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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2844",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Clinical Neurophysiology",title:"Advances in Clinical Neurophysiology",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Including some of the newest advances in the field of neurophysiology, this book can be considered as one of the treasures that interested scientists would like to collect. 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\r\n\tThe debate on globalization and sustainability issues has gained momentum in the last few years, thus shedding unprecedented light upon their interrelatedness, as well as their cross-cultural dimensions. They range from the trade-off between global and local aspects to the urban-rural polarization, from global health security to international migration flows, and from cultural globalization to glocalization of technocultures, just to mention a few topics in relation to globalization. Turning to sustainability, it comes naturally to evoke the 2030 Agenda as a strategic to-do list, which leads to focus on its Sustainable Development Goals and associated targets. The areas to be further explored include – but are not limited to – sustainable growth, tourism, and food systems.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tWithin this scenario, special attention needs to be devoted to financial implications, due to their pervasiveness. Nobody would question the key role that finance plays to complement the real sphere of the economy and that has increasingly attracted both academics and practitioners. As a result, traditional pillars – such as financial markets, products, and institutions – have evolved significantly, with financial innovation fueling further progress over time. The global side of the coin features – among others – financially connected markets, international financial exchanges, and financial conglomerates that provide valuable opportunities in terms of international corporate finance. On the other side, recent advances have involved a wider recourse to ESG factors, allowed forward steps towards a more inclusive financial system, and have made digital finance a must, rather than an option, even though much remains to be accomplished, for instance, to facilitate access to formal financial channels in many underdeveloped regions.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThis book aims to examine emerging trends, new perspectives, and empirical applications that deal with globalization and sustainability. The goal is to provide a comprehensive overview of these important concepts as valuable support to successfully meet the challenges and take on the opportunities ahead. At the same time, drawing upon empirical evidence can contribute to bridging the gap between theory and practice, which also fits within the scope of this book.
Nanoindentation is one of the most popular experiments to investigate the behavior of materials at the nanometer scale [1, 2]. Nanoindentation-probed materials’ properties are usually different from their macroscopic counterparts and present different deformation mechanisms [3]. The atomistic models can give important qualitative information for the understanding of experimentally observed complex phenomena; especially, they have the indisputable advantage of analyzing the main physical process and micro-mechanisms (dislocation nucleation and evolution) [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Many studies have adopted atomistic simulations to probe and understand detailed deformation process and the possible impact factors involved in nanoindentation. For example, Chan et al. [10] studied the size effects of indenter nanohardness using atomistic simulations, and found that nanohardness was inversely proportional to the indenter radius. Imran et al. [11] studied the influence from the indenter velocity and size of the indenter using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations in Ni single crystals. Noreyan et al. [12] carried out MD simulations of nanoindentation of β-SiC to investigate the dependence of the critical depth and pressure for the elastic-to-plastic transition on indentation velocity, tip size, and workpiece temperature. Yaghoobi et al. [13] and Kim et al. [14] conducted MD simulations of nanoindentation on nickel single crystal and nickel bicrystal and discussed the effects of boundary conditions and grain boundary, respectively. Fu et al. [15] and Yuan et al. [16] investigated the effects of twin boundary on hardness, elastic modulus, and dislocation movements during nanoindentation by MD simulations. Fang et al. [17] carried out MD to find that both Young’s modulus and hardness become smaller as temperature increases, and elastic recovery is smaller at higher temperatures during nanoindentation. Wu et al. [18] performed MD simulation to investigate the effects of the temperature, loading and unloading velocities, holding time, and composition of Ni-Al alloys on the nanoimprinting lithography process. Hansson [19], Tsuru et al. [20], and Remington’s et al. [21] studies indicated that the crystallographic orientation strongly influenced the hardness, load for pop-in formation, and mechanisms of plastic deformation using nanoindentation simulated by MD. Zhao et al. [22], Chamani et al. [23], and Chocyk et al. [24] also used MD simulation to study nanoindentation behaviors and microstructure features in metallic multilayers, and the effect of layer thickness on nanoindentation hardness was discussed. Furthermore, few studies also found that the geometry shape of indenter have a strong influence on the dislocation nucleation [25, 26], hardness [26, 27], and Young’s modulus [27]. Generally, in the MD simulation of nanoindentation, the material properties response is influenced by some factors including specimen thickness, crystal orientation, grain size and boundaries, atomic potentials, boundary conditions, temperature, shape and size of indenter, and loading/unloading rate of indentation, etc.
Although the atomic simulation of nanoindentation process and the influence of different factors have been considered comprehensively, most of them mainly consider the dislocation nucleation and deformation mechanisms of specimen, whereas seldom consider the evolutions of and microstructure and stress field of specimen caused by indenter tip geometry. Especially, the internal relationship between the microstructural evolution and the distribution of stress field during nanoindentation has not been analyzed. Since the microstructure features and its evolutions in a localized region are closely related to the stress field in this region, the mechanical properties are strongly dependent on the microstructural features and their evolutions; and it is important to investigate the microstructure evolution and relation with the local stress field, which can be a great help for further understanding of the physical mechanisms during nanoindentation.
The objective of this contribution is to examine how the development of dislocation microstructures, stress distributions, and load-displacement curves are affected by complex stress sites from different shapes of indenters, to determine the relationships between dislocation microstructures and stress distributions during nanoindentation. Moreover, the effect of shapes of indenters on dislocation nucleation, and dislocation movements, stress distribution characteristics during nanoindentation of single crystal nickel are studied in detail.
In this work, an open source code LAMMPS [28] is used to carry out MD simulations and investigate the influences of indenter geometry on dislocation movements and stress distributions for a Ni single crystal nanoindentation. Three indenters with different geometries are employed: spherical, rectangular, and Berkovich indenters. The geometries of the models with three different shapes of indenters are shown in Figure 1. Both models are in the cubic orientation (i.e.,
The geometries of the models with three different shapes of indenters: (a) rectangular indenter, (b) spherical indenter, and (c) Berkovich indenter.
To investigate the variation and distribution characteristics of atomic stress fields during nanoindentation, the atomistic stress definition is employed in this work. The stress tensor for an atom is calculated as a time averaged value over a number of time steps after relaxation of an indentation step, for atom
where
In order to compare the load-displacement curves of three different indenters, we gave three indenters penetrating into the same maximum indentation depth of 1.5 nm; the load-displacement curves for three different indenters are shown in Figure 2. As the indenters are −1 nm away from the contact surface of the specimen surface at the initial stage, the load-displacement is close to a straight line, and the load P is zero for three different shapes of indenter before the separation is approximately −0.5 nm. When the distance between the indenter and the contact surface of the specimen is about −0.5~0 nm, the load values are negative because of the repulsive force of the interaction between atoms, and the repulsive force is larger at the larger contact surface. The rectangular indenter has a larger contact surface than the spherical and Berkovich indenters, the repulsive force is biggest for the rectangular indenter and smallest for the Berkovich indenter (see Figure 2). After the indenter contact the surface of the specimen, the load gradually increases with the increase of the penetration depth, the load-displacement curve has a linear dependence, which means that at this stage, the indentation is performed in the linear elastic regime.
Load-displacement curves for different shape indenters.
For a rectangular indenter, when the load-displacement curve reaches the maximum load, the load keeps fluctuating around a constant value during the further displacement of the indenter, because of the constant cross section of the rectangular indenter; its further penetration into the crystal does not affect significantly the force acting on the indenter. The fluctuations are caused by the relaxation of stresses in the system, such as dislocations migration from the deformed sites. For the spherical indenter, similar to the rectangular indenter case, a quasi-elastic behavior is observed between inflection points; the force acting on the indenter gradually increases with the increase of the penetration depths, but does not last as long in increasing load periods. For a Berkovich indenter, the force acting on the indenter slowly increases with the increase of the penetration depths, the load drop events tend to be small or not noticeable.
Comparison with these three different indenters, the load-displacement curves show different peak loads, elastic-plastic behavior, and load drop events, which are related to a series of transitions of the dislocation structures under the indentation site. To explain this phenomenon, we analyze the local stress distribution and microstructure evolution features of specimen under the indentation site during nanoindentation.
Figure 3 shows atomic stress as a function of atom position along the X direction for different shape indenters during nanoindentation. Here, four different nanoindentation sites are chosen to analyze the atomic stress distributions under the action of different indenters. For rectangular indenter, when indenter does not contact specimen surface [initial site (1) in Figure 3a], the atomic stress values are approximately zero along the X direction for three different shape indenters. When the indenter just contacts specimen surface [just contact site (2) in Figure 3a], near the contact point, the stress value is positive and relatively high. Whereas the specimen surface at a distance from the contact point, the stress value is negative because the atomic interaction force is repulsive. As the indenter gradually penetrates into the specimen, the stress increases and a sudden irregularity appears. When indenter reaches the maximum indentation depth site (3), the stress value at this site is the highest, and a sudden increase occurs at the indenter site. When the indenter is fully unloaded to the initial site (4) in Figure 3a, comparison with the maximum indentation depth, the stress value decreases, but it is still high, which indicates that there are still dislocations in the unloaded specimens and cannot be restored completely. For spherical and Berkovich indenters, a similar trend is found with initially smooth stress distributions, becoming irregular at larger indentation depths. By comparing the stress distributions for three different shape indenters, we found that different indenters have similar stress distribution characteristics at different indentation depth sites, but the stress values are different. The rectangular indenter have the highest stress value (about 6.8 GPa), the spherical indenter is next (about 5.0 GPa), which also has a high stress value (nearly 5.0 GPa) for the Berkovich indenter at the same maximum indentation depth of 1.5 nm. Although the load is the smallest for the Berkovich indenter from the load-displacement curves in Figure 2, the contact area of the indenter is also the smallest, resulting in the stress value that is still high near the indenter. It is noteworthy that for the Berkovich indenter, except for the high stress (nearly 5.0 GPa) near the indenter, the other parts of the specimen are very low, which is also the reason for the stress concentration of the sharp indenter. From Figure 3, we can see that a sudden increase in stress near the indenter for the Berkovich indenter, while for the rectangular and spherical indenters, the stress distributions at low indentation depths are smooth with no sudden irregularities, indicating a fully elastic response. At larger indentation depths, the stress distribution gets more and more irregular with locally very high stresses. The stress irregular distribution and the formation of pop-in are closely related to dislocation activities during nanoindentation.
Atomic stress as function of atom position along the X direction at four different nanoindentation sites for different shape indenters: (a) rectangular indenter, (b) spherical indenter, and (c) Berkovich indenter. The 1, 2, 3, and 4 inserted in figure indicate the indenter at four different nanoindentation sites: (1) initial site (indenter does not contact Ni single crystal specimen), (2) just contact site, (3) maximum depth site, and (4) unloading finished site.
To understand the microstructure evolution of the specimen during nanoindentation process, the surface and internal microstructure characteristics of specimen for different shape indenters are presented at the maximum indentation depth site and unloading finished site, as shown in Figures 4 and 5, respectively.
The surface and internal microstructure features of specimens at maximum depth site for different shape indenters: (a) rectangular indenter, (b) spherical indenter, and (c) Berkovich indenter.
The surface and internal microstructure features of specimen at unloading finished site for different shape indenters: (a) rectangular indenter, (b) spherical indenter, and (c) Berkovich indenter.
Due to the maximum stress and irregular distribution occurring at the maximum indentation depth site, and the dislocation activity is also the most complex at this site, From Figure 4, at the same maximum indentation depth of 1.5 nm, we can clearly see that the dislocation structure is the most complex for the rectangular indenter case, and the next for the spherical indenter case, whereas there are only few dislocations for the Berkovich indenter case. Compared to the dislocation activities of rectangular and spherical indenter cases, an amorphous region directly below the indenter tip is observed in the Berkovich indenter case, which we think that the extremely singular stress field around the indenter tip contributes to this uncommon observation.
When the unloading is finished, the indenter returns to its initial site, the stress cannot be completely restored and there are still a lot of dislocations on the surface of the specimen for the rectangular and spherical indenters cases, and these dislocations move slowly toward the surface and boundary of the specimen during unloading, forming the surface microstructure of the specimen as shown in Figure 5a,b, while in the Berkovich indenter case, there are almost no dislocations on the surface of specimen at unloading finished site (see Figure 5c).
Furthermore, for all three indenters cases at the same maximum indentation depth, the prismatic dislocation loops are mainly observed to nucleate on the {111} planes, as seen the red cycles in Figures 4 and 5, this observation in accordance with the predictions of dislocation theory in a face-centered cubic metal. In the rectangular indenter case, dislocation activities are found to be complex; a prismatic loop originating inside the specimen is observed and glided upward to the indenting surface. In the spherical indenter case, dislocation activities are still relatively complex, a prismatic dislocation loop originating from the surface of specimen is observed and glided downward to the boundary of specimen. In the Berkovich indenter case, dislocation activities are relatively scarce and the defect structure does not change significantly.
MD simulations are performed to investigate the influences of indenter geometry on the dislocation activities and stress distributions during nanoindentation on nickel single crystal. The stress field and dislocation activities induced by the change of indenter shape are analyzed. The major findings are as follows:
Load-displacement curves show different peak loads, elastic-plastic behavior, and load drop events in all three cases. For the rectangular and spherical indenters, the load-displacement curves have a linear dependence, which means a linear elastic regime in indentation process, but the elastic stage produced by the spherical indenter does not last long than that produced by the rectangular indenter. For a Berkovich indenter, there is almost no linear elastic regime, the load drop events tend to be small or not noticeable.
For the rectangular and spherical indenters, the stress distributions at low indentation depths are smooth with no sudden irregularities, indicating a fully elastic response. At larger indentation depths, the stress distribution becomes more and more irregular with locally very high stresses. For the Berkovich indenter, a sudden increase in stress near the indenter, and the other parts of the specimen is very low, which is the reason for the stress concentration of the sharp indenter. These irregular stress distributions and the formations of pop-in occurred are closely related to dislocation activities during nanoindentation.
In all three cases, prismatic dislocation loops are observed to nucleate on the {111} planes, which is in agreement with the predictions of dislocation theory in a face-centered cubic metal. The dislocation activities are the most complex for the rectangular indenter case, and the next for the spherical indenter case, whereas very few dislocations and an amorphous region directly below the indenter tip are observed in the Berkovich indenter case, which is related to the extremely singular stress field around the indenter tip. According to these results, we can conclude that the shapes of indenters have different and significant influences on dislocation activities and stress distributions during nanoindentation.
The work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 11772236, 11711530643, and 11472195).
The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) can be classified by its function and by its anatomy. Functionally it is ginglymoarthrodial, a term derived from ginglymus, meaning a hinge joint, allowing movement only forwards and backwards in one plane, and arthrodial, meaning a joint allowing sliding movement of surfaces [1]. Anatomically, it is a diarthrodial joint, defined as the discontinuous articulation of two bones that allow freedom of movement. The movement of the TMJ is dictated by muscles and limited by ligaments, its capsule of fibrous connective tissue is innervated, vascularized and strongly attached to the joint surfaces. It is also a synovial joint, whose fluid acts as a joint lubricant and supplies its metabolic and nutritional needs [2]. When occluding the mandible, it will be subjected to loads, a unilateral occlusion will result in load peaks at the contralateral TMJ. In addition, the condyle is an adaptable and regenerative unit with the ability to maintain functions despite trauma and degenerative changes [3]. The TMJ is the only joint in the human body that houses a growth center, resulting in the perpetual need for the left and right joints to work coordinated [4].
Biomechanics is the study of mechanics applied to living beings, it analyzes loads, efforts, tension, movement, size, shape and structure of the body. The temporomandibular joint is subject to forces produced by the masticatory muscles and the occlusion stress that is supported by the teeth [3]. In addition, it analyzes and helps understand the interaction of form, function and mechanism of the temporomandibular disorders to prevent, diagnose and cure these disorders [5]. A total joint replacement should function as close to a healthy joint as possible. It must be able to withstand the same forces and must produce the same movements as a normal joint [6].
The temporal bone contributes three regions to the TMJ, the largest being the articular or mandibular fossa, a concave surface whose anterior limit is the articular eminence, and its posterior limit is the postglenoid process [2]. The glenoid fossa is wider mediolaterally than anteroposteriorly, its surface is thin, and it may be translucent in a dissected skull, showing that although the articular fossa contains the posterior edge of the disc and condyle, it’s not a functionally resistant tension part [1, 7]. The second portion, the articular eminence, is a transverse bony prominence that continues mediolaterally across the articular surface, is generally thick, and serves as a major functional component of the TMJ. The third portion of the articular surface of the temporal bone is the preglenoid plane, a flattened area anterior to the eminence [2, 7].
The mandibular portion that is part of the TMJ is the condyle, it’s a paired structure that forms an angle of approximately 145° to 160° with each other. It normally has an elliptical shape and measures on average 20 mm mediolaterally (range 13 to 25 mm) and 10 mm anteroposteriorly (range 5.5 to 16 mm). The condyle tends to be rounded mediolaterally and convex anteroposteriorly. The size and shape of the condyle present large individual variations that may be relevant in terms of biomechanical load. In its medial portion below its articular surface is the pterygoid fovea, site of insertions of the lateral pterygoid muscle [2, 8].
Lining the inner face of the joint, there are two types of tissue: articular and synovial cartilage. The space bounded by these two structures is called the synovial cavity, which is filled with synovial fluid. The articular surfaces of the temporal bone and condyle are covered with dense articular fibrocartilage. This cover has the ability to regenerate and remodel under functional stress. Deep to the fibrocartilage of the condyle, there is a proliferative zone of cells that can become cartilage or bone tissue. Articular cartilage is composed of chondrocytes and an intercellular matrix of collagen fibers, water, and a nonfibrous tissue, filling material, called the ground substance. Chondrocytes are arranged in three layers characterized by different cell shapes. The superficial zone contains small flattened cells with their longitudinal axes parallel to the surface. In the middle zone the cells are larger and rounder and appear in columns perpendicular to the surface. The deep zone contains the largest cells and is divided by the Level mark; below which some degree of calcification occurs [2].
Cartilage is nourished primarily by diffusion from synovial fluid. Collagen fibers are arranged in an interlocking meshwork of fibrils parallel to the joint surface, joining as bundles and descending to them junction in the calcified cartilage between the level marks. Functionally, these meshes provide a framework for the interstitial water and the essential substance to resist the compressive forces encountered in the load [2].
Articular cartilage contains a higher proportion of collagen fibers than other synovial joints. The fundamental substance contains a variety of plasma proteins, glucose, urea and salts, as well as proteoglycans, which are synthesized by the Golgi apparatus of chondrocytes. Proteoglycans are macromolecules that contain a protein core linked to chondroitin sulfate and keratan sulfate glycosaminoglycan chains. Proteoglycans are involved in the diffusion of nutrients and metabolic degradation. The ground substance allows the entry and exit of large amounts of water, allowing its characteristic functional elasticity in response to deformation and load [2, 8].
The lining of the capsule is the synovial membrane, a thin, smooth, richly vascular, and innervated membrane that contains no epithelium. Synovial cells have a phagocytic and secretory function and are believed to be the site of hyaluronic acid production. Synovial fluid is considered an ultrafiltrate of plasma which comes from two sources: the first, from plasma by dialysis, and the second, from the secretion of type A and B synoviocytes [1, 2]. Among its functions is the lubrication of the joint, phagocytosis of particles and nutrition of the articular cartilage. It contains a high concentration of hyaluronic acid. The proteins found in synovial fluid are identical to plasma proteins; however, it has a lower total protein content, a higher percentage of albumin, and a lower percentage of α −2-globulin.
The number of leukocytes is less than 200 per cubic millimeter and less than 25% of these cells are polymorphonuclear. Only a small amount of synovial fluid, usually less than 2 ml, is present within the healthy TMJ [2].
Its biconcave in shape with a length of approximately 12 mm and a width of 16 mm. It is firmly attached to the lateral and medial poles of the condyle [9]. made up of dense fibrous connective tissue and is not vascularized or innervated, an adaptation that allows it to resist pressure, is composed of densely organized collagen fibers, high molecular weight proteoglycans, elastic fibers, and cells ranging from fibrocytes to chondrocytes. Collagen is mainly made up of types I and II. The fibers have a typical pattern of distribution in the intermediate zone, oriented sagittally and parallel to the disc surface. Most of these fibers continue into the anterior and posterior bands to intertwine or continue with the oriented collagen fibers transversely and vertically of these bands or pass through the entire bands to continue towards the anterior and posterior disc attachments. Vertically and transversely oriented fibers are more pronounced in the anterior and posterior band. In the intermediate part there is weaker cross-linking of the collagen bundles, which makes this area less resistant to mediolateral shear stresses [8].
Anatomically the disc can be divided into three regions in a sagittal section: an anterior portion (about 2 mm), posterior portion (about 3 mm), and a middle portion of 1 mm. The anterior portion of the disc consists of a layer of fibroelastic fascia (upper) and a fibrous layer (lower). The disc is flexible and adapts to the demands of the joint surfaces, joining the capsule anteriorly, posteriorly, medially, and laterally [2, 7]. It’s bounded inferiorly by the articular surface of the mandibular condyle and laterally and medially by the synovial membrane. It divides the inferior and superior joint compartment into two spaces. The inferior joint space contains approximately 0.9 ml of synovial fluid, while the superior joint space contains approximately 1.2 ml [9].
Articular disc has been shown to have region- and direction-dependent variations in biomechanical response. Female joint discs tend to be stiffer and relax less than male discs, suggesting a possible etiologic factor in the development and progression of temporomandibular disorders, and the higher prevalence among women [10].
The presence of a fibrocartilaginous disc in the joint prevents peak loads because it has the capacity to deform and adapt to the joint surfaces. These deformations ensure that the loads are absorbed and distributed over larger contact areas. In addition, the shape of the disc and the location of the contact zones continuously change during mandibular movement to adapt to the articulating surfaces. As a result, there will be a change in the magnitude and location of the deformations [11].
The retrodiscal area is called the bilaminar zone because it consists of two laminae separated by loose connective tissue made up of elastic fibers, blood vessels, lymphatics, nerves, and adipose tissue. The inferior lamina inserts into the periosteum of the condyle approximately 8 to 10 mm below the condylar apex. The lamina consists of thick fibers that originate from almost the entire height of the posterior band and lacks elastic fibers. The lamina stretches with occlusion and bends as the condyle rotates into the mandibular opening. It is believed to serve as a control ligament to prevent extreme rotation of the disc at the condyle in rotational movements [2, 8]. On the other hand, the upper lamina inserts into the periosteum of the fossa anterior to the squamotympanic and petrotympanic fissures, is thinner than the lower lamina and contains thinner collagen fibers. It has elastic fibers and collagen fibers that fold in the occluded position and stretch during opening or protrusion, allowing the disc to slide anteriorly. The position of the disc is ensured by the lateral and posterior inferior ligaments [8].
The loose tissue of the retrocondylar space compensates for pressure changes that arise when the retrocondylar space expands during translation. The loose fibroelastic structure allows the blood vessels to expand, causing the posterior superior lamina to press against the fossa and the posterior inferior lamina to fold superiorly. The blood vessels are connected with the pterygoid venous plexus located anteromedially to the condyle. Therefore, during opening, blood drains backwards and laterally to fill the enlarged space behind the condyle, and upon closing, it is pushed into the pterygoid plexus [8].
They are composed of collagen and act predominantly as restraints on movement of the condyle and disc. Three ligaments can be considered main: collateral, capsular and temporomandibular ligaments. Other ligaments such as the sphenomandibular, stylomandibular, pterygomandibular, and Pinto ligaments are considered accessory ligaments because they serve to some extent as passive restrictors in mandibular movement [2, 7].
They are short paired structures that span each joint, they attach superiorly to the temporal bone along the rim of the glenoid fossa and articular eminence, and inferiorly to the neck of the condyle along the rim of the articular facet. It surrounds the joint spaces and the disc, being attached anteriorly and posteriorly, as well as medially and laterally. The function is to resist medial, lateral and inferior forces, thus maintaining the attachment of the disc to the condyle. This offers protection in extreme movements, a secondary function is to contain the synovial fluid within the superior and inferior joint spaces [2, 7].
They are found on the lateral aspect of each TMJ or temporomandibular joint. They are individual structures that function in pairs with the corresponding ligament in the opposite TMJ. It can be separated into two different parts, which have different functions. The external oblique part descends from the external aspect of the articular tubercle of the zygomatic process and inferiorly to the external posterior surface of the condylar neck. It limits the amount of inferior distraction that the condyle can have in translation and rotation movements. The internal horizontal part also arises from the external surface of the articular tubercle, just medial to the origin of the external oblique part of the ligament, and runs horizontally posteriorly to join the lateral pole of the condyle and the posterior pole of the disc. The function of the inner portion is to limit the posterior movement of the condyle, particularly during rotational movements, for example when the mandible moves laterally in masticatory function [2, 7].
It is a remnant of Merckel’s cartilage. It originates from the sphenoid spine and on its way to the mandible inserts into the medial wall of the TMJ joint capsule. It continues its descent to attach to the lingula of the mandible as well as to the lower part of the medial side of the condylar neck. Its main function is to protect the TMJ of an excessive translation of the condyle, after 10 degrees of opening of the mouth, also functions as a point of rotation during the activation of the lateral pterygoid muscle [2, 7].
The stylomandibular ligament arises from the styloid process to the posterior margin of the mandible or the angle of the mandible. It is considered a thickening of the deep cervical fascia. Its function is to limit the excessive protrusion of the mandible [2, 7].
The pterygomandibular ligament or raphe (PTML) is a thickening of the oropharyngeal fascia. It arises from the apex of the hamulus of the internal pterygoid plane of the skull to the posterior zone of the retromolar trigone of the mandible, limiting its movements [2, 7].
It has two parts: The first part refers to the middle ear involving the malleus in relation to the anterior ligament of the malleus; the second, the portion of the joint capsule of the TMJ, in contact with the retrodiscal tissues. The functions are two. In the TMJ it protects the synovial membrane with respect to the tensions of the structures surrounding and in the middle ear, would seem to control or influence the appropriate pressure for this area of the ear [2, 7].
The vascular supply of the TMJ arises mainly from branches of the superficial temporal artery, the maxillary artery, and the masseteric artery. All arteries within a radius of 3 cm contribute to the vascularization of the TMJ through the appearance of secondary capillaries that branch to surround the joint capsule [12]. Venous drainage occurs through the pterygoid plexus in the retrodiscal area, which alternately fills and empties in protrusion and retrusion movements, respectively, to subsequently communicate with the internal maxillary vein, the sphenopalatine vein, the medial meningeal veins, the deep temporal veins, the masseteric veins and the inferior alveolar vein [7].
Lymphatic drainage is not always easy to describe because, in the case of TMJ disease, the lymph nodes may increase in number. Generally, the lymphatic system that drains the TMJ comes from the area of the submandibular triangle [7].
The TMJ has several proprioceptive receptors, particularly in the parenchyma of the articular disc: Golgi—Mazzoni and Ruffini; Myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers are innervated primarily by the auriculotemporal nerve posteriorly, the masseteric nerve anteriorly, the posterior deep temporal nerve anteromedially, and the branch of the TMJ arising directly from the mandibular nerve anteriorly. The middle part, although there are variations in these innervation pathways [13].
Classically, four masticatory muscles are described: temporal, masseter, lateral and medial pterygoid, although the supra and infrahyoid muscles also participate in mandibular movements [14].
The function of the temporalis muscle is to elevate the mandible for closure. It is not a power muscle. Contractions of the middle and posterior portions of the muscle contribute to retrusion of the mandible, and a small degree of unilateral contraction of the temporal bone assists in deviation of the mandible to the ipsilateral side [14].
Both the superficial and deep parts of the masseter muscle are powerful elevators of the jaw, but they function independently and reciprocally in some movements. The deep layer of the masseter is not active during protrusive movements and is always active during forced retrusion, whereas the superficial portion is active during protrusion and is inactive during retrusion. Similarly, the deep masseter is active in ipsilateral movements but does not function in contralateral movements, while the superficial masseter is active during contralateral movements but not in ipsilateral movements [14].
The primary function of the medial pterygoid is elevation of the mandible, but it also has a limited role in unilateral protrusion in synergism with the lateral pterygoid to promote rotation to the opposite side [14].
It has two portions that can be considered two functionally distinct muscles. The main function of the lower head is protrusive and contralateral movement. When the two inferior bundles contract, the condyle is pulled forward and below the articular eminence, with the disc moving passively with the condylar head. This movement contributes to the opening of the oral cavity. When the inferior head works unilaterally, it produces a contralateral movement of the mandible. The function of the superior bundles is predominantly involved with the closing and retrusion movements [14].
This group of muscles is formed by 4 suprahyoid pairs that are digastric, mylohyoid, stylohyoid and geniohyoid and 4 infrahyoid pairs that are sternohyoid, omohyoid, sternothyroid and thyrohyoid whose function in mandibular movements is to fix or move the hyoid [14].
Mandibular movement during function and parafunction involves complex neuromuscular patterns originating and modifying from central and peripheral origin. The ATM contributes about 2000 movements per day [11, 15].
The active muscles are the digastric, mylohyoid, and geniohyoid. There is no activity in the temporal when there is a slow opening and the mandible is in maximum opening, although some activity can occur in the medial pterygoid [15].
There is no temporary activity during mandibular closure as long as there is no contact with the teeth. The elevation without contact is given by the masseter and medial pterygoid [15].
Voluntary retrusion in mandibular closure is given by the contraction of the posterior fibers of the temporalis muscle, as well as by the suprahyoid and infrahoid muscle groups [15].
Protrusion without occlusal contact is the result of contraction of the lateral and medial pterygoids as well as the bilateral masseters [15].
Lateral movement of the mandible without tooth contact is achieved primarily by contraction of the medial and posterior fibers of the ipsilateral temporalis muscle and by contralateral contraction of the lateral and medial pterygoid and anterior temporalis fibers. The suprahyoid muscles are active keeping the mandible slightly protruded and depressed [15].
Functionally, mandibular movements are complex with six degrees of possible movement, which occur as complex interrelated rotational and translational activities. They are possible thanks to the relationship of four different joints: lower and upper. Although the TMJ does not function independently of the other, a classification of isolated mandibular movements is necessary [11, 16].
Movements have been extensively studied at the level of the occlusal interface, being Ulf Posselt one of the first to describe motion in three dimensions. Condylar rotation and translation of the condyle-disc assembly, in most cases, begin simultaneously. On average, condylar rotation increases or decreases linearly by approximately 2°/mm of anterior or posterior translation during opening or closing, respectively [8, 16].
Rotation occurs when the condyles rotate around a fixed point or axis during mandibular opening and closing. Rotational motion can occur in three reference planes: horizontal, vertical, and sagittal. Each of them occurs around a point called the axis [11].
Horizontal orientation axis: opening and closing movement, referred to as a hinge, therefore it occurs around an axis called the hinge axis. It is considered the purest rotation movement [16].
Vertical axis of rotation: Also called frontal axis. It occurs when one of the condyles moves anteriorly from the position of the terminal hinge axis with the vertical axis in the opposite condyle, which remains in said axis. This type of movement does not occur normally [16].
Sagittal axis of rotation: Occurs when one of the condyles moves inferiorly while the other remains in the position of the terminal axis. This movement occurs in conjunction with other movements. Mathematical studies indicate that in this plane there is the same contact and muscle activity from one side to the other, so there are no alterations in dental occlusion that result in a joint without load [11, 16].
The amount of condylar rotation does not differ between men and women. A finding that contrasts with the greater maximum interincisal opening of men compared to women due to differences in jaw length. In fact, with the same degree of rotation, the greater the length of the mandible, the greater the opening of the mouth. Consequently, the degree of interincisal opening cannot be considered as a measure of joint mobility or laxity, unless corrected for mandibular size [8].
Translation can be defined as a movement in which every point of the object t simultaneously has the same speed and direction. In the masticatory system, it occurs when the mandible protrudes. During normal movements, rotation and translation occur simultaneously, as the mandible rotates in one or more axes, each of the axes is changing orientation in space [16].
The total movement of the mandible does not consist only of rotation and translation. Side-to-side or eccentric bodily movement of the mandible and rotation and translation of the joints indicate that the mandible acts as a free-moving or floating; structure. Controlled by pairs of complementary and opposing functional muscle groups that gradually exert impulse force with numerous force vectors, the three-dimensional movement of the mandible with a dual-operation joint system is unlike any other orthopedic system in the body [17].
Classical records analyzed mandibular movements in terms of their geometry, using mechanical systems. Posselt designed an instrument called a gnatho-tensiometer, which could record border movements in all three planes, obtaining the Posselt diagram. Currently, technology has made it possible to improve position tracking techniques and thus be able to analyze mandibular kinematics with high spatial and temporal resolution (Figure 1) [18].
Posselt diagram.
Movement is not only guided by the shape of the bones, muscles, and ligaments, but also by the occlusion of the teeth [1]. The Glossary of Prosthodontic Terms defines occlusion as the static relationship between the chewing surfaces of the maxillary and mandibular teeth. Dental contact has to be studied from a functional perspective and a more adequate definition of occlusion would be the biological and dynamic relationship of the components of the masticatory system that determines dental relationships [19].
Occlusion comprises a wide range of topics, the biomechanics of occlusal contact between two teeth with different cusp inclinations form a complex system [16]. From a clinical point of view, TMJ changes including intracapsular exudate and joint tissue loss can result in occlusal changes such as anterior or posterior open bites. It is important to mention that a particular occlusal scheme is not a determinant of disease. There is no evidence to suggest that one scheme predominates over another. Group functions compared to canine guides cause less condylar displacement, this displacement is small and has no clinical significance [19].
The range of vertical movement is dictated by anterior determinants such as overbite and posterior determinants such as TMJ condylar guidance. From a biomechanical point of view, anterior versus posterior determinants have a greater influence on tooth contact due to their proximity to the teeth. On the other hand, the condylar guide will influence when the molars are in contact or close to contact during mandibular movements [19].
Studies about whether the TMJ is subjected to load has been the subject of discussion for many years. Brehnan et al. in 1981 was able to corroborate in his studies carried out on monkeys that there is a load in the TMJ. It’s accepted that mechanical loading is essential for growth [11]. During the natural function of the joint, a combination of compressive, tensile, and shear loads occur [5]. The efforts produced by the loads will generate a deformation which can be quantified by determining the change between the original length with the final length of a structure, this deformation is expressed as a percentage, there are two types of deformation: elastic one in which eliminating the force the material recovers its original dimension, while plastic deformation is one in which the original dimension is not recovered. The elastic limit es the yield point beyond which permanent deformation occurs and the tissue does not return to its original shape. Ultimate strength is the stress a tissue can withstand, and breaking strength is the stress at which the tissue breaks (Figure 2) [20].
Graph shows that the elastic limit and the maximun resistance.
The value of the maximum resistance of the disc depends on the direction of the applied stress and the region where it is applied. For example, the ultimate strength of the intermediate zone of the disc is 37.4 MPa (1 MPa = 106N/m2) when a tensile stress is applied anteroposteriorly, while it is 1.6 MPa when the application of stress is medio-lateral [11].
During compressive loading the disk becomes smaller, during tensile loading, it is stretched in the direction of loading, during shear loading, one edge of the disk surface moves parallel to the adjacent surface (Figure 3) [16]. Therefore, an unloaded TMJ may show degenerative changes, which may lead to impaired masticatory function. However, an excessive load that exceeds the adaptive capacity can also lead to degradation of the joint structure [11]. If the surfaces of the condyle or fossa have significant bony irregularities, the distribution of force over an even smaller square area of the joint can make these ratios more diverse and destructive. Otherwise, an aging dysfunctional disc/capsule does not have the necessary viscoelastic properties to meet the functional demands of the TMJ [17].
Different types of load over disc. A. Normal state. B. Tension. C. Compression D. shear.
Any surgical procedure must restore functional congruence between all four joint surfaces. Any intervention must limit the instability of the joint to eliminate the progressive influence of torque and shear at the lateral attachment of the disc/capsule to the mandibular condyle. Currently, no synthetic or biological material meets the viscoelastic properties disk/capsule Knowledge of biomechanics will guide the clinician in making decisions for the surgical treatment of TMJ.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
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\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
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\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
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\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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The chapter presented here is an introduction to mass spectrometry, which, we think, helps the understanding of the mechanism of fragmentation corroborating spectral data and molecular structures.",book:{id:"5735",slug:"mass-spectrometry",title:"Mass Spectrometry",fullTitle:"Mass Spectrometry"},signatures:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu",authors:[{id:"196775",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodor Octavian",middleName:"Octavian",surname:"Nicolescu",slug:"teodor-octavian-nicolescu",fullName:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu"}]},{id:"57909",title:"Validation of Analytical Methods",slug:"validation-of-analytical-methods",totalDownloads:6880,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Method validation is a key element in the establishment of reference methods and within the assessment of a laboratory’s competence in generating dependable analytical records. Validation has been placed within the context of the procedure, generating chemical data. Analytical method validation, thinking about the maximum relevant processes for checking the best parameters of analytical methods, using numerous relevant overall performance indicators inclusive of selectivity, specificity, accuracy, precision, linearity, range, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), ruggedness, and robustness are severely discussed in an effort to prevent their misguided utilization and ensure scientific correctness and consistency among publications.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Tentu Nageswara Rao",authors:[{id:"220824",title:"Dr.",name:"Tentu",middleName:null,surname:"Nageswara Rao",slug:"tentu-nageswara-rao",fullName:"Tentu Nageswara Rao"}]},{id:"58596",title:"Linearity of Calibration Curves for Analytical Methods: A Review of Criteria for Assessment of Method Reliability",slug:"linearity-of-calibration-curves-for-analytical-methods-a-review-of-criteria-for-assessment-of-method",totalDownloads:7983,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:42,abstract:"Calibration curve is a regression model used to predict the unknown concentrations of analytes of interest based on the response of the instrument to the known standards. Some statistical analyses are required to choose the best model fitting to the experimental data and also evaluate the linearity and homoscedasticity of the calibration curve. Using an internal standard corrects for the loss of analyte during sample preparation and analysis provided that it is selected appropriately. After the best regression model is selected, the analytical method needs to be validated using quality control (QC) samples prepared and stored in the same temperature as intended for the study samples. Most of the international guidelines require that the parameters, including linearity, specificity, selectivity, accuracy, precision, lower limit of quantification (LLOQ), matrix effect and stability, be assessed during validation. Despite the highly regulated area, some challenges still exist regarding the validation of some analytical methods including methods when no analyte-free matrix is available.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi and Sussan Ghassabian",authors:[{id:"216099",title:"Dr.",name:"Sussan",middleName:null,surname:"Ghassabian",slug:"sussan-ghassabian",fullName:"Sussan Ghassabian"},{id:"216101",title:"Mr.",name:"Seyed Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Moosavi",slug:"seyed-mojtaba-moosavi",fullName:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi"}]},{id:"64643",title:"Derivatization Methods in GC and GC/MS",slug:"derivatization-methods-in-gc-and-gc-ms",totalDownloads:5997,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"The first part of this chapter presents the main objectives for performing derivatization of a sample to be analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) or gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The derivatization is typically done to change the analyte properties for a better separation and also for enhancing the method sensitivity. In GC/MS, derivatization may improve the capability of compound identification. Examples illustrating such improvements are included. The second part describes several types of derivatization that are more frequently used in analytical practice. These include alkylation (e.g., methylation), formation of aryl derivatives, silylation (e.g., formation of trimethylsilyl derivatives), acylation (e.g., reactions with acyl chlorides or with chloroformates), and several other types of derivatizations. The chapter also presents typical derivatizations for analytes with specific functional groups and discusses artifact formation in certain derivatization reactions.",book:{id:"6831",slug:"gas-chromatography-derivatization-sample-preparation-application",title:"Gas Chromatography",fullTitle:"Gas Chromatography - Derivatization, Sample Preparation, Application"},signatures:"Serban C. Moldoveanu and Victor David",authors:[{id:"91597",title:"Dr.",name:"Serban",middleName:null,surname:"Moldoveanu",slug:"serban-moldoveanu",fullName:"Serban Moldoveanu"},{id:"278733",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"David",slug:"victor-david",fullName:"Victor David"}]},{id:"40712",title:"Analytical Chemistry Today and Tomorrow",slug:"analytical-chemistry-today-and-tomorrow",totalDownloads:9066,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"2717",slug:"analytical-chemistry",title:"Analytical Chemistry",fullTitle:"Analytical Chemistry"},signatures:"Miguel Valcárcel",authors:[{id:"149298",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Valcarcel",slug:"valcarcel",fullName:"Valcarcel"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"81",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:36,paginationItems:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:32,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. 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