Comparison of surface energy values for Au, Pb, and Bi [8]
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83969-561-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-560-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-562-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"65f2a1fef9c804c29b18ef3ac4a35066",bookSignature:"Dr. Luis Loures",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10756.jpg",keywords:"Urban Processes, Urban Patterns, Redevelopment Strategies, Landscape, Land Transformation, Urban Models, Urban Evolution, Urban Organisation, Legislation, Sustainable Development, Green Infrastructure, Regional Planning",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 23rd 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 22nd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 21st 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 9th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 8th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Loures has worked on pioneering research on circular planning applied to post-industrial landscape redevelopment. Since he graduated he has published several peer-reviewed papers at the national and international levels and he has been a guest researcher and lecturer both at Michigan State University (USA) and at the University of Toronto (Canada) where he has developed part of his Ph.D. research with the Financial support from the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (Ph.D. grant).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/108118/images/system/108118.png",biography:"Luís Loures is a Landscape Architect and Agronomic Engineer, Vice-President of the Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre, who holds a Ph.D. in Planning and a Post-Doc in Agronomy. Since he graduated, he has published several peer reviewed papers at the national and international levels and he has been a guest researcher and lecturer both at Michigan State University (USA), and at University of Toronto (Canada) where he has developed part of his Ph.D. research with the Financial support from the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (Ph.D. grant).\nDuring his academic career he had taught in several courses in different Universities around the world, mainly regarding the fields of landscape architecture, urban and environmental planning and sustainability. Currently, he is a researcher both at VALORIZA - Research Centre for Endogenous Resource Valorization – Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre, and the CinTurs - Research Centre for Tourism, Sustainability and Well-being, University of Algarve where he is a researcher on several financed research projects focusing several different investigation domains such as urban planning, landscape reclamation and urban redevelopment, and the use of urban planning as a tool for achieving sustainable development.",institutionString:"Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"10",title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"205697",firstName:"Kristina",lastName:"Kardum Cvitan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205697/images/5186_n.jpg",email:"kristina.k@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7476",title:"Land Use",subtitle:"Assessing the Past, Envisioning the Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5b0c406adac8447ffeb089e29eac8ea9",slug:"land-use-assessing-the-past-envisioning-the-future",bookSignature:"Luís Carlos Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7476.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8295",title:"Landscape Reclamation",subtitle:"Rising From What's Left",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1fb7d9e280708a190a90c3b352c93d45",slug:"landscape-reclamation-rising-from-what-s-left",bookSignature:"Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8295.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5962",title:"Estuary",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"43058846a64b270e9167d478e966161a",slug:"estuary",bookSignature:"William Froneman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5962.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109336",title:"Prof.",name:"William",surname:"Froneman",slug:"william-froneman",fullName:"William Froneman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"48911",title:"Surface Energy and Wetting in Island Films",doi:"10.5772/60900",slug:"surface-energy-and-wetting-in-island-films",body:'Surface energy is one of the most important characteristics of condensed matter. While methods available for the liquid phase enable to determine reliably not only the value but also the temperature dependence of surface energy [1–3], for the solid phase the accuracy of existing methods, as a rule, does not allow to trace its temperature dependence [4, 5]. Therefore, the following approach is justified: what information can be obtained about surface energy of the condensed matters on studies of various properties and processes in small size samples [6–9]. This article considers mainly the investigations of temperature and size dependence of surface energy of condensed matter based on the analysis of surface phenomena and phase transitions in nano-sized systems.
Wetting of solid surfaces with a liquid as well as spreading of a liquid over solid surfaces as a manifestation of interaction between the solid and liquid phases is one of the universal phenomena and covers a wide variety of both fundamental and technological processes. Despite their crucial importance, these processes are still unclear [1, 2, 10]. Therefore, this paper focuses on effects of wetting in nanodispersed systems and considers various physical and chemical factors affecting it. Such statement of the problems seems actual since these details are important to describe a wide range of processes and phenomena, whereas the available data are disembodies and often ambiguous or even lacking.
In the framework of the Gibbs thermodynamics of heterophase systems, the size dependence of surface energy is due to the curvature of the phase interface. The Gibbs method applied to interfaces with a small curvature radius was first developed by Tolman [11], who derived the equation relating the surface energy σ of a spherical particle with its radius
where δ is the difference between the radii of equimolecular surface and surface of tension. Since the function δ = δ(
For particles with
In this approach the parameter α = 2δ∞ has a definite physical meaning as a width of the respective phase interface for any condensed phases. Character of the dependence σ(
Calculations of δ∞ for plane liquid–vapor interfaces made by statistical methods [12] has shown that the quantity δ∞ > 0 and has a value of approximately a few tenth of nanometer (e.g., according to [12] for argon at 90 K δ∞ = 0.36 nm). Further research with use of a computer simulation [13–17], electron theory of surface energy of metals [18, 19], the thermodynamic perturbation theory [20, 21] is consistent with the results in terms of the type of the dependence σ(
Qualitatively, the decrease in the surface energy of small particles can be explained as follows. For the condensed phase being in equilibrium with its own vapor, the interface surface energy at first approximation is proportional to the difference between the number of atoms (molecules) per unit volume of the condensed and vapor phases. With decreasing particle size of the condensed phase vapor pressure increases, and, consequently, its density increases, which causes decrease of the surface energy of the particle – saturated vapor interface approximately in inverse proportion to the particle radius.
In this way, theoretical studies suggest the existence of the size dependence of surface energy in the nanodispersed systems. According to estimates made using different methods, dependencies of σ on size for particles and films are manifested as a monotone decrease with decreasing size starting from a radius of less than 20 nm for particles and a thickness of < 5 nm for films.
Experimental determination of surface energy of solid bodies is a challenging task. Experimental methods available to scientists today offer the measurement of values of surface energy of liquid-phase matters with a reasonable degree of accuracy and in a broad temperature band, which is not the case for the crystalline phase. Known experimental methods for the determination of the surface energy for the crystalline phase are limited, and, as a rule, have a very narrow range of pre-melting temperatures and provide precision of not more than 10–20% [4]. This is largely due to the fact that surface energy is not a directly measurable value, but in most cases it is estimated as an adjustable parameter in various processes such as, for example, wetting, spreading, melting, crystallization, dissolution, analysis of high-temperature creep, electronic work function, etc. Among the best-known methods are the following: the crystal cleavage method, the dispersed powder dissolution method, the “neutral” droplet method, the multiphase equilibrium method, the growth and evaporation steps method, the “healing” scratch method, and, finally, the zero creep method [4]. Surface energy may also be evaluated by the measurement of electronic work function [18, 19]. However, the analysis of these methods shows that they are not applicable to the measurement of surface energies of small particles.
Surface energy of small particles can be determined by kinetics of evaporation in vacuum at a constant temperature [6]. The method is based on the concepts of the molecular-kinetic theory that supposes that the rate of evaporation from a unit of free surface in vacuum is defined by the expression
where
(va is atomic volume). The evaporation rate will be equal to
For an array of particles on the substrate it is more practicable to measure not the evaporation rate
where
According to (5) and (6), knowing the temperature, particle size reduction rate
Electron microscope investigation of the kinetics of particle evaporation was later used to register the melting temperature of small crystalline Au particles by breaks in dependencies
This method was used to determine the surface energy of small particles in Bi, Pb, and Au island films [8, 9]. The sample film was heated in the electron microscope by electron beam up to the onset temperatures of evaporation. The temperature and, hence, evaporation rate was controlled with beam density. The particles radius variation rate ∆
Where
Tabular data are available for the function
Figure 1а presents an example of a series of successive micrographs of Bi island films obtained in the process of their evaporation with the time interval of 15 s, and Figure 1b, c present the results of analysis of evaporation of Au island films. These data were used to find values of ∆
Values of surface energies σ for Au, Pb, and Bi found as a result of the preceding experiments are presented in Table 1, which also presents available literature data for σ at similar temperatures. Comparison of values of σ obtained by kinetics of evaporation of small particles with available data for bulk samples shows their satisfactory fit.
Electron micrographs of successive stages of evaporation of Bi island films on amorphous Si films (а); change of particle size in the process of evaporation (temperatures are given in the charts) (b), and relations of evaporation rate to reciprocal size of particles for gold island films on carbon substrates (c)
Ме | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tσ, mJ/m2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tσ, mJ/m2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Au | \n\t\t\t1245 | \n\t\t\t1410±20 | \n\t\t\t1240 | \n\t\t\t1410 [5] | \n\t\t
1260 | \n\t\t\t1430 | \n\t\t\t1176–1306 | \n\t\t\t1390±80 [5] | \n\t\t|
1310 | \n\t\t\t1320±100 | \n\t\t\t1297 | \n\t\t\t1137 [6] | \n\t\t|
1350 | \n\t\t\t1230±100 | \n\t\t\t1348 | \n\t\t\t1135 [6] | \n\t\t|
1510 | \n\t\t\t1160 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | |
Pb | \n\t\t\t670 | \n\t\t\t385 | \n\t\t\t557–589 | \n\t\t\t560 [5] | \n\t\t
720 | \n\t\t\t484 | \n\t\t\t735 | \n\t\t\t438 [7] | \n\t\t|
740 | \n\t\t\t452 | \n\t\t\t730 | \n\t\t\t439 [7] | \n\t\t|
750 | \n\t\t\t450 | \n\t\t\t748 | \n\t\t\t436 [7] | \n\t\t|
770 | \n\t\t\t447 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | |
Bi | \n\t\t\t650 | \n\t\t\t386 | \n\t\t\t509–518 | \n\t\t\t501 [5] | \n\t\t
Comparison of surface energy values for Au, Pb, and Bi [8]
Available experimental data, for example, [8, 9, 24, 25], offer contradictory conclusions regarding the sign of the size dependence of the surface energy of small particles.
The preceding paragraph demonstrates that the surface energy of small particles can be directly determined using the kinetics of their evaporation in vacuum. Table 1 presents the results of such experiments for nanoparticles over 20 nm in size. At the same time, the kinetics of evaporation of Pb and Au nanoparticles with the size below 20 nm both in liquid and crystalline state was investigated in works [6, 7]. The authors of these studies used these results to test the applicability of the Kelvin equation (3) and to estimate values of σ at temperatures at which the evaporation of particles is observed. However, the authors [6, 7] did not analyze the dependence of particle evaporation rates on particle size. Such analysis was offered by the authors in [8, 9], where they demonstrate that for particles with a size of less than 10 nm their surface energy decreases. Figure 2а presents an example of the plot of
Change of the radius of Pb particles in the process of evaporation (a) and the plot of their evaporation rate against size on the coordinate “ln│
It is evident that at sizes of particles less than 10 nm significant deviation of the preceding relationship from linear is observed, which in accordance to (5) is an evidence of decreasing σ. Values of σ calculated using expression (5) are presented in Figure 3 (Curve 5), which also shows calculation data of the relation σ(
The plot of surface energy against microparticles size: a – Au (1 – calculation using the Tolman equation at
Comparison of these dependencies produces qualitatively the same result, that is, the surface energy of small particles decreases with decrease of their size, but nanoparticles evaporation experiments suggest a stronger relationship σ(
It is common knowledge that melting temperature of small particles, thin metal, and alloy films is a function of size [6, 7, 22, 27–36]. When considered in terms of thermodynamics, there exist several models to describe the size dependence of melting temperature of small particles [27]; however, as the quantitative analysis of experimental data shows, the triple point model proves to be the most feasible. Within the framework of this model the problem of the melting temperature of the small particle was first solved by Pavlov [37], who obtained expression for the size dependence of melting temperature
where
where ∆Ω0 =
It follows from (9) that using the experimental relation
Considering the preceding, we calculated values of surface energies for a number of metals (In, Sn, Bi, Pb, Al, Au) in crystalline state over the temperature interval of (0.6–1)
Surface energy temperature dependence for different metals according to the TR(R) data [
It is evident that there is a common tendency observed for all of the preceding metals manifested in the fact that the values of σ
The nonlinear increment effect │∂σ
Information on values of surface energy and interfacial energy of contacting phases can be obtained when studying wetting in solid–liquid systems. Analysis of known methods for the determination of the wetting contact angles θ shows that the use of traditional methods [1, 40] for studying wetting in ultradispersed systems is quite limited. In view of these, new methods [41, 42] were developed that allowed to investigate wetting in ultradispersed systems with different types of contact interaction (i.e., applicable both at θ < 90°, and for θ > 90°), with typical phase size changing over a broad range.
Test samples were island films of various metals condensed in vacuum by vapor–liquid method on solid substrates, which, as a rule, were prepared using vacuum condensation as well [9, 42–44]. The substance substrate was deposited on the NaCl (or KCl) cleavages in a vacuum of 10-7–10-9 mm Hg. After that the investigated metal was condensed at a substrate temperature that ensured condensation of the metal into liquid phase. The obtained films were cooled in vacuum to room temperature and the crystallized particles were further analyzed using the methods of optical, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy. According to the estimates and data of experimental research [42–44] (Figure 5) contact angle measurement error due to changing droplet volume during its solidification on the substrate is not more than 2°. In this way one can discard the variation of the angle during crystallization of liquid droplets and relate the values of θ found for crystallized particles to values of the contact angles of liquid droplets at the temperature of their formation.
Electron microscope images of crystalline (a) and liquid (b) lead particles on a carbon substrate and a schematic representation of a liquid droplet on a solid substrate (c)
In the case when the gravity effect can be disregarded, the shape of small droplets is a segment of a sphere (estimations show that this is knowingly true for metals with particle size below 105 nm). To find the angle θ it is sufficient to measure any two of the three quantities that define droplets on the substrate: the radius of droplet surface curvature
The methods suggested in [41, 42] differ in approaches to measure geometric parameters of droplets. The most frequently used cleavage and convolution methods are based on measurement of the said parameters during direct observation of droplet profiles with an optical or electron microscope [41, 42]. In this case, the contact angle is determined from the relations
The developed complex of methods [41, 42] makes it possible to investigate the wetting of surfaces with small droplets, with the size of the latter ranging within 3–105 nm.
Wetting in the liquid–solid system is defined by the equilibrium contact angle θ, which is related to surface energies of contact phases with Young’s equation
where the indices
Consider, following [42, 43, 45], a small droplet of liquid on a flat solid surface. The total free energy of the system
where S is the interfacial area.
In accordance with existing concepts [11, 45] the surface energy σl is viewed as dependent on the average surface curvature C at a given point
For spherical surface (
When finding equilibrium conditions, one should take account of the size dependence of the interfacial energy of droplet – substrate boundary σul. It would be natural to consider this dependence as a relation not to the radius of the surface curvature
Expressions (12) and (13) apply at 1/
Due to the axiality of the problem, it can be solved using polar coordinates with their origin in the center of the circle of the wetted perimeter and the vertical axis
The equilibrium shape of the droplet is found by minimizing the functional (11), which, with regard to relations for droplet volume and areas of its boundary surfaces, is written as follows:
The summand (σ
Functional variation (14) in δ
The integration constant in (15) is equal to zero from the equal-zero condition of one of the non-integral summands δF at the point
which solution by separation of variables gives equilibrium shape of the droplet surface in the form of a sphere truncated by plane
The sphere radius satisfies the relation
which shows that the undetermined Lagrange multiplier p is nothing, but the Laplace pressure adjusted for the dependence σ(
The wetting angle θ can be found from the boundary condition or, since function
By setting the derivative
Equation (17), naturally, is different from Young’s equation (10) by presence of summands containing surface energy derivatives with respect to size.
By using expressions (12) and (13) for σ
Naturally, in the extreme case at σ → σ∞ (α/
The size effect in wetting of the flat surface of the solid substrate with small metal droplets was first found for vacuum-condensed island tin and indium on an amorphous carbon substrate [42–44]. A combination of optical and electron microscopy [41, 42] allowed to determine wetting contact angles over the range of particles of 1–104 nm. According to measurements using optical microscopy the contact angle in the Sn/C system for micron-sized droplets is constant and makes 151°±2°, which fact agrees with the known data for the tin-carbon system. For measurement of contact angle in islands of smaller size we applied the methods of convolution and photometric analysis of electron microscope pictures.
The results of measurement of θ for tin on carbon substrate are presented in Figure 6а, which demonstrates that for big particles (
The plots of the contact angle against the radius of particles of tin (a), bismuth (b), and led (c) on a carbon substrate (O – data using convolution method, ● – using photometric measurement of electron microscope pictures) [
The preceding research was followed later by the study of wetting in the systems of “island metal (Bi, Pb, Au) film–amorphous carbon film” and “Pb–amorphous silicon film” depending on the size of particles [9, 42–44]. For all investigated systems it was obtained that with particle sizes
Influence of sample preparation conditions on the contact angles of microparticles in the gold–carbon system was discussed in detail in [50]. It showed that the amount of pressure of residual gases during the preparation of gold island films has no effect on the values of surface energies corresponding to the bulk state, though it has a slight impact on their size dependence.
The results of the study of wetting obtained [9, 42–44] and presented in Figure 6 are of separate interest, in particular, for some practical applications (e.g., the formation of ordered nanostructures by film melting [51–53]), but at the same time allow to obtain new physical information regarding properties of microparticles. Thus, using the experimental relations θ(R) and σ
For analysis of results of the size effect of wetting in island films expression (18) was used, from which, using the relation θ(R) at known quantities of the parameter α and the value of the surface energy σu, the value of the interfacial energy of the microparticle–substrate boundary and its size dependence were found. The parameter α can be found from data on the kinetics of evaporation of small particles [8]. It may be evaluated using the relation α ≈ 0.916
Using these data authors of work [45] found values of σul and the parameter β, which are presented for the investigated metal-carbon systems in Table 2.
The parameters α and β are positive, which is an evidence of decreasing surface energy of microparticles and interfacial energy at the substrate boundary with a decrease of the radius. Values of α approximately correspond to the thickness of the surface layer at the liquid–vacuum boundary. The value β, which defines the width of the transition zone between the liquid particle and the substrate and depends on the nature of contacting phases, is 2–4 times as big as α.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Calculated | \n\t\t\tExperiment [8] | \n\t\t|||||
Au | \n\t\t\t1130 | \n\t\t\t0.24 | \n\t\t\t0.23 | \n\t\t\t955 | \n\t\t\t1.0 | \n\t\t\t138.4 | \n\t\t
Sn | \n\t\t\t531 | \n\t\t\t0.28 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t574 | \n\t\t\t0.53 | \n\t\t\t152.4 | \n\t\t
Pb | \n\t\t\t450 | \n\t\t\t0.29 | \n\t\t\t0.27 | \n\t\t\t463 | \n\t\t\t0.91 | \n\t\t\t140.9 | \n\t\t
Bi | \n\t\t\t376 | \n\t\t\t0.30 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t407 | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t141.0 | \n\t\t
In | \n\t\t\t559 | \n\t\t\t0.27 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t566 | \n\t\t\t0.55 | \n\t\t\t143 | \n\t\t
The observed reduction of the contact angle θ with decreasing radius of the droplet is accounted for by the size dependence σ
At the same time, as a result of the small size of droplets and increased diffusion coefficients in nanodispersed systems [57–59], the wetting perimeter under the action of surface tension forces may experience irreversible changes, which may be registered with electron microscopy as circular traces on the substrate left after evaporated droplets. In addition, the plot of the radius of evaporating droplet against time at constant temperature, as a rule, has periodic deviations of experimental points from the continuous curve. Works dedicated to direct measurement of the wetting contact angle also demonstrate fluctuations ∆θ ≈ 10–15°, while the precision of the convolution and photometry methods makes 3–5° [41, 42]. In both cases these deviations may be accounted for by wetting hysteresis. This phenomenon consists in fixation of the wetting perimeter, which under certain conditions, for example, during evaporation, significantly changes the behavior of the liquid droplet. Work [60] examines the reasons causing this effect in microdroplets, it analyses the effect of wetting hysteresis on parameters of the droplet–substrate system.
A number of works were concerned with wetting hysteresis, for example [46, 61], and the commonest causes of this effect are considered to be microroughness and inhomogeneity of the substrate. However, many assumptions underlying these works, for example, the roughness height of ~ 1 µm cannot be applied to microdroplets. In several systems fixation of the wetting perimeter is achieved by partial mutual dissolution of solid and liquid phases. Nevertheless, hysteresis may be as well observed for systems with minor mutual solubility, such as Au/C. Some authors noted that at high temperatures under the action of liquid surface tension forces, the substrate may be subject to inelastic deformation. In this case the triple contact area develops a prominent welt. Comparison of different mechanisms of mass transfer at small (~10-8 m) distances implies a conclusion about the defining role of surface diffusion. As follows from estimations made in work [60] characteristic time of deformation in the Au/C systems makes about 0.1 s. Since the time of condensation of films is about 102 s, in the process of droplet growth the welt has enough time to form even with quite frequent jumps of the wetting perimeter, that is, the droplet creates substrate roughness itself.
The values of the contact angles corresponding to perimeter breakdown with changing volume of the droplet were received [60] from the condition of the system’s minimum free energy taking into account elastic deformations of the substrate and their partial relaxation in the triple contact area trough surface diffusion. According to [60] the contribution of relaxed elastic deformation energy reaches significant values, for example, for the Au/C system the wetting hysteresis, that is, difference between advancing θ
In this way, with changes of the volume of the droplet, for example, during evaporation, its wetting perimeter will be fixed until the contact angle is reduced to the critical value θ
Considerable amount of Laplace pressure in very small (less than 10 nm) droplets results in elastic deformation being able to relax not only in the triple contact area, but also directly under the droplet. In this case, along with the welt along the wetted perimeter dimples may form under the droplet, which causes higher hysteresis value, with the difference θ0 – θ
Among the factors that define wetting in dispersed metal–metal systems, in addition to size effect of wetting, one can single out the following: discontinuity of intermediate film and resulting heterogeneity of the substrate, mutual solubility of components in each other, formation of chemical compounds at the solid and liquid phase interface, and oxidation of the metal film. Therefore, wetting processes in ultradispersed systems are defined by a number of parameters, which are quite inseparable.
A case study research of the influence of fineness of the solid phase on the contact angle is presented in work [62], which investigated wetting of thin films of different thickness deposited on bulk substrate. It showed that in the melt (Ag, Cu, Sn, Pb)–metal film (Mo, V, Fe)–nonmetal substrate (sapphire, quartz, graphite) system the contact angle is subject to linear variation within the range of values corresponding to wetting of clean substrate (at thickness of film
Wetting in triple systems Pb/Ni/[NaCl, Si, GaAs], Sn/[C, Al, Al2O3]/KCl, Bi/Fe/KCl as a function of metal film thickness (2 nm < t < 200 nm) was investigated in [9, 42–44, 63]. These systems substantially differ by interaction behaviors: Sn–C, Sn–Al2O3, Bi–Fe – complete insolubility in solid and liquid states; Sn–Al – solubility 0.5 wt. % Al in Sn; and Pb–Ni – up to 4 wt. % Ni in Pb. Test samples were prepared as follows. Variable thickness intermediate film (Al, Fe, Ni, C, Al2O3) was condensed on monocrystal substrates (KCl, NaCl, Si, GaAs) in a vacuum of 10-6–10-8 mm Hg. The studied metal (Sn, Bi, Pb) was condensed on this film by the vapor–liquid mechanism without deterioration in vacuum. The substrate temperature during condensation was 653 K for Pb, 523 K for Sn, and 560 K for Bi.
In all investigated systems degree of wetting strongly depends on intermediate film thickness, though the range of thicknesses, on which change of θ occurs is different. The common feature for the analyzed systems is that the contact angle is defined at a fist approximation by heterogeneity of the wetted surface and changes within extreme limits corresponding to wetting of clean substrate (
Main types of dependencies
Wetting angle against thickness of intermediary film for systems Sn/C/KCl (а); Bi/Fe/KCl (1), Sn/Al/KCl (2), Pb/Ni/NaCl (3) (b); and Pb/Ni/GaAs (c) [9, 42–44, 63]
It should be noted that plots presented in Figure 7 are simplest and influence other factors, for example, interaction with the residual atmosphere (Sn/Al/KCl [42]) may cause a more complex variation of the contact angle with changing thickness of the intermediary film.
When interpreting results of wetting in three-component systems liquid–thin film–bulk substrate, it is difficult to separate effects due to film thickness itself and the influence of bulk substrate. Therefore, it was considered expedient to investigate wetting of thin free films depending on their thickness [42–44]. The obtained results did not make it possible to find size dependence of surface energies of thin carbon films. However, these results are of interest in themselves because it is possible for highly dispersed systems, when liquid particles wet not the surface of bulk solid bodies, but that of free thin films. In this case, specific effects connected to deformation of film under the liquid droplet are observed.
A theory of half-space wetting was constructed in [55]. It suggests that the droplet deforms the region near the line of contact of three phases to form a welt. In case of thin films deformation may be significant that makes it possible to find it by experiment. Therefore, in the following text we give an outline theoretical analysis of wetting of thin free films on assumption of constant surface energies σ
According to [42–44, 54], the equilibrium characteristic of the system comprised of free elastically deformed film with the thickness
where
Schematic diagram of a liquid droplet on a thin elastic film
The function ψ is equal to the sum of contributions of elastic energies of pure bending ψ1 and longitudinal extension of the film ψ2, written, according to [66], with regard to axiality in the following form:
where ν is Poisson’s ratio,
The shape of the free surface of liquid is found by variation of the functional
Variation of
The boundary conditions for equations (21) and (22) follow from non-integral summands of the variation δ
The condition of equilibrium value of the contact angle θ may be determined by variation of functional (19) with δ
Another relation connecting ϕ and θ follows from equation (21) and boundary conditions at the point
As it is seen from (21) and (23), the contact angle depends on film deformation and is determined by the jump of the third derivative ζ(
Features of deformation for small and big film deflections, that is, with prevailing bending and tensile deformation, respectively, were evaluated in [54]. In the case when the maximum film deflection δ is less than its thickness, equations (21) and (22) become linear, and their solution yields the following expression
which relates Young’s module to parameters measurable by experiment. At greater film bends (δ >
In the case of a very thin film
As already noted, experimental research of wetting of free amorphous carbon films of different thickness with island vacuum condensates aimed at obtaining data on surface energy of films was made in [42–44]. The research used test metals (In, Sn, Pb), which are inert to carbon films and forming with carbon films contact angles of 140°–150°.
Test samples were prepared by evaporation and condensation of carbon and metal in a vacuum of 10–6 mm Hg on carbon films of different thickness located on copper grids with the mesh size of 60 µm. During the experiment the temperature was kept above the melting point for the relevant metal. Carbon film thickness varied on the range of 4–30 nm, and the size of liquid metal particles was 30–500 nm and was limited, on the one hand, by the need to exclude size effect due to dispersity of the liquid phase, and by strength of carbon films on the other.
Electron microscope examination of profiles of crystallized metal droplets (Figure 10) revealed substantial difference in the shape of the interphase boundary droplet–substrate for microparticles condensed on free films and films on a solid surface. The difference is that when the film is thin enough it gets deformed by the droplet (Figure 10), while in particles condensed on a solid surface, liquid–substrate interface remained flat.
For the analyzed systems it was determined that at
The obtained results were interpreted in [42–44] within the framework of wetting of elastically deformable carbon films [54], whose basic concepts were given earlier. As follows from relations (24) and (25), at
Micrographs of tin droplets on free carbon films with the thickness of 20 (a) и 10 (b) nm
Experimental relations δ(
Dependence of the angle of wetting of free carbon films with tin (a), lead (b), and indium (c) on their thickness [
It follows from the same charts that
The relation
The results of theoretical consideration for very thin films were used to evaluate the surface energy of carbon films. As follows from (26) and (10), in the case when deformation energy in comparison with surface ones may be neglected, the quantity σ
The range of free films thickness on which this relation is satisfied is not attainable experimentally (
Variation of θ with thickness of free films as a result of theoretically predicted size dependence of their surface energy is about an order of magnitude smaller than the change in the contact angle due to deformation. Hence, the studies did not allow to trace the dependence of σ(
It is known that above the melting temperature the surface energy σl decreases linearly with increase of temperature. However, existing knowledge and experimental data on temperature dependence of surface energy of supercooled liquids are ambiguous [67]. According to [67] at significant supercooling values, one may expect inversion of the temperature dependence σ
The temperature dependence of the surface energy of metals (Ga, In, Sn, Bi, Pb) [68] has been studied only in the rage of small supercoolings down to 0.1
Measurement of surface energy of supercooled melts is hard to make because considerable supercoolings are normally obtained in microvolumes, and traditional methods to determine σl require large amount of melt [1, 40]. However, temperature dependence of surface energy on at
Contact pairs being island films of tin, indium, bismuth, and copper on amorphous carbon substrates and indium on aluminum substrate were investigated in [42, 43, 72]. The test samples were prepared by condensation in a vacuum of 5⋅10–6–2⋅10–8 mm Hg on the circular substrate with temperature gradient (200–900 K) set along it. As a result, condensation to equilibrium or supercooled phase with the formation of microdroplets occurred according to the condensation diagram [73–76]. The obtained samples were cooled to room temperature and then wetting contact angles on crystallized droplets condensed at different substrate temperatures were measured. Due to wetting hysteresis, which occurs even on an absolutely smooth and uniform surface because of deformation of the substrate in the region of triple contact [60], the droplet base radius remains constant during cooling. The contract angles were measured on electron microscope pictures of droplet profiles (Figure 13) and averaged for 10–20 droplets. As long as condensation takes place on a substrate with temperature gradient, the relation θ(
Micrographs of tin particles condensed in a vacuum of 5⋅10-6 mm Hg at temperatures 400 K (a), 570 K (b), and 730 K (c) [
The results of measurement of wetting angles in the Sn/C and In/C systems [72] are presented in Figure 14a, b. The obtained dependencies are characterized by the maximum at temperatures 550 and 500 K for tin and indium, respectively. Below
Temperature dependencies of wetting for island condensates of metals on different substrates. On the left – Sn/C (a) (base substrate: O – NaCl; ● – Al2O3; vacuum 5 10-6 mm Hg) and In/C (b), on the right – Bi/C (c), and In/Al (d) [
In the Bi/C system temperature dependence of wetting, similarly to the In/C and Sn/C systems considered earlier, is nonmonotonic and is characterized by considerable decrease of the contact angle when approaching the temperature of maximum supercooling (Figure 14c). However, the maximum value of θ for bismuth is achieved at
Nonmonotonic dependence of the contact angle on temperature is also a feature of In/Al system (Figure 14d). This is similar to the relation θ(
For the Cu/C system wetting temperature dependence does not have any peculiarities: on the interval 1200 <
Observed changes of the contact angle in the supercooled region, as noted in [42, 43, 72], is probably stipulated by abnormal behavior of either liquid metal surface energy or interface energy of the metal–carbon boundary. If σ
The plots of liquid phase surface energy [
Among the reasons causing such a significant decrease in interfacial energy works [42, 43, 72] cite adsorption of gaseous impurities, which value increases with decrease of temperature or inversion of the surface energy of metal in supercooled state. However, considering the fact that for a number of analyzed metals (In, Sn, Bi) inversion of wetting temperature dependence occurs within approximately the same temperature range, while in the Cu/C system at high temperature it was not found at all, one should probably consider the adsorption of impurities from residual gases that grows at such temperatures crucial and causing decrease of interfacial energy on the carbon substrate boundary with increased supercooling, and hence, better wetting observed experimentally. The increase of temperature of the substrate above 500–600 K increases σ
The experimental relations θ(
The samples were prepared using the technique described earlier [72] at the pressure of residual gases of 10–7–10–9 mm Hg. A mass spectrometer was employed to control residual atmosphere, and its content was changed by leaking gas into the unit pumped to a pressure of 10–9 mm Hg. The wetting contact angles were measured on micrographs of particle profiles on rolled-up (Figure 16) or inclined (Figure 17) spots of carbon film (convolution and angular observation methods [41, 42]); the quantity θ for a fixed temperature was found by averaging the contact angle values for 10–20 microparticles.
Micrographs of crystallized tin droplets condensed in a vacuum of 2⋅10–8 mm Hg on carbon substrates at temperatures 350 K (a), 410 K (b), and 500 K (c) [
The results of measurement of θ(
At substrate temperatures
It is worth noting that for a supercooled state of tin decrease of temperature in all cases leads to a decrease of the contact angles. At the pressure of residual gases of 10–8 mm Hg improvement of wetting gets quite significant and makes ∆θ ≈ 50°. Variation of wetting with temperature is well illustrated by micrographs of particle profiles (Figure 16) and inclined spots of film near the temperature of maximum supercooling (Figure 17). In this case, as could be seen from the chart (Figure 18, Curve 3) and micrographs (Figs. 16, 17), transition from nonwetting (θ > 90°, i.e., σ
Micrographs of tin island film condensed in a vacuum of 2⋅10–8 mm Hg on a carbon substrate at the temperature of 315 K (θ = 82°)
Temperature dependence of the contact angle of wetting of carbon substrates with tin islands prepared under different pressure of residual gases: 1 – 5⋅10–6 mm Hg [
The analysis of the outlined results allows us to assume that the supercooled state of the metal itself is not the main cause of sharp improvement of wetting with decrease of temperature for fusible metals. This is also suggested by the fact that inversion of wetting temperature dependence is observed both above (Sn/C, In/C, In/Al) and below (Bi/C) of melting point, while for the Cu/C system there is no inversion at all. However, this conclusion may not be considered final since for the Cu/C system the relation θ(
As it has been shown earlier using the contact systems (Sn/C, In/C, Bi/C, Pb/C, Au/C, Pb/Si) as a case study, wetting of amorphous neutral substrates with liquid metals is improving with decrease of the size of microdroplets [9, 42–44]. This effect is a result of decrease in surface energy of metal droplets σ
Such investigations for island tin films on amorphous carbon substrate were made in [72, 78]. The results of measurement of contact angles in the Sn/C system at temperatures 400 K and 315 K are presented in Figure 19, which shows that for supercooled droplets as well as for equilibrium ones (see Figure 6a) the contact angle decreases with decrease of droplets size. However, numerical values of the contact angles for droplets of equal size turn out to be different, and the relation θ(
The plot of wetting angle against the radius of supercooled (1 – Т = 315 K, 2 – T = 400 K [
Comparison with known results regarding the size effect of wetting at
The experimental data and their analysis outlined herein show that the application of island vacuum condensates to study surface energy and wetting allowed to obtain a number of general results of crucial importance for physics and chemistry of surface phenomena.
Quantitative data of surface energies of solid Au, Pb, and Bi nanoparticles and parameters that define size dependence of surface energy of small particles have been obtained from the investigations of evaporation processes in condensed films.
Options for measuring surface energy in the solid phase and its temperature dependence are discussed and are based on the data regarding the decrease of melting temperature of small metal particles. Temperature dependencies of surface energy for In, Sn, Bi, Pb, Al, Au, and Pt have been calculated on the basis of the preceding consideration. The significant reduction of surface energy for all metals studied when approaching melting temperature has been shown.
The detailed investigation and theoretical description of the size effect of wetting, which consists in the decrease of the wetting angle with the decrease of particles size, have been provided. Size dependencies of wetting angle in In/C, Sn/C, Bi/C, Pb/C, Pb/Si, and Au/C have been obtained for equilibrium and supercooled (Sn/C) liquid microdroplets. On the basis of these studies, size dependencies of interfacial energy of In/C, Sn/C, Bi/C, Pb/C, Au/C couples were obtained.
Experimental data and theoretical description of the effect of thickness of free carbon film on wetting angle have been obtained for In/C, Sn/C, and Pb/C couples. These studies enabled to determine the surface energy of thin carbon films, which makes σu = 120±30 mJ/m2.
Temperature dependencies of contact angle in In/C, Sn/C, Bi/C, In/Al, and Cu/C couples have been obtained for equilibrium and supercooled liquid microdroplets.
The study of the thermal regime of various water areas is one of the most important oceanological problems, since the spatio-temporal variability of water temperature reflects complex processes of formation, transformation and dynamics of water masses. In addition, temperature is one of the key parameters that determine the conditions for the existence and development of most species of aquatic organisms; therefore, the study of this problem is also of key importance for hydrobiology. The zoning of water areas by the nature of temperature conditions, as well as their forecasting, taking into account the peculiarities of seasonal and interannual variability, is an important scientific task, which also has a pronounced applied aspect associated with the fact that accumulations of some species of commercial fish are confined to the zones of separation of water masses with different characteristics.
Direct measurements are a traditional source of water temperature data. Their accuracy depends only on the accuracy of the device, and the discreteness depends on the specific task (in some cases it can reach a fraction of a second). They can also be used to construct vertical profiles with high vertical resolution. However, recently the number of expeditions has been steadily declining, and the data obtained through direct measurements are point and irregular and are not suitable for studying large-scale phenomena or for obtaining data from hard-to-reach places.
Satellite data, on the other hand, are regular and allow covering the entire water area of the studied basin. Therefore, they are very good sources for studying seasonal and interannual variations in the temperature of the surface layer (the thickness of which ranges from 1 to 10 meters). The disadvantage of these data is the strong dependence of accuracy on cloudiness (especially in the infrared and visible ranges). Ideally, they should be regularly compared with direct measurements in order to identify errors in data interpretation.
For scientific purposes, data are usually used from satellites located either in a geosynchronous (in a particular case, geostationary orbit) or in a heliosynchronous orbit. The advantage of the geostationary orbit is obvious: you can get a picture of the same area with discreteness of up to half an hour, and after pointing to the satellite, a constant correction of the antenna position is not required. It is very useful for telecommunication systems as well as for obtaining meteorological data. The disadvantage is the lack of coverage at polar latitudes.
This disadvantage is easily eliminated by satellites in a polar sun-synchronous orbit. A sun-synchronous orbit is important to science because it keeps the angle of incidence of sunlight on the Earth’s surface more or less constant, although the angle will change with the change of seasons. Without a sun-synchronous orbit, you would have to account for changes in shadow and lighting angles, making it difficult to track changes over time. It would simply be impossible to collect the information needed to study climate change.
In 1997, a TeraScan satellite receiving station was installed at SakhNIRO, with the help of which data are received from the NOAA, Metop, Aqua and Terra satellites in a polar sun-synchronous orbit (Figure 1 [1]). At the moment, a 21-year series of satellite data on the temperature of the surface of the Sea of Okhotsk and adjacent waters has been accumulated, which makes it possible to analyze the interannual variations of this parameter.
Example of a sun-synchronous orbit for a NOAA satellite [
This chapter is organized as follows:
Section 2 discusses satellite data
Section 3 discusses Sea Surface Temperature (SST) anomalies
Section 4 analyzes long-term data series using linear regression
Section 5 presents results on periodic SST fluctuations
Section 6 concludes the chapter.
What is satellite data? An electromagnetic (EM) signal with certain characteristics leaves the sea and contains information about the primary observable quantities, which are light, radiation temperature, roughness and sea level. This signal travels through the atmosphere, where it can be distorted, and where noise is added to the signal before it is received by a sensor that registers certain properties of the radiation and converts each measurement into a digital signal to be encoded and sent back to earth. The sensor geometry limits each individual observation to a specific instantaneous field of view.
In order to convert a digital signal received at a ground station into a useful one for scientific measurements with a certain accuracy and quality, the process of obtaining data by the sensor should be numerically transformed using knowledge about signal processing technology, physical and technical properties of the sensor, the physics of the atmosphere, and the interaction of EM radiation with the ocean and near-surface processes in the ocean. The process of extracting data from a unique observation location in space is at the heart of the satellite data feature.
Table 1 summarizes 5 levels of satellite data processing.
Level | Product description |
---|---|
0 | Raw satellite data in binary format. |
1 | Image in measurement coordinates. Satellite data of individual calibrated channels. |
1,5 (or 1А) | In special cases, a Level 1 product with atmospheric correction applied. |
2 | Atmospheric corrected and calibrated product containing upstream values or directly variable ocean response with reference to geographic coordinates, but most often not mapped. |
3 | Composite images of the obtained ocean variables transferred to a standard map, obtained by averaging over space and time of several flights in the form of a level 2 product. This product contains data from only one sensor and may have gaps. |
4 | An image representing the ocean variable averaged within each cell of the spatio-temporal grid, for the creation of which the gaps in the level 3 product data are filled with data analysis methods, incl. Interpolation. In the course of the analysis, it is possible to use several level 2 or 3 products from different sensors, and it is also possible to use data from field observations or model calculations. |
A summary of various satellite data processing levels.
Using the TeraScan software, raw data received from satellites is automatically calibrated and atmospheric correction, as well as georeferencing of data and projection onto a standard map (selection of parameters, projections, etc., is performed once by the operator, after which it is performed in automatic mode). Then data with different spatial resolution (the maximum resolution for a set of satellites is 2 km, images with a spatial resolution of 250 m can be obtained on separate channels) are entered into the database, where the operator manually corrects each image (eliminates gross errors that most often appear in the case of the presence of semi-transparent clouds). After that, daily data averaging is performed. As the data accumulate, ten-day and monthly averaging is also performed (as shown in Figure 2 [2]), as well as the calculation of anomalies (deviations from the long-term average value in a specified decade or month, obtained over a number of previous years).
An example of a ten-day average image with a spatial resolution of 0.25 × 0.25 degrees (left) and 2 × 2 km (right) [
The resulting data set should be carefully analyzed. Determination of the characteristics of unidirectional trends, as well as the amplitudes and phases of cyclic components and the possibility of using them to predict thermal conditions in the next season constituting the content of this study.
There are two types of SST anomalies as for any parameter distributed in space and time. The first is the sharp deviation of the specified parameter from the mean values in the neighboring areas. Anomalies of this kind can be regular and even present on average long-term maps (Figure 3 [3]). Typical examples from the point of view of SST are upwelling zones (quasi-stationary), mouths of large rivers, as well as zones of influence of warm and cold currents. Some anomalies of this nature may be unstable and dependent on weather conditions. Such anomalies determine the behavior of aquatic organisms, since each species has its own conditions of existence and development (some species need colder water, and some are more comfortable in warmer water).
An example of the long-term average distribution of SST, the actual temperature in the second decade of July 2018 and the 2018 anomaly relative to the multi-year average (these conditions led to a two-week delay in the approach of pink salmon to spawning rivers) [
The second type of SST anomaly is a deviation from the multiyear average. This type of anomaly depends entirely on the current conditions and reflects the peculiarities of the distribution of the parameter in a given year. From the point of view of SST, this may mean more or less intense heating or cooling than usual. The appearance of such anomalies can lead to a change in the timing of the fish’s approach to spawning (Figure 3 [3]) or to migration to places with more favorable conditions, and in the early stages of development it can lead to death from unfavorable conditions.
Let us consider in more detail the extraordinary conditions that took place in the spring of 2011, when the greatest delay in the release of juveniles from the Sakhalin SFHs was noted. The spatial distributions of sea surface temperature anomalies observed during the period under consideration, which is strongly characterized by unusual conditions (Figure 4 [4]), are quite remarkable.
Distribution of surface temperature anomalies (°С) in the third decade of may (A) and in the second decade of June (B) 2011. Ice conditions off the east coast of Sakhalin Island (right) on June 2, 2011 (snapshot of the aqua satellite). The strait of Tatary is closed by heavy clouds [
In the third decade of May (Figure 4A), significant negative deviations from the norm were noted along the entire eastern coast of Sakhalin Island and in the Aniva Gulf; they were the largest (up to 3°C) in the basin of the Mordvinova Gulf. Judging by the zone of negative anomalies stretching from the Terpeniya Peninsula along the line of the depth increase, which corresponds to the core of the East Sakhalin Current [5], they were caused by the outflow of cold water and ice-cover remains from the northeastern shelf. This opinion is confirmed by a satellite image on June 2, 2011 (Figure 3 [3]), which clearly shows the transport of drifting ice from the north to the Terpeniya Peninsula and further towards the Mordvinova Gulf. Such a situation is observed relatively rarely: usually, under the influence of the southern winds characteristic of this period of the year, the ice that is transported from the Sakhalin Gulf is blocked at the northeastern tip of the island and does not move south of 52° N. A similar ice removal was observed in spring 2005 [6]. Then, due to the unusual distribution of the surface atmospheric pressure, the northeastern winds prevailed in the study region, which just contribute to the transport of drifting ice to the southeastern coast of Sakhalin Island, as well as to the estuarine regions of the Naiba and Ai rivers and to the Mordvinova Gulf.
In spring 2011, the distribution of surface atmospheric pressure also significantly differed from the characteristic one in the given period of the year. For example, in the third decade of May, the high-pressure region was located in the southern part of the Sea of Okhotsk, above the Kuril Basin (Figure 5A [7]). Usually this area is located in the eastern part of the sea, and air flows directed to the north are formed above this basin. When the pressure distribution has this structure, the atmospheric circulation typical for the summer monsoon is not formed; in principle, it was weakly expressed, since the pressure gradients were small and cold waters with low salinity moved freely to the south, transporting drifting ice.
Distribution of surface pressure (hPa) over the Sea of Okhotsk in the third decade of may (A) and the second decade of June (B) 2011 [
Subsequently, the high-pressure region shifted from the sea to the Pacific Ocean. In particular, in the second decade of June, zonal, northeast-oriented air flows prevailed, which is not typical for the warm season (Figure 5B [7]).
However, it is unlikely that only the peculiarities of the synoptic conditions can explain the significant negative temperature anomalies of the sea surface in the northern part of the Sea of Japan, primarily in the main zone of the Tsushima Current influence, off the west coast of Hokkaido Island (up to 5–6°C). Another zone with approximately the same negative anomalies was noted in the zone of the influence of the Amur River runoff in the region of its mouth, in the western part of the Amur Estuary, and in a significant part of the Sakhalin Gulf, as well as on the northeastern shelf of Sakhalin Island (up to about 52° N). Pronounced negative anomalies were observed both on the southwestern and southeastern coasts of Sakhalin Island, as well as in the Aniva Gulf. It is difficult to explain the cause of such a heat deficit in the surface waters of a very wide basin: one of them could be a decrease in the intensity of the Tsushima Current, whose quasi-periodic fluctuations (a cycle with a period of 5–6 years is especially distinguished) have a significant influence on the climate of the Sakhalin-Kuril region [8]. It is also difficult to assess how often such situations can be observed which have led to a delay in the release of juveniles from Sakhalin SFHs lasting from 3 weeks to a month. Probably, due to the low temperature of coastal waters observed for a long time, there could be a mass death of juveniles of natural origin which rolled along the spawning rivers of the island.
When analyzing long-term data series, a question arises – are there unidirectional tendencies of one or another parameter in the specified period of time? This is especially important in the context of global warming, the most noticeable results of which are an increase in winter air temperature in the Arctic latitudes and a decrease in ice cover (area of the water area covered with ice) both in the Arctic Ocean and in the Sea of Okhotsk.
In order to answer this question, in each spatial cell of the 1000 × 1022 matrix, covering the investigated water area (42–60°N and 135–163°E), the linear trend coefficients were calculated using the least squares method, meaning the temperature increase over the year … The calculation was carried out on a 20-year series of data for each month separately, for annual averages, as well as for average temperatures for the season. The seasons for the calculations are shifted by a month relative to the calendar ones due to the specifics of the region: January–March (winter), April–June (spring), July–September (summer) and October–December (autumn).
The linear trend coefficients calculated from the full annual series in the study region are mostly negative, and there are no regions with positive values in the Sea of Okhotsk (Figure 6 [9]). Significant cooling of the surface layer (about 1.5°C over 10 years) was observed in the northern and western parts of the sea; most clearly this process is manifested in the northern part of the sea at some distance from the coast. A less pronounced decrease (at a rate of about 0.5°C over 10 years) is observed in the Kuril Islands and in the band along the western coast of Kamchatka beyond the shelf zone, as well as in the influence zone of the Amur River outflow (Amur Estuary, Sakhalin Bay, northern shelf of Sakhalin Island).
Distribution of linear trend coefficients by number of average annual (above) and average seasonal values. The scale corresponds to degrees celsius over 10 years [
A significant decrease (more than 0.5°C over 10 years) was found in the northern part of the Strait of Tatary; further southward, the cooling rate of surface waters decreases and, south of 45° S, a slight increase in the temperature of the surface waters in the Sea of Japan was recorded. The warming process is more pronounced in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean, i.e., in the southeastern part of the study region.
Let us now consider the results of calculating the parameters of the linear trend in different seasons. In winter, there is not enough data for a reliable calculation in the northwestern part of the sea (the “Sea of Okhotsk fridge”), on the northern shelf of the sea, and on the northeastern shelf of Sakhalin. In many regions of the basin, where the ice cover is significantly influenced, the calculation is not reliable enough; nevertheless, some ideas of the trends in the thermal regime during the cold period can be put forward.
In the entire Sea of Okhotsk, especially in the northern and western parts of the sea, as well as in the Strait of Tatary of the Sea of Japan and in the regions of the Pacific Ocean adjacent to the Kuril Islands, there is a tendency for the temperature decrease in the surface layer. Signs of the opposite trend are recorded only in the southeastern part of the study region, in the Pacific Ocean, in the northern part of the Sea of Japan, and in the very southern part of the Strait of Tatary (south of 47° N).
The most pronounced decrease in the surface layer temperature is in the springtime. It covers the entire study region, including the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean, and it is particularly significant in the northern and western parts of the Sea of Okhotsk (the rates of temperature decrease range from 1.0 to 1.5°C over 10 years and even higher in some regions).
The cooling of the surface layer in spring is the most evident consequence of a decrease in ice cover, since in the absence of the ice cover the cooling processes cover a layer of water thicker than in the presence of the ice cover. Undoubtedly, this has a significant impact on the climate of the region and, above all, on the weather conditions of Sakhalin, which are the most affected by this process.
While calculating the trends in sea surface temperature in individual months, it was found that the most intense cooling is observed in the month of May, especially in the northwestern part of the Sea of Okhotsk and along the entire eastern coast of Sakhalin Island from Cape Elizabeth in the north to Cape Aniva in the south. Exceptions are the western part of the Amur Estuary, which accounts for the bulk of the Amur flood, and the basin adjacent to Tauiskaya Bay. It is obvious that the hydrological regime of coastal areas experiencing the influence of the river outflow differs from that typical for the Sea of Okhotsk as a whole.
In summertime, the region is dominated by an increase in the sea surface temperature most pronounced in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean. In the Sea of Okhotsk, it is noted in its northwestern part, in the region of the Shantar Islands, in Sakhalin Bay, and in the Amur Estuary, to the east of the northern tip of Sakhalin Island, at the northwestern coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula, and near the Urup and Simushir islands.
In the northern part of the sea, near the Kuril Islands, on the southeastern coast of Sakhalin Island and along the Primorye coast in the Sea of Japan, there is a trend towards a decrease in temperature, although it is more moderate than in springtime. Moreover, in July, the tendency towards a decrease in the sea surface temperature still prevails in the study region; the trend changes only in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean. In August, in these regions, warming reaches the highest rates (about 1.5°C over 10 years); the temperature increase was noted in the central part of the Sea of Okhotsk, along the western coast of Kamchatka and off the southeastern coast of Sakhalin, in the Strait of Tatary and the Amur Estuary. In the northern part of the sea, on the northeastern shelf of Sakhalin, and in the Kuril region, the trend towards a decrease in sea water temperature continues.
In September, on the contrary, the intensity of warming in the Pacific Ocean decreases; the greatest warming rate was noted in the northern and northwestern parts of the sea (especially in the shelf zone between Ayan and Okhotsk settlements).
A diffuse pattern is observed in the fall. Relatively small negative trends prevail in the greater part of the Sea of Okhotsk; positive trends (also insignificant) are noted in the eastern part of the sea on the western shelf of Kamchatka and in a relatively narrow band along the northern coast. Smaller areas were also found in the Shantar Islands and Kashevarov Banks and in the southwestern part of the analyzed basin of the Sea of Japan.
The highest rates of the temperature decrease in the surface layer are observed in the Strait of Tatary, in its northern part, and along the western coast of Sakhalin, as well as in the Sea of Okhotsk, in the northern part of it, beyond the shelf, off the southeastern coast of Sakhalin, and also in the band between 145° and 150° E from the Urup and Iturup islands to the Kashevarov Banks.
It was found in the calculations for individual months that a positive trend prevailed in October, and the trend reversed in November and December.
In the work [10], it was found that, in the Sea of Okhotsk and in the region of the Kuril Islands, negative trends were also noted in the spring months; the largest positive trends were recorded in October. Similarity results become very interesting if we take into account the differences in the studied time periods and spatial characteristics of the regions in which the trends were calculated. In the Sea of Japan, no negative trends were identified in this work.
As a result of the analysis of data on the surface temperature of the Sea of Okhotsk over a 20-year period (1998–2017), it was found that the global climate change in this basin caused a decrease in the ice cover and a decrease in the temperature of the upper water layer during the winter–spring period. The negative trends in temperature in the spring in the northern and western parts of the study region, as well as in the Strait of Tatary of the Sea of Japan (from 0.5° to 1.5°C over 10 years), are especially large. This effect in the reduction of the ice cover, both in time and in space, is the most evident and can be explained by an increase in the depth of winter convection. The predominance of a decrease in sea surface temperature, although less pronounced, was also noted in winter and autumn, and generally throughout the year.
In summer, the region is dominated by an increase in sea surface temperature, most pronounced in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean. In the Sea of Okhotsk, it was noted in its northwestern part, east of the northern tip of Sakhalin Island, off the northwestern coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula, as well as in some other regions. Moreover, in July, the main role belongs to the processes of cooling of the surface layer; the change in the trend occurs in August and continues in September–October.
These processes play a significant role in the climate variations in the Sea of Okhotsk; in particular, a decrease in the temperature of sea water is noted in the coastal waters of Sakhalin Island. In addition to the weather conditions, the results are important for studying the habitat conditions of commercial fish species and invertebrates in the basin, which is of great fishery importance.
If you look closely at the graph of the course of the mean monthly SST (Figure 7 [11]), then in addition to seasonal fluctuations, you can notice interannual variations. They are especially pronounced in August, when the mean monthly water temperature reaches its maximum value, and are expressed in the modulation of the annual harmonic. Moreover, these oscillations are of a quasiperiodic nature, most likely associated with certain phenomena in the atmosphere and hydrosphere.
Annual variation of average monthly temperature (left) and average temperature in august (right) [
Any periodic oscillations can be described by knowing their amplitude, phase and period. Using the least squares method, you can find the corresponding amplitude and phase for each selected period. Thus, it is possible to establish a kind of “influence zones” of harmonics with a certain period, i.e. areas in which the amplitude of one or another harmonic exceeds a certain threshold value. And in order not to interfere in the calculations with long-term components (the period of which exceeds half the length of the series), the trend obtained according to the method described in the previous section was subtracted from the initial data.
The distribution of the amplitudes of temperature fluctuations in the studied region is rather complex. Having determined in each spatial cell the period corresponding to the largest amplitude and displaying the obtained data on the screen, we have established several main periods that play a significant role in interannual SST variations in most cases. For a series of 21 years, it is not entirely correct to calculate fluctuations with a period exceeding 11 years. Short-period fluctuations are unstable and generally have little information. Thus, the spatial distributions of harmonic amplitudes with a period from 3 to 11 years were considered in detail.
In most of the studied water area, the main role was played by variations with a period of about 5.5–6 years (on the graphs for points 2, 5 and 8 in Figure 8, you can see that the largest amplitude at these points corresponds to a period of 66–68 months), the spatial distribution of the amplitude with a period of 6 years is shown in Figure 9 [12]. The zone of its influence is the most extensive and occupies the southern half of the Sea of Okhotsk and the northern part of the Sea of Japan, up to the Amur estuary. The amplitude of this harmonic in the zone of its influence ranges from 1 to 2°C. In the vicinity of the Kuril Islands, off the western coast of about. Hokkaido, off the northeastern coast of about. Sakhalin, the amplitude is slightly lower (from 0.5 to 1°C). Further to the north, starting from 52 N, its influence decreases and practically disappears.
Examples of graphs of the dependence of the amplitude of the harmonic (in °C) from its period (in months). The location of the points is shown in
Distribution of amplitudes (in °C) of interannual fluctuations in the mean monthly sea surface temperature (august) with a certain period (indicated in years in the upper left corner of the image) [
In [8], based on the EOF decomposition of the sea surface temperature in the North Pacific Ocean, it was shown that an oscillation with a similar period is characteristic of the entire region influenced by the Kuroshio Current and its branch, the warm Tsushima Current. This is evidenced by the large amplitudes in the zone of the indicated currents and in Figure 9. Consequently, as a result of this study, it was possible to estimate the boundaries of the influence of this component in the Sea of Okhotsk, which runs parallel to the islands of the Kuril ridge and divides this basin into two practically equal parts. The entire northern Sea of Japan is significantly affected by this cycle.
As seen from Figure 8, at most points, one can also note peaks in the range of periods from two to three years. The highest values of the amplitude of the 3-year harmonic can be noted in the northwestern part of the Sea of Okhotsk, at a distance from the coast, as well as near the northwestern coast of Kamchatka and in the strip from 47 to 490 N. and from 147 to 1490 E. in the area of the Kuril deep-water basin and in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean. However, the amplitudes of these oscillations are somewhat lower than those of the six-year harmonic (from 1 to 1.5°C). At a distance from these regions, the amplitude gradually decreases to zero.
The spatial distribution of the amplitudes of the cyclic component with a period of 5 years differs markedly from that considered above for a period of 6 years. The zone of its influence is noticeably narrower, it is concentrated mainly on the northern shelf of Hokkaido, in the region of the South Kuril Islands (vast waters both on the Sea of Okhotsk and on the ocean sides), and, surprisingly, on the northeastern shelf of Sakhalin, where the influence of a lower frequency component was not noted. In the Tatar Strait, its role is also noticeable, but expressed to a lesser extent than the 6-year harmonic.
In the western part of the Sea of Okhotsk and the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean, a cyclical component with a period of about 8 years is significantly manifested. The zone of influence of the Amur river runoff in summer is clearly distinguished in the spatial distribution - the Amur estuary, the southern and eastern parts of the Sakhalin Bay, the area between the Schmidt Peninsula and the Kashevarov Bank [13]. It is interesting that in the area of the Kuroshio Current manifestation, this component has large amplitudes, in the Tsushima Current zone in the Sea of Japan - insignificant, while on the northern shelf of Hokkaido and on the Sea of Okhotsk side of the Southern Kuril Islands, where the warming effect of the Soya Current affects, the amplitudes are significantly.
The lowest frequency of the considered harmonics with a period of 11 years is manifested in the northern part of the Sea of Okhotsk; in other parts of the study area, its role is insignificant. It is rather difficult to put forward a reasonable hypothesis that could explain such significant differences in the very long-term variations in SST in different parts of the same basin. It can only be assumed that due to the comparative shallowness of the northern region, the effect of the winds of the southern rumba and the greater number of sunny days than in the southern part, due to the lesser influence of cloudiness, the influence of the solar cycle is more noticeable here.
Attention is drawn to the fact how the zones of manifestation of harmonics shift with a period of 5 to 11 years. If the zone of influence of the 5-year harmonic is focused near the islands of Sakhalin, Hokkaido and the Southern Kuriles, then with an increase in the period, the region with the highest amplitude shifts clockwise (towards the northeastern coast of Sakhalin and further to the northern part of the Sea of Okhotsk). This interesting fact is also difficult to give a reasonable explanation, it requires additional study.
In work [8], a method was developed for predicting thermal conditions for a year in advance in certain areas of the studied water area (this method was also used to recover data gaps associated with the influence of cloudiness or technical reasons), which consisted in calculating the temperature in a given square in time t according to the formula:
where a and b are the parameters of the linear trend, 𝑐𝑘 are the amplitudes, and 𝜑𝑘 are the phases of the cyclic components (harmonics) of sea surface temperature variations. An essential feature of the method is the fact that the amplitudes and phases of the main cyclical components are calculated by the least squares method, with their periods ranging from 18 to 144 months with a step of 1 month. For each cell, a set of 3–4 harmonics was determined, which make the largest contribution to the interannual variations in SST. Since they are not orthogonal, for forecasting using formula (
Based on the parameters of the obtained cyclic components, a retrospective forecast of thermal conditions for the summer of 2018 was carried out (observational data for 1998–2017 were used to calculate the parameters of harmonics and a linear trend). The calculation was carried out for each spatial cell according to formula (
Examples of temperature forecast graphs (in °C) for the next year. The dashed line shows the prognostic curve. The forecast is carried out for the period from 1998 to 2017. The actual temperature in 2018 is marked with a cross [
The curves, which are the sum of the trend and the first four harmonics, generally repeat the actual interannual temperature fluctuations. The correlation coefficient of the initial and predicted series at the selected points exceeds 90%. Note that even the first two harmonics in many cases provide a correlation coefficient of more than 70%. Despite the fact that 2018 was anomalous in terms of thermal conditions (the Tsushima Current and its Okhotsk branch of the Soya Current were weakened, a heat deficit was felt in the zone of influence of the Amur River runoff), and in some other areas, even in such water areas, the forecast can be considered acceptable. An example of a similar situation is given for the Tatar Strait, where the predicted value was higher than the actual one, but the general course was predicted correctly, and the error was not so great. For the northern part of the Sea of Okhotsk, the northeastern shelf of Sakhalin Island, and a number of other areas, good agreement was observed between the calculated and real values of the surface layer temperature.
Let us consider some of the parameters of the graphs below. The standard deviation of the initial and predicted series correspond to each other and range from 1.5°C (Tatar Strait) to 2°C (South Kuriles). The average displacement of the predicted series relative to the initial one ranges from 0.4 to 0.6°C. The forecast error is 1.7°C in the Tatar Strait, 1.3°C near the Southern Kuriles, 0.3–0.4°C in the northern part of the studied water area.
More detailed studies devoted to predictability and the limits of applicability of the approach used will be carried out later. However, we can already say that for a significant part of the Sea of Okhotsk regions and adjacent water areas, the forecast of the surface layer temperature with a one-year lead time is quite successful, although the abnormally cold temperatures that took place in a number of areas in 2018 are rather difficult to predict.
Let us take a closer look at Figure 11. The forecast for August 2017 turned out to be quite successful, the discrepancy between the actual and predicted temperatures in most of the water area does not exceed ±2°C, with a standard deviation of SST of about 1.5-2°C (only in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean is the standard SST deviation is within 2-4°C). At the same time, the forecast for August 2018 contains a large area within which the temperature estimate was greatly overestimated (over 4°C). The map of SST anomalies for August 2018 [16] also contains areas of low temperatures (3-4°C lower than the average multiyear norm), which coincide in space with areas of unsuccessful forecast. This area is located in the zone of influence of the Tsushima Current, and the forecast inaccuracies are due to the fact that the weakening of this current occurred two years earlier than the expected date. Indeed, in Figure 8, we see that in the Tatar Strait and the Southern Kuriles, the distance between two neighboring SST minimums decreased to 3–4 years, while its quasiperiodic oscillations with a period of about 6 years are described in the literature [17].
Difference between predicted and actual temperatures [
As a result of the analysis of the data set on the surface temperature of the Sea of Okhotsk and adjacent waters, the main cyclical components responsible for the interannual variations of this parameter and the “zones of influence” of each harmonic were determined. It is shown that the main contribution to these variations comes from components with a period of about 6 years, as well as 3, 5, 8, and 11 years.
The zone of influence of the fundamental harmonic is the most extensive and occupies the southern half of the Sea of Okhotsk and the entire northern part of the Sea of Japan; its amplitude is within 1–2°C. In the vicinity of the Kuril Islands, off the western coast of Hokkaido Island, off the northeastern coast of Sakhalin Island, the amplitude is slightly lower (0.5–1°C), and in the northern part of the Sea of Okhotsk its influence is insignificant. Most likely, this component is associated with fluctuations in the Kuroshio Current and its branch, the Tsushima Current [17].
The highest values of the amplitude of the 3-year harmonic (1–1.5°C) can be noted in the northwestern part of the Sea of Okhotsk, at a distance from the coast, as well as off the northwestern coast of Kamchatka, in the region of the Kuril deep-water basin and in the northwestern parts of the Pacific Ocean.
The area of manifestation of the component with a period of 5 years is noticeably narrower, it is concentrated mainly on the northern shelf of Hokkaido, in the region of the South Kuril Islands (both from the Sea of Okhotsk and the ocean side), and on the northeastern shelf of Sakhalin. In the Tatar Strait, its role is also noticeable, but expressed to a lesser extent than the 6-year harmonic.
In the western part of the Sea of Okhotsk, in the zone of influence of the Amur River runoff, as well as in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean, a cyclical component with a period of about 8 years is significantly manifested.
The lowest frequency of the considered harmonics with a period of 11 years is manifested in the northern part of the Sea of Okhotsk; in other parts of the study area, its role is insignificant.
Together with the parameters of the linear trend [9], the amplitudes and phases of the main cyclical components (in each spatial cell, 4 harmonics with the highest amplitudes were used) can be used to predict thermal conditions for the next summer. The retrospective calculation for 2018 gave generally satisfactory results, despite the abnormally cold conditions of this year, noted in a number of areas of the studied water area. The possibility of predicting thermal conditions is of practical importance, primarily for assessing the conditions for the approach of Pacific salmon to spawning. And the results obtained show that in some areas of the water area, one can count on a fairly accurate forecast even for such an unstable parameter as the ocean surface temperature.
In general, the success of the forecast is influenced by how pronounced the cyclical components with a certain period in a given area. Identification of the zone of influence of various harmonics allows you to determine the boundaries of the regions in which the applicability of this method can be expected. As for the accuracy of the forecast, one should pay attention to the presence of large areas in which the modulus of the difference between the predicted temperature and the actual one was of the order of two standard deviations. This fact shows that this method does not guarantee the success of the forecast in cases where strong temperature anomalies are observed. It can only be used to obtain a primary estimate of the ocean surface temperature (or another parameter that experiences quasiperiodic oscillations) based on a sufficiently long series. The 21-year series is not enough to estimate low-frequency components (with a period of 30–50 years), which could also affect the quality of the forecast. For a better forecast, you can combine this method with an assessment of the current conditions, adjusting the forecast in the direction of increasing or decreasing temperature, depending on the current meteorological conditions.
This chapter shows how satellite data, going through all levels of processing, become useful products for both science and applied environmental prediction problems. Assessment, and later predicting the dynamics of various environmental parameters, will help reduce damage to nature and identify the degree of influence of anthropogenic factors on the future of the Earth. Based on our analysis results, it seems that the existence of global warming phenomenon has already been proven, but its influence on different parts of the planet is heterogeneous and is not traced in all seasons in the same way. In the spring, there is a tendency to a decrease in the temperature of the surface layer of the Sea of Okhotsk, this tendency continues until August, where it changes to warming condition.
Periodic fluctuations of physical parameters are also not homogeneous in space. It is possible to identify areas where the main oscillation period is 3, 5, 6, 8 and 11 years. Using the sequential spectra method gives a relatively good estimate for the next year’s ocean surface temperature. However, to improve the quality of the forecast, it is necessary to improve the quality of the initial data, comparing data from various sources and filling in the gaps associated with the presence of clouds and ice cover, as well as improve the interpolation algorithms to avoid losing sight of mesoscale phenomena.
Supporting women in scientific research and encouraging more women to pursue careers in STEM fields has been an issue on the global agenda for many years. But there is still much to be done. And IntechOpen wants to help.
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\\n\\nWe aim to publish 100 books in our Women in Science program over the next three years. We are looking for books written, edited, or co-edited by women. Contributing chapters by men are welcome. As always, the quality of the research we publish is paramount.
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\n\nWe aim to publish 100 books in our Women in Science program over the next three years. We are looking for books written, edited, or co-edited by women. Contributing chapters by men are welcome. As always, the quality of the research we publish is paramount.
\n\nAll project proposals go through a two-stage peer review process and are selected based on the following criteria:
\n\nPlus, we want this project to have an impact beyond scientific circles. We will publicize the research in the Women in Science program for a wider general audience through:
\n\nInterested? If you have an idea for an edited volume or a monograph, we’d love to hear from you! Contact Ana Pantar at book.idea@intechopen.com.
\n\n“My scientific path has given me the opportunity to work with colleagues all over Europe, including Germany, France, and Norway. Editing the book Graph Theory: Advanced Algorithms and Applications with IntechOpen emphasized for me the importance of providing valuable, Open Access literature to our scientific colleagues around the world. So I am highly enthusiastic about the Women in Science book collection, which will highlight the outstanding accomplishments of women scientists and encourage others to walk the challenging path to becoming a recognized scientist." Beril Sirmacek, TU Delft, The Netherlands
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