integral part of most tissues in the body, plays an important role in the structural stability, elasticity, and tensile strength. It is therefore unsurprising that collagen is vital for restoring the structural integrity of the wounded tissue. It has been observed that, formation of scar tissue is an integral part of wound healing in most cases, with epidermal wounds being the exception. This scar tissue is composed primarily of collagen. This makes collagen synthesis an extremely crucial part of the wound healing process [2]. It is therefore practical to employ collagen supplements to augment and speed up the process of hound healing, and even enhance the tensile strength and other innate properties of the tissue. Through a study conducted by Felician et al., it was proven that collagen obtained from a species of jelly fish was indeed effective in escalating the pace of wound healing, making it a potential product that could be used in treating major wounds [3]. There is growing interest in the applications of collagen powder derived from marine sources to treat wounds effectively and reducing the possibility of a scar on the skin along with many other biomedical applications [4]. However, it must be understood that collagen powder is not the only form of collagen supplement for treatment of wounds and other tissue replacement procedures. There are a variety of forms, in which collagen is used as a biomaterial, for wound treatment [5].
Collagen derived from various sources is fabricated into various scaffolds, which can be implanted or grafted into the region of tissue damage, to act as an effective substrate for the attachment of precursor cells and allow their proliferation, thereby increasing the chances of tissue repair effectively. These precursor cells are multipotent adult stem cells which have the ability to differentiate to form various cells depending on the environment they are in, or the stimuli they receive for differentiation. These scaffolds can also be in the form of hydrogels, or fibers, and not just solid in nature. The use of collagen has proven to be effective for wound healing, due to the fact that it is an integral part of the extracellular matrix (ECM) on which most tissues are constructed [6]. Nanotechnology is a field of science that has been explored for its possible applications in the biomedical sector. Many nanomaterials such as nanoparticles and fibers are known to possess antimicrobial activities, which could be effective in the wound healing mechanism for the prevention of further infection. It is thereby prudent that the nanomaterials should be tried and tested along with those of collagen in order to come up with innovative methods to treat major wounds effectively. This chapter aims to summarize the importance of collagen and nanoparticles, synthesis of nano collagen in order to benefit from the wound healing properties of both nanoparticles and collagen, along with the areas of wound healing in which nano collagen is currently being used.
Nanotechnology is the branch of science and engineering that involves design, construction, and characterization of materials by restructuring the atoms and molecules with the size range of 1–100 nm in one or more dimensions [7, 8]. The engineered materials are nanomaterials that show distinct chemical and physical properties compared to the bulk materials due to the synthesis and assembly at the molecular level that can be exploited for commercial use [9]. Nanomaterials can be of different shapes mainly based on their dimensions i.e., nanoparticles of zero dimension, nanorods of one dimension, and nanosheets of two dimensions [10]. Nanoparticles, due to their small size have the ability to penetrate the bacterial cell wall, and though the cells metabolic pathway cause changes to the cell structure and function. Nanoparticles are also known to interact various components of the bacterial cell, such as lysosomes, enzymes, and ribosomes, thereby leading to oxidative stress, altered permeability of the cell membrane, protein deactivation, and altered gene expression, eventually causing cell death among the bacteria. Thus, it can be said that the Nanoparticles have antibacterial properties, which can be exploited for sterilization of larger wounds, thereby preventing infections from occurring during the wound healing process. When compared to the conventional wound healing drugs certain nanoparticles exhibit greater penetration of cell membrane [9]. Nanoparticles, nanocomposites, coatings, and scaffolds are the main nanomaterials used for wound healing (as shown in Figure 1). Nanoparticles can be (i) inorganic metal or non-metal (ii) organic non-polymeric or polymeric. Nanocomposites are made of porous materials, colloids, copolymers, or gels. Coating and scaffolds include hydrogels, nanofibers, films, and coatings [11]. Different classes of nanoparticles are involved for the treatment of wounds. They are discussed below:
Types of nanomaterials used for treatment of wounds. The figure is reproduced with permission from [
The antimicrobial property of metallic nanoparticles is exploited in wound management and can be used as a nanocarrier. The surface area to volume ratio of metallic nanoparticles is high. The small size enables them to cross barriers and penetrate the underlying layers of thick tissues like skin. These features make them ideal for drug delivery and to treat wounds. Some of the widely used metallic nanoparticles includes—silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs), gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs), iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs), and titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) [12].
Polymeric nanoparticles include polymer nanospheres and polymer nano capsules. Biologically active molecules such as drugs, genes, and fluorophores are absorbed on the surface of polymer nanospheres forming antibiotic incorporated nanoparticles (NPs). Griseofluvin (GF), one such NP, is known to function as an effective carrier of biologically active entities [12, 13]. The polymer nano capsules are vesicles where the core contains bioactive agents surrounded by polymeric shell. The polymers used in the preparation can be natural polymers like starch, polypeptides, albumin, sodium alginate, chitin, cellulose, gelatin, polyhydroxy alkanoates (PHAs) or artificial polymers like polyethylene glycol (PEG), poly lactic acid co-glycolic acid (PLGA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP), polyethylene etc. They show higher encapsulation efficiency and high stability of encapsulated active substance that helps them in the effective delivery of drugs to targeted sites [13].
Nano emulsions shows small droplet size and high surface area that makes them a suitable vehicle for drug delivery to treat wounds. A unique feature of these nano emulsions is their ability to deliver hydrophobic drugs [14]. They also have long shelf life, and are easily formulated [12]. The components of nano emulsions include different oil types, emulsifying agents like sodium deoxycholate, sodium dodecyl sulphate, antioxidants, chelating agents, preservatives etc. [15].
Solid-lipid nanoparticles are used as drug vehicles in case of inflamed or damaged skin. They are efficient and non-toxic carriers of both lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs. The structure is made up of long-fatty acid chains of palmitic acid, stearic acid or arachidic acid taurocholate, emulsifiers, and water.
Nanofiber scaffolds/mats, considered as a substitute to damaged ECM, are mainly used in the wound dressing due to its healing power and unique structure. As the scaffolds are applied on the wound there will be attachment of fibroblasts and formation of matrix that acts as ground substrate and aid in faster wound recovery. Manufacturing of nanofibrous scaffolds involves electrospinning that produces uniform nanofibers [16].
Hydrogels are used as delivery vehicles for wound treatment due to their properties such as high porosity which keeps the wound environment moist, and the presence of 3D polymeric matrix that absorbs the wound exudates allowing for proper permeation of oxygen [12]. While nanogels demonstrates some advanced features compared to those of hydrogels such as stability, ease of synthesis, quick response to stimulus, an adjustable size that can be exploited for drug delivery, controlled release of drugs, and tumor imaging. Nanogels are made up of chemical polymers and biomolecules. The nanogels of amino acids and polypeptides are easy to synthesize and modify and show higher biocompatibility [17].
The word ‘collagen’ is derived from a Greek term ‘kolla’, which means ‘Glue’. Collagen is essentially a matrix, which holds the connective tissue together, making it a major component of the ECM, and connective tissues, and is rightfully called the most abundant protein in the animal kingdom [18]. Collagen is a major component of the ECM, which provides mechanical support for cell growth and their integrity. Collagen represents an entire superfamily of glycoproteins, having, a polypeptide sequence signature with [Gly-X-Y]n as the repeating amino acid unit, wherein X and Y are proline and hydroxyproline respectively. Another salient feature of these glycoproteins is their noteworthy quaternary structure with the right-handed triple helix structure composed of three left-handed polyproline chains of uniform length. The chains in the triple helix can either be identical, forming homotrimers as seen in collagen II, or be different from each other, forming heterotrimers, as seen in collagen IX. Presence of glycine is invariant in collagen and is known to stabilize the collagen structure. It has been found that the absence of glycine or any mutations to the same is known to cause disruption in the hydrogen bonds formed in collagen and distort the structure [19].
The presence of collagen and collagenous structures throughout the animal kingdom indicates its importance in biological structures. Collagen is expressed in all life forms classified under the animal kingdom. Right from sponges, the simplest multicellular animal which expresses genes for the formation of at least two types of collagens, to the various vertebrates, in which collagen is a major component of various connective tissues, thereby accounting for roughly a quarter of the whole-body protein in humans [20]. The basic triple helical pattern has been partially carried over into the architectures of other complex molecules in higher organisms, with complex physiologies. Evolutionary branching which was partially driven by chromosomal duplication has resulted in a plethora of collagen types, which are genetically distinct. There are 29 types of collagens that have been identified so far [21]. Although the exact function of many types of collagens is yet to be confirmed, the role and presence of collagen throughout the body is unmistakable. However, it is known that collagen types I, II and III represent the majority (approx. 80–90%) of the total body collagen. They are known to provide mechanical and tensile strength to the skin and various other organs. The ability of fully developed collagen to integrate hydroxyapatites and undergo mineralization to amalgamate with solid structures such as bones and teeth, combined with its nature of elasticity and strength makes it a very desirable candidate to be used as a primary component of biomaterials with various applications [22]. Biomaterials are defined as synthetic components that may be transplanted into body tissue as a part of a medical device. Biomaterials can also be employed to replace an organ or a part of it, thereby aiding it in its physiological and mechanical functions [23].
Despite the wide range in the types of collagens, only a handful of them are actually utilized for the production of collagen-based biomaterials. Fibril forming collagens, such as type I, which also happens to be the most abundant collagen in mammals, is often employed for construction of collagen-based biomaterials for various purposes such as wound healing and tissue engineering, and even 3D bioprinting of collagen-based structures or scaffolds [24]. Collagen can be extracted from any animal’s tissue including vertebrate’s skin and tendons, porcine skin, gut, bladder mucosa, rat tails, as well as invertebrates’ sponges and corals. The extracted collagen can show a slight difference in some characteristics, depending on the source of the animal, and the tissue. It has been found that the use of collagen from marine sources [25, 26, 27, 28] has advantages over those obtained from terrestrial organisms, such as being environmentally sustainable, high production of collagen, non-toxicity, and ease of absorption thanks to its lower molecular weight. However, occurrence of allergies and transmission of disease can hamper the use of collagen obtained from animal sources, thereby the application of recombination technology was duly suggested, wherein yeast and
Biomedicine is currently seeing an increase in the use and integration of collagen-based scaffold and biomaterials in its applications. The technology aids the creation of biomaterials which exhibit biomimicry of the complex native tissues and organs. Decellularized collagen and refined scaffolds are the two categories into which collagen-based biomaterials are categorized. While the decellularized collagen structures retain most of the structural and functional properties of the tissue from which it is derived from, refined scaffolds are mostly obtained from the purification and polymerization of collagen. Decellularized collagen exhibits biomimicry the best [30]. Tissue grafts for tissue engineering, self-assembled hydrogels, freeze dried sponges, collagen films and tubes are some commonly used collagen-based biomaterials.
Tissue grafts are one of the most commonly used collagen scaffolds. Due to their resemblance to the native tissues, along with the ability to promote cell attachment and spatiotemporal organization of the cells, tissue grafts have been demonstrated as the most convenient and effective implantable devices [31]. Self-assembled hydrogels are generally used in the form of cell carriers, and injectables. They are often reliable for soft tissue treatment, for they resemble the structures on polymerization to form a fibrillar hydrogel structure, which is held together by ionic and hydrophobic bonds, thus aiding the entrapment of fluids, making it conducive for the exchange of ions and metabolites in the environment created [32]. Collagen type I hydrogels in combination with the appropriate precursor cells have been extensively used for the repair and as a structural and mechanical support for the attachment and stable growth of tissues such as skin to treat burns [33], cardiac myocytes [34], neurons [35], ocular tissues [36], etc. Collagen type I and type II hydrogels have often been used in combination for the treatment and repair of osteochondral tissues, and cartilage [37, 38]. Collagen scaffolds that can be easily used as grafts for various clinical purposes are created by the freeze-drying technique, wherein, collagen on undergoing freezing in a controlled environment, is trapped within the ice crystals formed, and is porous enough to facilitate cell migration, attachment, and growth [39]. So far, a variety of cell populations have been used to improve the bioactivity of the collagen sponge, and the experiments performed have shown encouraging results both
Nano collagen is the term used to describe collagen brought down to the nanoscale range. This substance has the desirable properties of both nanoparticles, such as a high ratio between the surface to volume of the particle, and collagen, with its wound healing properties of biomaterials, and their functions simultaneously. The downscaling of the size of the collagen fibers, is beneficial in terms of the penetration, and wound accessibility to initiate wound healing [44]. Nano collagen is produced through various chemical, physical, and self-assembly methods, such as emulsification, complex coacervation, phase separation, nano spray drying, desolvation and many other techniques. The following section explains briefly the most popular techniques employed. Nano collagen fibers are produced through the following techniques: (a) electrospinning (b) nano emulsion (c) electrospray deposition (d) milling (as shown in Figure 2, Table 1).
(A) Electrospraying—after applying a high voltage to the protein solution, a liquid jet stream is released via a nozzle (coaxial needle), generating an aerosolized droplet. To ensure that the polymer solution comes out of the syringe as NP, a high voltage is provided to it. (B) Electrospinning—at a high voltage and low current in the spinneret, collagen polymer solution added dropwise. The Taylor cone is formed at such conditions. The columbic forces also cause the dehydration of the ejected polymer thereby resulting in thin and dry fibers of nano collagen. (C) Milling—the application of mechanical energy through the spinning of a milling bowl breaks down a polymer substance into finer NPs. Milling balls are used to conduct high-energy mechanical impacts to break down polymers utilizing centrifugal force. (D) Nanoemulsion—the emulsion is formed by the mechanical agitation of two immiscible liquid phases, one of which has the protein, and the other in which the drug is dissolved. Figures A, C, and D are reproduced with permission from [
Preparation method | Principle | Advantage | Limitation | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Electrospraying | Uses electrostatic field to create nano collagen fibers from a polymeric solution of collagen | Can be upscaled for industrial purposes; ease of particle synthesis due to single step process; formation of dry particles | Reduced flow; can degrade some macromolecules | [46] |
Electrospinning | Uses a high voltage difference to generate dispersible nanoparticles from collagen solute | Can produce fine fibers of collagen; Emulates ECM closely; cost effective | Time consuming | [47] |
Milling | Uses mechanical energy to break down a polymeric material of collagen to nanoparticle sizes | Economical; easy experimentation; controllable nanoparticle size | Chamber has to be cooled due to heat release; cannot control nanoparticle shape | [48] |
Nanoemulsion | Uses mechanical agitation to form nanoemulsions by the combination of two immiscible liquids in different phases. | Simple process; easy recovery; high flexibility and selectivity | Requires appropriate surfactant due to unstable thermodynamic nature; the organic solvent needs to be removed, for the residues may be toxic | [49, 50] |
Collagen nanoparticle preparation methods, their principles, advantages and limitations.
Electrospinning is one of the methods used to create nano collagen fibers, wherein nanofibers are created from polymeric solutions in the presence of an electrostatic field. Electrospinning is achieved by charging a spinneret to high voltages and low current, and then adding droplets of the polymeric solution. As a result, the surface becomes highly charged, and elongates to form a conical shape, which is called the Taylor cone. The conical form is a result of the electrostatic repulsion between the charged droplet surface and columbic forces from the spinneret. At a specific threshold of the electric field, the electrostatic forces are strong enough to overcome the surface tension holding the Taylor cone, thus creating the fibers by stretching the cone, whipping it. This process is generally preferred to create nano fibers, because it is cost effective, and can produce nano collagen scaffolds for various purposes including tissues engineering, tissue repair and regeneration [47], and matrices that mimic the native ECM. The fibers produced through electrospinning are dry, and devoid of any solvent molecules, which are then collected in a metallic collector, which also determines the shape [51]. Over a period of time, electrospun collagen nanofibers have been endowed with certain ‘smart’ abilities, to improve their applications. Some smart abilities include response to external stimuli such as change in pH, exposure to light, and magnetic fields, etc., retaining a shape memory, self-cleaning, and some more [46].
As the name suggests, electrospray deposition is a process which involves the spraying of nano collagen solution as a fine mist onto a specific target. This method is mostly used for the applications of nanoparticles in the biomedical field for pharmaceutical application. This is mostly because, in this technique, collagen is used in its particle form. It is then sprayed through a nozzle onto a target with a high negative voltage, in the form of a fine mist. The solvent of the collagen particles generally evaporates on deposition onto the target surface, leaving an even spread of nano collagen particles, making it ideal for drug delivery purposes. This evaporation prevents the aggregation of molecules, and thus reduces the risk of contamination [52].
Milling is a process in which nano collagen is produced by the application of great amounts of mechanical stress onto a polymeric solution of collagen, to form particles of the nano scale range. This process is one of the most inexpensive methods for the large-scale production of nano collagen [53]. The mechanical energy along with the kinetic energy in the milling container also produces large amounts of heat, which can lead to the denaturation of collagen [54]. Therefore, this generation of heat is contained by performing this process at cryogenic temperatures, with the use of liquid nitrogen, thereby preserving the integrity of collagen.
Nanoemulsion is a method used to integrate collagen with nanoparticles in a droplet form. Two immiscible liquids in different phases, i.e., oil-in-water-phase (oil is dispersed in water) and water-in-oil phase (water is dispersed in oil) when combined, form a concoction called an emulsion. Nanoemulsions differ from emulsions in their size ranges. The size of a nanoemulsion droplet ranges from 20 to 200 nm, while a normal emulsion droplet size is around 1 μm [55]. An aqueous phase with collagen, and a hydrophilic surfactant in water, is mixed with an organic phase with a lipophilic surfactant in a solvent that is immiscible in water and is continuously agitated under room temperature conditions to produce a uniform emulsion system. Nano collagen emulsion particles are then obtained by combining this emulsion system with a heated oil in a drop-by-drop manner [56]. Nanoemulsions naturally tend to penetrate deep into the tissue to deposit active compounds. This property has been exploited for purposes such as drug delivery in pharmaceutical, food and cosmetic industries. The same properties can be attributed to the collagen Nanoemulsion droplets to enhance the wound healing mechanism and speed up the process. The production of collagen nanoemulsions has increased greatly along with their application mainly in the field of cosmetics and drug delivery due to the technological advantages it offers for the manufacturers [57].
Collagen is a major component of the bone matrix. Bone formation is facilitated by the osteoblasts, which are involved in the production of collagen type I protein. The ECM supports the collagen fibers (50–500 nm) synthesized by the osteoblasts. The hydroxyapatite crystals are then deposited on these collagen fibers, leading to the hardening and maturation of the bone [58]. This mechanism can be exploited for the purposes of bone remodeling, in the case of a grave bone injury such as a compound fracture. A collagen scaffold can be grafted onto the damaged tissue area, to provide a solid support onto which the apatite crystals can be deposited, to increase the speed and efficiency of new bone formation. It is thus prudent that the collagen scaffold mimics native collagen fibers to achieve successful bone grafting and promote optimal bone regrowth.
It is well known that bone related tissue trauma is difficult to treat and is a time-consuming process, due to the complexity of the bone healing process itself, and the loss of bone from non-sterile wounds, creating a high risk and susceptibility for infections. Cardoso et al., proposed the use of silver nanoparticles stabilized with type I collagen to form nano collagen biomaterials (AgNPcol) for the collagen scaffold to support rapid bone remodeling. This was an optimal solution for the problem of infections caused due to the non-sterility of the bone wounds. The silver nanoparticles in the collagen also showed anti-microbial activity against a number of microorganisms. Thereby proving to be effective in wound healing. The developed cells also showed no signs of cell toxicity [59]. In another study by Sun et al., collagen scaffolds were infused with AgNPs along with BMP2, a bone morphogenic protein to improve the bone healing process effectively. The role of silver nanoparticles in antibacterial property was already established. However, the incorporation of the bone morphogenic protein induced an increase in the expression of runt related transcription factor 2, osteopontin and osteonectin, which are known to accelerate the differentiation of the bone marrow derived mesenchymal stromal cells, thereby proving the therapeutic potential of nano collagen in bone grafting, and healing [60].
Poor development of alveolar ridge after tooth extraction is an issue faced by most dental patients due to the lack of oral hygiene or knowledge about it. Wang et al., in their research, proposed the usage of artificial nano collagen bone implants. This was done to support the alveolar ridge post extraction of tooth. The implantation was followed by a CT scan to track the bone mineral density progressively. It was found that the implanted nano collagen bone has successfully fused with the native alveolar bridge. It also showed an increase in the overall bone mineral density [61].
Treatment of damaged nerve tissues has been a topic of interest for many researchers. This can be attributed to the inability of terminally differentiated neurons to undergo further cell division and also the fact that the nervous system controls and coordinates most of our body’s processes. Damage or injury caused to the nerve tissue can seriously impair many functions of the body. Autografts of the nerve tissue has been performed in some cases. However, this has proven to be more challenging, due to the shortage of the donor sites, or occurrence of deformities. This has fuelled the search for alternative methods or materials to treat nerve damages effectively. The extensive study on collagen and nano collagen has tested the ability of collagen to act as an effective scaffold and promote cell attachment and growth [62]. Collagen has been used in the manufacture of nerve guidance conduits to aid the nerve regeneration in small nerve gaps of 2–3 cm across the peripheral nerve tissue. The use of collagen hydrogels for the treatment of lesions in the central nervous system effectively has been demonstrated by Orive et al. [63]. Further degradation of the nerve tissues can be prevented on injection of collagen nanospheres, which have the potential to deliver therapeutic drugs, and other stem cells for structural support as well [64]. Zhang et al., illustrated the application of collagen—nano size β tricalcium phosphate, together with growth factors of nerves and some collagen fibers, for the treatment of facial nerve repair and regeneration. Improved action potential was seen in the muscles, along with the formation of thicker myelin sheath, making it a highly promising avenue for further innovation and studies in nerve regeneration [65].
Articular cartilage covers the edge of a bone, and it is a connective tissue which forms a synovial joint that provides low frictional surface and enables the smooth movement of the joint. So, any damage to the articular cartilage results in acute pain during the movement of the joint. However, unlike most tissues in the body, articular cartilage lacks the potential to heal itself by replacing damaged areas in the tissue with new cells. This is mainly due to its avascular nature, i.e., there is no direct blood supply to the cartilage, thereby making it a difficult to heal by targeting therapeutic drugs. Treatment for articular cartilage necessitates surgical intervention techniques such as chondrocytes implantation and osteochondral transplant. However, the high cost and numerous other risk factors of patients has given rise to much needed research in the field of cartilage tissue engineering [66].
Cartilage tissue engineering employs the use of 3D bioprinting for the creation of collagen 3D scaffolds, which are then treated
The process of wound healing involves four steps viz., hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling which occur in a sequential order [69]. Disruption of any of these steps will make the process lengthy. The main issue involved in wound healing is infection by pathogens that results in inflammation, interrupting the healing process [45]. Schimek et al., developed full-thickness skin equivalents (ftSEs) to hold the 96-well cell culture [70]. Collagen powder can be used as the dermal substitute as they are part of the ECM that shows slow biodegradation and accelerates wound healing [45]. Collagen with nanoparticles is widely used in therapy. Munish et al., used collagen granules for the diabetic foot ulcer treatment and the results were compared with the saline dressing. The study demonstrated that the wound, when treated with collagen showed a speedy recovery [71]. In another study, Akturk et al., developed gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) based collagen scaffold, and they were incorporated into the cross- linked collagen scaffolds. It was found that it helps in enhancing the stability against enzymatic degradation and increases the tensile strength [72]. The main advantage includes the absence of rejection and the fact that they can reduce the inflammation in and around the wound. Apart from gold nanoparticles, the use of silver as an antimicrobial agent has also been of great interest recently. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are usually used in the treatment of burns and infection as they are known to demonstrate antibacterial property. There is sufficient evidence to prove that the bacterial resistance against AgNPs may not be a matter of concern, for AgNPs are known to hinder quorum sensing mechanisms in bacteria [45].
Collagen-based dermal scaffolds are coated with silver nanoparticles that act as antimicrobial dressing without having any toxic side effects. Nano silver reacts with gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, causing damage to the intracellular structure. The positively charged silver nanoparticles react with negatively charged bacterial surfaces leading to the disruption of the inner membrane. During electrospinning, the synthesized silver nano particles are incorporated into the collagen nano fibers. The
Collagen nanoparticles have shown promise as treatment carriers [73]. The recent trends in nanotechnology research and development aims to create collagen scaffolds that deliver the drug to the specific site and are released in a controlled manner [74]. Gold nanoparticles with different concentrations of gold (Au) was synthesized and coated onto collagen to form an amalgamation of nanoparticles and collagen (Au-Hp-Col). This amalgamation was found to be effective in the delivery of the drug Doxorubicin [70]. Poloxamer 407 (PM) is a polymer soluble in water used in the delivery of ophthalmic drugs like Ketorolac Tromethamine (KT). The PM is incorporated into the cellulose nano collagen particles that showed controlled release of the drug
Cardiovascular disease is the major cause of death worldwide [77]. These disorders are caused by reduced blood flow by blockage of blood vessels [78, 79]. Presently, the saphenous vein, the internal thoracic artery, and autologous vessels are used as grafts which are known to perform better than the synthetic alternative [80]. However, their limited availability and invasive harvest make them unsuitable for use. Tissue-engineered vascular grafts (TEVG) are currently used in order to overcome these limitations [48]. TEVG makes use of modern technology for the construction of vascular medical implants. The collagen along with the other components are used as a scaffold in the preparation of the TEVGs. In a previous study, Park et al., described a poly-epsilon-caprolactone (PCL) vascular graft, and its suitability for healing process. It was observed that the graft undergoes gradual degradation replaced by natural blood vessels. Collagen is also incorporated on to the inner layer and silica (sol-gel-derived ceramic) into the outer layer of PCL to improve the vascular response [49].
This chapter conclusively describes the importance and role of nanoparticles-based collagen biomaterials in the treatment of various wounds. The ECM is mainly comprised of collagen, which provides support and elasticity against mechanical stress. While collagen in itself is useful in the form of various biomaterials like scaffold s and hydrogels, the introduction of nanotechnology to it comes with its own set of challenges as well as advantages. The reduction of collagen to the nano particle’s sizes, giving it a large surface-to-volume ratio, is known to increase its efficiency of dealing with mechanical stress, thereby making it a viable option for treatment of wounds. Multiple research studies are conducted on wound healing using various materials and methods to reduce risk infection and aid in speedy recovery of the patient. The antimicrobial properties of nanoparticles of various elements such as gold and silver has already been proven, which can be further exploited in the effective treatment of wounds and injuries, in combination with collagen. The current challenge lies in the effective incorporation of nanoparticles and collagen in the production of nano collagen biomaterials, upscaling the production of nano collagen and making it affordable to the general public.
NM thank Global Innovation and Technology Alliance (GITA), Department of Science and Technology (DST), India [Project Number-GITA/DST/TWN/P-95/2021], and Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), (Project Number-ITR/Ad-hoc/43/2020-21, ID No. 2020-3286) Government of India, India for financial support.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Research continuously innovates to develop efficient and cheap methods to sustain clean water for developing countries. Developing nations are a broad term that includes countries that are less industrialised and have lower per capita income levels than developed countries. This chapter will discuss clean water for drinking water purposes. Pollution concerns of water in developing countries will be categorised in terms of physical, chemical and biological pollutants such as turbidity, organic matter and bacteria. Natural and anthropogenic pollution concerns linking with seasonal factors will be outlined. The multi-barrier approach to drinking water treatment will be discussed. Abstraction points used will be researched. Water treatment systems, medium- to small-scale approaches, will be discussed. The processes involved in removing the contaminants including physical processes such as sedimentation, filtration such as slow-sand filtration, coagulation and flocculation, and disinfectant processes such as chlorination will be reviewed. Other important methods including solar disinfection, hybrid filtration methods and arsenic removal technologies using innovative solid phase materials will be included in this chapter. Rainwater harvesting technologies are reviewed. Safe storage options for treated water are outlined. Challenges of water treatment in rural and urban areas will be outlined.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Josephine Treacy",authors:[{id:"238173",title:"Dr.",name:"Josephine",middleName:null,surname:"Treacy",slug:"josephine-treacy",fullName:"Josephine Treacy"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58890",title:"Philosophy and Paradigm of Scientific Research",slug:"philosophy-and-paradigm-of-scientific-research",totalDownloads:13759,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Before carrying out the empirical analysis of the role of management culture in corporate social responsibility, identification of the philosophical approach and the paradigm on which the research carried out is based is necessary. Therefore, this chapter deals with the philosophical systems and paradigms of scientific research, the epistemology, evaluating understanding and application of various theories and practices used in the scientific research. The key components of the scientific research paradigm are highlighted. Theories on the basis of which this research was focused on identification of the level of development of the management culture in order to implement corporate social responsibility are identified, and the stages of its implementation are described.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]},{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2204,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:null,title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:null},{id:"52475",title:"Teenage Pregnancies: A Worldwide Social and Medical Problem",slug:"teenage-pregnancies-a-worldwide-social-and-medical-problem",totalDownloads:8225,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood are a cause for concern worldwide. From a historical point of view, teenage pregnancies are nothing new. For much of human history, it was absolutely common that girls married during their late adolescence and experienced first birth during their second decade of life. This kind of reproductive behavior was socially desired and considered as normal. Nowadays, however, the prevention of teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood is a priority for public health in nearly all developed and increasingly in developing countries. For a long time, teenage pregnancies were associated with severe medical problems; however, most of data supporting this viewpoint have been collected some decades ago and reflect mainly the situation of per se socially disadvantaged teenage mothers. According to more recent studies, teenage pregnancies are not per se risky ones. A clear risk group are extremely young teenage mothers (younger than 15 years) who are confronted with various medical risks, such as preeclampsia, preterm labor, and small for gestational age newborns but also marked social disadvantage, such as poverty, unemployment, low educational level, and single parenting. In the present study, the prevalence and outcome of teenage pregnancies in Austria are focused on.",book:{id:"5392",slug:"an-analysis-of-contemporary-social-welfare-issues",title:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues",fullTitle:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues"},signatures:"Sylvia Kirchengast",authors:[{id:"188289",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvia",middleName:null,surname:"Kirchengast",slug:"sylvia-kirchengast",fullName:"Sylvia Kirchengast"}]},{id:"58060",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8743,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"58894",title:"Research Ethics",slug:"research-ethics",totalDownloads:3341,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Research ethics is closely related to the ethical principles of social responsibility. This research covers a wide context of working with people, so the researchers raised a task not only to gain confidence in the respondents’ eyes, to receive reliable data, but also to ensure the transparency of the science. This chapter discusses the theoretical and practical topics of research, after evaluation of which ethical principles of organization and conducting the research are presented. There is a detailed description of how and what ethical principles were followed on the different stages of the research.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"23",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82382",title:"A Cultural Approach in the Synchronous Class in English Teaching and Learning",slug:"a-cultural-approach-in-the-synchronous-class-in-english-teaching-and-learning",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105553",abstract:"If culture is defined as a way of training to obtain knowledge through educational channels, the concept is associated with educability. Therefore, teaching cognitive, attitudinal, and procedural knowledge directly indicates teaching and learning culture to acquire norms and patterns of sociocultural behavior. The purpose of this study was: to debate about the way interaction among students and teachers in synchronous classes based on life’s materials, topics, and methods, and critical or reflective thinking can be adapted by the teacher to the students’ closest environment to communicate in English as an international language. If a language is taught, spoken, and learned in the country, culture surrounding the context is taught. If this language is not spoken in the place, the knowledge system also transmits norms and values, different from those of the language. So, the students get, culturally and socially, modes of action, principles, and knowledge through international language learning. Thus, teaching and learning English as an international language means the way possible interaction has opportunities for every student’s growth and the way their personality formation gets integral results. English taught and learned as an international language denotes reaching the students’ world and needs to communicate in English as a meaningful international language.",book:{id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy - Challenges, Recent Advances, New Perspectives, and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg"},signatures:"Ned Vito Quevedo Arnaiz, Nemis García Arias and Fredy Pablo Cañizares Galarza"},{id:"82470",title:"The Effect of COVID-19 on the Quality of Life of Care Workers: Challenges for Social Services Leaders",slug:"the-effect-of-covid-19-on-the-quality-of-life-of-care-workers-challenges-for-social-services-leaders",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105603",abstract:"Stressful situations are likely to impact health and social care workers’ quality of life negatively. Indeed, mental, physical, and emotional health problems have been reported in relation to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the quality of life of health care workers. Instead of health care workers’ reality, and despite the care sector’s relevance, studies of the effects of COVID-19 on the quality of life of care workers have not been sufficiently explored. Recognizing the effect of COVID on the quality of life of care workers will collaborate with leaders of organizations, social work practitioners, and academics in the design of policies that promote better working conditions. Therefore, during 2021, a study was carried out in Chile where 150 social services and care workers were surveyed in Chile using a version of COV19-QoL in Spanish. The impact of COVID on quality of life is described, and the challenges that this reality implies to social service leaders are presented.",book:{id:"11095",title:"Social Work - Perspectives on Leadership and Organisation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11095.jpg"},signatures:"Magdalena Calderón-Orellana, Alejandra Inostroza and Paula Miranda Sánchez"},{id:"82448",title:"Virus World Vulnerability: A Critical Reading of Gender and Performance in Bo Burnham’s “Inside” (2021)",slug:"virus-world-vulnerability-a-critical-reading-of-gender-and-performance-in-bo-burnham-s-inside-2021",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105182",abstract:"Through an engagement with the seminal work of Raewyn Connell on masculinities and hegemonic masculinity, this chapter argues for the hegemonic norm as producing behaviour among men that can be traced in multiple male subjectivities. The argument is that men respond to the prevailing masculine norm by enacting self-protective disavowal—a complex psychological process that involves the reordering of reality in the interests of the maintenance of power, and one that is seen in cases of both legitimate and imagined threats to the self and the body. Self-protective disavowal is at the core of the Same Shit phenomenon—the idea that while the experience of masculinity varies across culture and position in the gender order, self-protective disavowal is a constant that leads to predicable patterns among men. The discussion then explores deliberate vulnerability as a kind of anti-protective disavowal in Bo Burnham’s INSIDE, a complex, undefinable ‘special’ released on Netflix in 2021. The chapter considers Burnham’s work as a departure from self-protective disavowal and Same Shit masculinity through deliberate vulnerability and critically evaluates the value of this alternative, especially given the nihilism that reigns over the work and calls into question the validity of uncritically romanticization of alternatives.",book:{id:"10540",title:"Masculinity Studies - An Interdisciplinary Approach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10540.jpg"},signatures:"Chris McWade"},{id:"82454",title:"Prospects and Pitfalls Experienced by Social Workers Working in a Confounding Environment in a South African Setting",slug:"prospects-and-pitfalls-experienced-by-social-workers-working-in-a-confounding-environment-in-a-south",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105604",abstract:"While social workers are professionally and aptly placed to facilitate a turn-around environment rife with a conglomeration of challenges such as poverty, ignorance, and diseases, the chapter discusses the developmental prospects and pitfalls that confound their practice in South Africa. Opportunely, social work interventions continue to gain developmental mileage through increased training of social workers, their increased deployment in various versatile domains of social and economic development and increased widening of the scope of social work research, especially current research in fields such as HIV/AIDS and coronavirus. On the other side of the coin, the chapter discusses social work pitfalls attributed to professional curricular gaps as social work continue to follow a western-centric curriculum; the presence of various metaphysical beliefs and myths that weaken or derail social work interventions and a weaker research environment to offer a plausible and timely solution to the prevalent problems. The chapter concludes by calling for a paradigm shift in the social work curriculum as well as its indigenization to productively respond to the South African socio-cultural and geographical milieu.",book:{id:"11095",title:"Social Work - Perspectives on Leadership and Organisation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11095.jpg"},signatures:"Simon Murote Kang’ethe"},{id:"82394",title:"Learning by Doing Active Social Learning",slug:"learning-by-doing-active-social-learning",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105523",abstract:"Project-based learning and future-based pedagogy are important and effective tools for teaching and learning in the twenty-first century. They are especially suited to instilling social activism among students, which is extremely valuable in today’s multicultural society. This study examined the impact of such learning among Arab and Jewish students and teachers in Israel. Following a collaborative program on social activism, in which students from different sectors worked together via digital platforms and face-to-face encounters, the impact of the program and its pedagogical tools were examined. The program, called Living in a Multicultural Society, reflects the mosaic of different people and communities, living side by side yet separated by religion, culture, and language. Through this program, students who may not have otherwise met worked together to learn, research, and create. This study was conducted using the mixed-method approach, whereby the qualitative data were gathered via interviews, and the quantitative data were collected through questionnaires. The findings show that this project-based learning program led to significant encounters, understandings, and co-operations between different sectors, and to meaningful end-products relating to social activism. This study enhances the concept that significant pedagogical processes increase students’ motivation, in-depth learning, and outcomes.",book:{id:"11481",title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg"},signatures:"Anat Raviv"},{id:"81785",title:"Social Distancing Disbanding Learner Groupings: A Case on Language Development",slug:"social-distancing-disbanding-learner-groupings-a-case-on-language-development",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104893",abstract:"Information sharing is a fundamental aspect in learning an unfamiliar, yet, an additional language, with specific regards to reading comprehension. Language teachers are faced with a task to monitor development, performance, and effectiveness in learner reading proficiencies. This chapter aims to measure if disbanding learner groupings as per the social distancing protocols brought about by COVID-19 restrictions has any impact on language enhancement. Henceforth, there are limited suggestions by literature in relation to disbanding learner groupings, yet improved reading proficiency is one of the crucial language aspects to be mastered for one to be a successful scholar. Nonetheless, this chapter aims to provide teaching strategies applied by English language teachers to necessitate transmitted learning in accordance with information sharing as learners are dependent on one another for language enhancement, thus leading to academic achievement.",book:{id:"10912",title:"Psychosocial, Educational, and Economic Impacts of COVID-19",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10912.jpg"},signatures:"Bulelwa Makena and Thandiswa Mpiti"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:148},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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\r\n\tEducation and Human Development is an interdisciplinary research area that aims to shed light on topics related to both learning and development. This Series is intended for researchers, practitioners, and students who are interested in understanding more about these fields and their applications.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/23.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"280770",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine K.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavropoulos",slug:"katherine-k.m.-stavropoulos",fullName:"Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdFuQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-24T09:03:48.jpg",biography:"Katherine Stavropoulos received her BA in Psychology from Trinity College, in Connecticut, USA. Dr. Stavropoulos received her Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from the University of California, San Diego. She completed her postdoctoral work at the Yale Child Study Center with Dr. James McPartland. Dr. Stavropoulos’ doctoral dissertation explored neural correlates of reward anticipation to social versus nonsocial stimuli in children with and without autism spectrum disorders (ASD). She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. She is the Assistant Director of the SEARCH Center at UCR and is a Faculty member in the Graduate Program in Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of California, Riverside",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. 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Silva, Susana M. Paixão, Ana S. Fernandes, José C. 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