\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10739",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Global Decline of Insects",title:"Global Decline of Insects",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Insects are a group of animals that contribute significantly to the proper functioning of different ecosystems on the planet. They provide services such as pollinating crops, recycling nutrients and controlling pests. Many scientific publications and reports have studied the current global decline of insects. This decline can severely affect other groups of animals including birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and small mammals that utilize insects as a source of food. This will have a great impact on the trophic cascade and an eventual adverse effect on the overall ecosystem. This book provides insights into the possible reasons behind the decline of insects as well as potential measures that might mitigate this decline. It contains eleven chapters written by different experts. The book is useful for a wide range of readers including entomologists, ecologists, botanists, environmentalists, and amateurs who love collecting and preserving insects.",isbn:"978-1-83969-588-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-587-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-589-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94711",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"global-decline-of-insects",numberOfPages:198,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"543783652b9092962a8fa4bed38eeb17",bookSignature:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",publishedDate:"July 20th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1579,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:20,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:31,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 25th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 25th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 24th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 11th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel Farag El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-abdel-farag-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192142/images/system/192142.jpg",biography:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie is an Associate Professor of Entomology and a senior research entomologist at the Date Palm Research Center of Excellence, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. He is the head of the sustainable pest management research program at Date Palm. He obtained his BSc and MSc from the University of Khartoum, Sudan, in 1988 and 1993, respectively. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Giessen, Institute of Phytopathology and Applied Entomology, Germany, in 2001. In 2008, Dr. El-Shafie was appointed head of the Crop Protection Department, and then deputy dean for academic affairs at the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum, Sudan. He supervised twenty-five MSc students and five Ph.D. students at the University of Khartoum. His research interest focuses on the sustainable management of field crop pests using biopesticides and semiochemical-based technologies. He has more than twelve years of experience in the management of the invasive red palm weevil and other date palm pests of major significance. He has published seventy research papers in international peer-reviewed journals and seventeen book chapters with international publishers. He has also edited two books. Dr. El-Shafie has participated in more than thirty international conferences in the field of entomology. During the last decade, he has been reviewing manuscripts for thirty-five renowned international journals.",institutionString:"King Faisal University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"King Faisal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"35",title:"Entomology",slug:"entomology"}],chapters:[{id:"77656",title:"Causes and Reasons of Insect Decline and the Way Forward",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98786",slug:"causes-and-reasons-of-insect-decline-and-the-way-forward",totalDownloads:338,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"There are lot of reasons and causes of insect decline. The main causes of insect decline is attributed to habitat destruction, land use changes, deforestation, intensive agriculture, urbanization, pollution, climate change, introduction of invasive insect species, application of pesticides, mass trapping of insects using pheromones and light traps, pathological problems on various insects, and introduction of exotic honey bees in new areas that compete with the native bees for resource portioning and other management techniques for pest management, and even not leaving any pest residue for predators and parasitoids for their survival. The use of chemical insecticides against target or non-target organisms is major cause for insect decline. The diseases and decline of the important pollinators is still a mistry for colony collapse disorder. To overcome the cause of insect decline, various conservation techniques to be adopted and augmentation of artificial nesting and feeding structures, use of green pesticides, maintaining the proper pest defender ratio (P:D), policies and reaching to political audience at global level and other factors already discussed in the chapter may be helpful for mitigating the insect decline and especially for the pollinators, a key insect for life.",signatures:"Showket A. Dar, Mohmmad Javed Ansari, Yahya Al Naggar, Shafia Hassan, Syed Nighat, Syed Burjes Zehra, Rizwan Rashid, Mudasir Hassan and Barkat Hussain",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77656",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77656",authors:[{id:"319667",title:"Dr.",name:"Barkat",surname:"Hussain",slug:"barkat-hussain",fullName:"Barkat Hussain"},{id:"424959",title:"Dr.",name:"Showket A.",surname:"Dar",slug:"showket-a.-dar",fullName:"Showket A. Dar"},{id:"424960",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohmmad Javed",surname:"Ansari",slug:"mohmmad-javed-ansari",fullName:"Mohmmad Javed Ansari"},{id:"424961",title:"Dr.",name:"Yahya Al",surname:"Naggar",slug:"yahya-al-naggar",fullName:"Yahya Al Naggar"},{id:"424962",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed",surname:"Nighat",slug:"syed-nighat",fullName:"Syed Nighat"},{id:"424963",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Burjes",surname:"Zehra",slug:"syed-burjes-zehra",fullName:"Syed Burjes Zehra"},{id:"424964",title:"Dr.",name:"Rizwan",surname:"Rashid",slug:"rizwan-rashid",fullName:"Rizwan Rashid"},{id:"424965",title:"Dr.",name:"Mudasir",surname:"Hassan",slug:"mudasir-hassan",fullName:"Mudasir Hassan"}],corrections:null},{id:"78578",title:"Potential Reasons for Insect Decline",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100065",slug:"potential-reasons-for-insect-decline",totalDownloads:178,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Insects are the key component of world’s ecosystem and act as vital force to maintain life’s framework. But in present scenario, Insects are under multi-continental crisis apparent as reduction in abundance, diversity and biomass. The impact of decline is severe in areas which are highly impacted by human activities such as industrialized and agricultural landscapes. Habitat loss and degradation; intensive use of pesticides; pollution; introduction of invasive species and climate change are the most influential factors for their alarming decline and each factor is multifaceted. The accelerated decline in insect population can cause unpredictable negative consequences for the biosphere and is a matter of global concern that requires immediate and effective international collaborations. An urgent need is to identify the species at greatest threat; factors threatening their survival and finally the consequences of their loss. In order to maintain the integrity of managed and natural ecosystems, the protection of Insect diversity is critically important.",signatures:"Gagan Preet Kour Bali and Amritpal Singh Kaleka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78578",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78578",authors:[{id:"277963",title:"Dr.",name:"Amritpal Singh",surname:"Kaleka",slug:"amritpal-singh-kaleka",fullName:"Amritpal Singh Kaleka"},{id:"277966",title:"Dr.",name:"Gagan",surname:"Preet Kour Bali",slug:"gagan-preet-kour-bali",fullName:"Gagan Preet Kour Bali"}],corrections:null},{id:"80971",title:"Agricultural Intensification Causes Decline in Insect Biodiversity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101360",slug:"agricultural-intensification-causes-decline-in-insect-biodiversity",totalDownloads:55,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The world’s population exceeded 7 billion in late 2011 and it is expected to reach 9.3 billion by 2050. Meanwhile, demand for food is predicted to increase between 50 and 100% by 2050. To meet the food demands of the increasing population, agricultural intensification practices including growing monocultures of high-yielding crop varieties and increased applications of fertilizers and pesticides have been used to increase productivity. These practices, however, impact negatively on biodiversity of existing flora and fauna, particularly causing huge declines in insect biodiversity. This chapter reviews present state of knowledge about agricultural intensification practices and global decline of insect biodiversity (i.e., pest and beneficial insect species) in intensive agricultural system and point out the likely drivers of these declines. It concludes the review by examining sustainable agricultural intensification practices that could be used to mitigate these biodiversity declines while maintaining productivity in intensive agricultural systems.",signatures:"Mumuni Abudulai, Jerry Asalma Nboyine, Peter Quandahor, Ahmed Seidu and Fousséni Traore",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80971",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80971",authors:[{id:"216049",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mumuni",surname:"Abudulai",slug:"mumuni-abudulai",fullName:"Mumuni Abudulai"},{id:"356219",title:"Dr.",name:"Jerry",surname:"Asalma Nboyine",slug:"jerry-asalma-nboyine",fullName:"Jerry Asalma Nboyine"},{id:"425036",title:"Mr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Seidu",slug:"ahmed-seidu",fullName:"Ahmed Seidu"},{id:"425038",title:"Mr.",name:"Peter",surname:"Quandahor",slug:"peter-quandahor",fullName:"Peter Quandahor"},{id:"485112",title:"Dr.",name:"Fousséni",surname:"Traore",slug:"fousseni-traore",fullName:"Fousséni Traore"}],corrections:null},{id:"77657",title:"Pesticide Impact on Honeybees Declines and Emerging Food Security Crisis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98871",slug:"pesticide-impact-on-honeybees-declines-and-emerging-food-security-crisis",totalDownloads:169,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bee crisis is threatening worldwide food security. Pesticides are extensively used in the agricultural zone. Unfortunately, these pesticides cause severe toxicity toward pollinators than the target pests such as honeybees. This review summarizes the different studies related to pesticide hazards of bees. This paper reported risks of pesticides neurological and physiological poisoning toward honeybees. Pesticides act as poison and ruin vital functions involved in leaning and cognition, behavior and, the body physiological mechanisms. Many laboratory and field research data evaluated the lethal and sub-lethal poisoning on bee foraging dance, learning, and memory abilities of honeybees. Insecticide residues are detected in bee bodies and LD50 and LC50 values evaluated. It is also studied that in honeybees systemic insecticide residues and, its metabolite adulterated in their body during foraging activities. Similarly, pesticide-contaminated food stored in a hive consumed continuously by honeybees may cause sub-lethal toxicity effects. Which causes anomalous bee social behavior and ultimately leads to colony collapse disorder. If population of pollinator decline it will disturb the food chain and leads to food crisis. This review emphasized causes of bee decline with the emergence of pesticides in agricultural domains.",signatures:"Farkhanda Manzoor and Mahnoor Pervez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77657",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77657",authors:[{id:"354312",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr Farkhanda",surname:"Manzoor",slug:"dr-farkhanda-manzoor",fullName:"Dr Farkhanda Manzoor"},{id:"354313",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahnoor",surname:"Pervez",slug:"mahnoor-pervez",fullName:"Mahnoor Pervez"}],corrections:null},{id:"78872",title:"Diversity, Importance and Decline of Pollinating Insects in Present Era",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100316",slug:"diversity-importance-and-decline-of-pollinating-insects-in-present-era",totalDownloads:101,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pollination is a multi-million-year-old co-evolutionary process involving flowering plants and pollinators. It is one of the most important mechanisms in preservation and promotion of biodiversity as well as life on Earth. Pollinator diversity is essential for maintaining overall biological diversity in many habitats including agro-ecosystems. Pollinators are responsible for assisting reproduction in over 80% of the world’s flowering plants. In their absence, humans and wildlife would go hungry. Insects are the most efficient pollinators as they play a crucial part in pollination ecology. Pollinators and their habitats have ecological, economic, cultural and social benefits. Pollination efficiency is highly dependent on certain attributes and characteristics of pollinators such as vision, anatomy, food preferences, olfaction, behaviour and learning ability. With the rapid growth of human population, our demand for food has also risen. Our agricultural systems will need to produce more food in a sustainable manner in the future to cope with this. Pollinators play an important role in these ecosystems and will continue to do so in the future. Because pollinators are so important to agriculture, we need to learn more about which crops require specific pollinators and how to best maintain and promote both wild and controlled species. Their diversity needs protection because there are specific relationships between certain crops and pollinators. Pollinator communities are suffering as a result of man-made habitat disruptions, including severe biodiversity loss. This diversity must be protected by combining conservation measures with sustainable farming practices which could increase crop yields while protecting insect pollinator species.",signatures:"Navkiran Kaur and Amritpal Singh Kaleka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78872",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78872",authors:[{id:"277963",title:"Dr.",name:"Amritpal Singh",surname:"Kaleka",slug:"amritpal-singh-kaleka",fullName:"Amritpal Singh Kaleka"},{id:"277967",title:"Ms.",name:"Navkiran",surname:"Kaur",slug:"navkiran-kaur",fullName:"Navkiran Kaur"}],corrections:null},{id:"79121",title:"Botanical Insecticides Are a Non-Toxic Alternative to Conventional Pesticides in the Control of Insects and Pests",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100416",slug:"botanical-insecticides-are-a-non-toxic-alternative-to-conventional-pesticides-in-the-control-of-inse",totalDownloads:270,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Insect control for crops is one of the most critical global concerns. Pest management is an economic and ecological problem worldwide due to the human and environmental risks raised by most synthetic pesticide products. Botanical insecticides have resurfaced in popularity due to their low cost and low environmental impact, rather than their negative effects on human health. Botanical insecticides destroy only the insects they are meant to kill, leaving no residue on food or in the environment. Botanicals have long been used to combat pests. The compounds have many environmental advantages. However, as opposed to other bio-control pests and pathogens, their use was minimal during the twentieth century. In developing countries, botanical insecticides are well adapted for use in organic food production. Nonetheless, they may play a far bigger role in developed countries’ food production and post-harvest food protection. Consequently, the current chapter briefly addresses botanicals with active ingredients with insecticidal, antifeedant, or repellent properties.",signatures:"Nazeer Ahmed, Mukhtar Alam, Muhammad Saeed, Hidayat Ullah, Toheed Iqbal, Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi, Kiran Shahjeer, Rafi Ullah, Saeed Ahmed, Nibal Abd Aleem Hassan Ahmed, Hanem Fathy Khater and Muhammad Salman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79121",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79121",authors:[{id:"97300",title:"Prof.",name:"Khalid Awadh",surname:"Al-Mutairi",slug:"khalid-awadh-al-mutairi",fullName:"Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi"},{id:"191884",title:"Dr.",name:"Toheed",surname:"Iqbal",slug:"toheed-iqbal",fullName:"Toheed Iqbal"},{id:"263876",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidayat",surname:"Ullah",slug:"hidayat-ullah",fullName:"Hidayat Ullah"},{id:"263877",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukhtar",surname:"Alam",slug:"mukhtar-alam",fullName:"Mukhtar Alam"},{id:"355528",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazeer",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"nazeer-ahmed",fullName:"Nazeer Ahmed"},{id:"420069",title:"Mrs.",name:"Kiran",surname:"Shahjeer",slug:"kiran-shahjeer",fullName:"Kiran Shahjeer"},{id:"420070",title:"Mr.",name:"Saeed",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"saeed-ahmed",fullName:"Saeed Ahmed"},{id:"420221",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Saeed",slug:"muhammad-saeed",fullName:"Muhammad Saeed"},{id:"420222",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafi",surname:"Ullah",slug:"rafi-ullah",fullName:"Rafi Ullah"},{id:"436507",title:"Dr.",name:"Nibal Abd Aleem",surname:"Hassan Ahmed",slug:"nibal-abd-aleem-hassan-ahmed",fullName:"Nibal Abd Aleem Hassan Ahmed"},{id:"436596",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater"},{id:"485113",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Salman",slug:"muhammad-salman",fullName:"Muhammad Salman"}],corrections:null},{id:"78945",title:"Botanical Insecticides and Their Potential as Anti-Insect/Pests: Are They Successful against Insects and Pests?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100418",slug:"botanical-insecticides-and-their-potential-as-anti-insect-pests-are-they-successful-against-insects-",totalDownloads:229,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In low-income countries, subsistence and transitional farms frequently use botanical insecticides. The shortage or high cost of industrial pesticides also prompts their use. Botanical insecticides are also prescribed by agricultural and development programs and certain development organizations. However, since insecticidal proof of their effectiveness and protection might not be sufficient or usable, this may be called into question. While insecticidal botanicals have been extensively studied, there has yet to be a fusion that focuses especially on the domestic synthesis of biopesticides that work infield and storage effectively. In this chapter, we look at the effectiveness of botanicals (neem, garlic, and essential oil) that are used as insecticides. In addition, this chapter also focuses on research carried out on the use of these essential oils as insecticides. Processes that use variable amounts of ingredients and concentrations and ratios of active ingredients can have varying impacts on the efficacy of plant-based biological insecticides. Finally, using home-made insecticides would reduce the losses that occur during food production and enable us to use environment-friendly pest management methods.",signatures:"Toheed Iqbal, Nazeer Ahmed, Kiran Shahjeer, Saeed Ahmed, Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi, Hanem Fathy Khater and Reham Fathey Ali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78945",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78945",authors:[{id:"97300",title:"Prof.",name:"Khalid Awadh",surname:"Al-Mutairi",slug:"khalid-awadh-al-mutairi",fullName:"Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi"},{id:"191884",title:"Dr.",name:"Toheed",surname:"Iqbal",slug:"toheed-iqbal",fullName:"Toheed Iqbal"},{id:"355528",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazeer",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"nazeer-ahmed",fullName:"Nazeer Ahmed"},{id:"420069",title:"Mrs.",name:"Kiran",surname:"Shahjeer",slug:"kiran-shahjeer",fullName:"Kiran Shahjeer"},{id:"420070",title:"Mr.",name:"Saeed",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"saeed-ahmed",fullName:"Saeed Ahmed"},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater"},{id:"436610",title:"Dr.",name:"Reham Fathey",surname:"Ali",slug:"reham-fathey-ali",fullName:"Reham Fathey Ali"}],corrections:null},{id:"81925",title:"Fenitothion Degradation by Aspergillus parasiticus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100028",slug:"fenitothion-degradation-by-em-aspergillus-parasiticus-em-",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"India is a predominantly agriculture-based country with a population of 1.27 billion, according to FAO the population has reached to 1.66 billion in between 2007 and 2050. Tense because of overgrowing population the yield of crops were increased by applying various insecticides for controlling (insects, pests). Globally, an appraise 1 to 2.5 million tons of effective insecticide additives go on applied each year, especially in agriculture. Fenitrothion is an organophosphate insecticide employed to destroy pests, insects particularly in Paddy fields and it is an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, neurotoxicant and the toxic metabolites in the environment is remain for longer periods, so it is necessary to degrade the fenitrothion by biodegradation. The fungi Aspergillus parasiticus were screened from paddy fields and Molecular characterized it by 26S rDNA gene sequencing, the fungi breaks the insecticide within 24 h of incubation in PDB. The course of the degradation process was studied using FTIR and HPLC.",signatures:"Thenepalli Sudha Rani and Potireddy Suvarna Latha Devi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81925",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81925",authors:[{id:"355512",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Thenepalli",surname:"Sudha Rani",slug:"thenepalli-sudha-rani",fullName:"Thenepalli Sudha Rani"},{id:"356086",title:"Prof.",name:"Potireddy Suvarna",surname:"Latha Devi",slug:"potireddy-suvarna-latha-devi",fullName:"Potireddy Suvarna Latha Devi"}],corrections:null},{id:"78491",title:"Insect Conservation and Management: A Need of the Hour",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100023",slug:"insect-conservation-and-management-a-need-of-the-hour",totalDownloads:36,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Insects play a very vital role in divergent ecosystems and have gained great economic and medical importance as pollinators, pests, predators, parasitoids, decomposers and vectors. With the large-scale practice of synthetic pesticides, the diminishing rate of beneficial and pollinator insects is increasing rapidly. Environmental pollution, climate change, global warming, urbanization, industrialization and some natural calamities like wildfires add more fuel to the acceleration of insect decline all over the world. Alternative steps should be employed to replace the toxic pesticides and implementation of integrated pest management (IPM) should be put forward to reduce the overuse of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, which have a great impact on beneficial insects as well as birds, aquatic organisms, and also on human health. The present study aims to create awareness among the researchers and general public by providing a brief review of insect importance, decline and conservation strategies.",signatures:"Muzafar Riyaz, Rauf Ahmad Shah and Soosaimanickam Maria Packiam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78491",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78491",authors:[{id:"354257",title:"Dr.",name:"Muzafar",surname:"Riyaz",slug:"muzafar-riyaz",fullName:"Muzafar Riyaz"},{id:"416857",title:"MSc.",name:"Rauf Ahmad",surname:"Shah",slug:"rauf-ahmad-shah",fullName:"Rauf Ahmad Shah"},{id:"429272",title:"Dr.",name:"Soosaimanickam",surname:"Maria Packiam",slug:"soosaimanickam-maria-packiam",fullName:"Soosaimanickam Maria Packiam"}],corrections:null},{id:"79060",title:"Description of a New Species of the Genus Anagrus (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Mymaridae): A Biocontrol Agent as an Alternative to Insecticide Use",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99957",slug:"description-of-a-new-species-of-the-genus-em-anagrus-em-hymenoptera-chalcidoidea-mymaridae-a-biocont",totalDownloads:82,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Although insects are economically important as they produce honey, silk, act as pollinators and also play an important role in functioning of an ecosystem, yet insect population is declining very fast. One of the possible causes of insects decline is excessive use of pesticides. Control of pest with synthetic chemicals or pesticides result in several issues and complications. These chemical pesticides or insecticides can also cause toxic effects on beneficial organisms like honeybees and butterflies which are important pollinators. So, biocontrol agents can be used as best alternative to control pest without harming beneficial organism and non-target insects or other organism as majority of biocontrol agents are host specific. Biological control agents including predators and parasotoids are natural enemies of insect pests. Present chapter deals with the description and illustration of one new species Anagrus (Anagrus) sololinearis sp.nov from India. This new species belongs to genus Anagrus (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Mymaridae). Genus Anagrus is considered as one of the important and most promising biocontrol agents in insects as it is an egg parasitoid.",signatures:"Shireen Saleem and Shoeba Binte Anis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79060",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79060",authors:[{id:"355546",title:"Dr.",name:"Shireen",surname:"Saleem",slug:"shireen-saleem",fullName:"Shireen Saleem"},{id:"355548",title:"Dr.",name:"Shoeba",surname:"Binte Anis",slug:"shoeba-binte-anis",fullName:"Shoeba Binte Anis"}],corrections:null},{id:"80012",title:"Impacts of Organic Farming on Insects Abundance and Diversity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102035",slug:"impacts-of-organic-farming-on-insects-abundance-and-diversity",totalDownloads:121,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Organic farming encourages maximum utilization of the natural biological processes to manage the farm in terms of soil fertilization and pest control, which implies using none or less synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and plant and animal growth-promoting substances. All these practices increase arthropod diversity, particularly soil-dwelling insects. Intercropping, cover crops, and hedges, which are common practices in organic fields, provide alternative habitats for arthropod communities. The refugia also provide a good source of food for pollinators in terms of pollen grains and nectar. The interactions among the different plant and animal taxa (weeds, birds, mammals) that are found in the organic farming ecosystem have a great impact on insects’ abundance and diversity. This chapter summarizes the impacts of the organic farming system on the abundance and diversity of insects. The role of organic farming in mitigating the impact of agriculture intensification, urbanization, deforestation, and climate change on global insects’ decline and diversity loss is discussed.",signatures:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80012",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80012",authors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",surname:"Abdel Farag El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-abdel-farag-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9698",title:"Invasive Species",subtitle:"Introduction Pathways, Economic Impact, and Possible Management Options",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"132b23bdec7eff6ba300d67cc44d2d91",slug:"invasive-species-introduction-pathways-economic-impact-and-possible-management-options",bookSignature:"Hamadttu El-Shafie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9698.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",surname:"Abdel Farag El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-abdel-farag-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6619",title:"Insect Science",subtitle:"Diversity, Conservation and Nutrition",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"08241b041b2072a88452041f8fdebe7e",slug:"insect-science-diversity-conservation-and-nutrition",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah and Umar Sharif",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6619.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10423",title:"The Wonders of Diptera",subtitle:"Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2746b4288e78c8688d1be1bd9d99a127",slug:"the-wonders-of-diptera-characteristics-diversity-and-significance-for-the-world-s-ecosystems",bookSignature:"Farzana Khan Perveen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10423.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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The effects of global warming are also being monitored through geochemical measurements in the atmosphere and oceans. Increasingly sensitive instrumentation enables continuous monitoring of pollution levels in the air, water, and on land, allowing high-quality data to support and enforce environmental regulations governing emissions. As a result, geochemistry has become an essential part of scientific and political discussion on many environmental challenges. Improving our knowledge of life on Earth may be the most essential job done by geochemists. This book includes a variety of data relevant to geochemistry and highlights research related to mineral wealth and mining and the development of strategies and scientific standards to significantly increase oil exploitation in the long term. It also provides information on the effects of geochemical components on humans and the environment, as well as environmental and geochemical exploration surveys through sediments.",isbn:"978-1-80355-775-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-774-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-776-2",doi:null,price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"928cebbdce21d9b3f081267b24f12dfb",bookSignature:"Prof. Hosam M. Saleh and Prof. Amal I. Hassan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11139.jpg",keywords:"Origin of Metals, Exploration of Useful Ores, Geochemistry in Agriculture, Chemical Elements in Geological Processes, Geochethe Toxicological and Epidemiological Effect of Toxic Metals, Medical Geochemistrymistry of Radioisotopes, Modern Analytical Chemistry, Geochemistry of the Elements, Mechanism of Transmission of the Elements, Environmental Pollution by Chemical Elements, Trace Elements, Age of Rocks",numberOfDownloads:172,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 21st 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 21st 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 19th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 10th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 9th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Saleh has more than 23 years of experience in hazardous waste management. 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He obtained an MSc and Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from Cairo University, Egypt. He has more than 25 years of experience in hazardous waste management with an emphasis on treatment and developing new matrixes for the immobilization of these wastes. He is also interested in studying innovative economic and environmentally friendly techniques for the management of hazardous and radioactive wastes. He has authored many peer-reviewed scientific papers and chapters and served as an editor of several books. 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She received a Certificate of Excellence in international scientific research arbitration from Publons. She was also selected for inclusion in Who’s Who in 2014, 2015, and 2016.",institutionString:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"104",title:"Geology and Geophysics",slug:"geology-and-geophysics"}],chapters:[{id:"82515",title:"A Review on Elemental and Isotopic Geochemistry",slug:"a-review-on-elemental-and-isotopic-geochemistry",totalDownloads:25,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"},{id:"218811",title:"Prof.",name:"Amal I.",surname:"Hassan",slug:"amal-i.-hassan",fullName:"Amal I. 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Since the discovery of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) in 1967, there has been significant development in the field of organ and tissue transplantation. In humans, the MHC is called the human leukocyte antigen system and is located on the short arm of chromosome 6, near the complement genes. These cell surface proteins are the principal antigenic determinants of graft rejection.
The presence of donor-specific HLA antibodies in kidney transplant recipients can be identified by crossmatch. Since 1969, pre-transplant crossmatch has become a mandatory component of the transplant work-up process. It has largely eliminated hyperacute rejection. Crossmatch techniques have expanded from basic complement-dependent microcytotoxicity (CDC) assays to additionally include flow crossmatches and virtual crossmatches derived using the luminex assay. The improved sensitivity and specificity of virtual crossmatch when compared to CDC and flow crossmatches has revolutionised the pre-transplant crossmatch process, but also greatly increased its complexity.
HLA molecules are membrane bound glycoproteins that bind processed antigenic peptides and present them to T cells. The essential role of the HLA antigens lies in the control of self-recognition and thus defence against microorganisms. Based on the structure of the antigens produced and their function, there are two classes of HLA antigens, HLA Class I and Class II. The overall size of the MHC is approximately 3.5 million base pairs. Within this is the HLA Class I genes and the Class II genes each spread over approximately one third of this length. The remaining section, sometimes known as Class III, contains loci responsible for complement, hormones, intracellular peptide processing and other development characteristics [1]. Thus the Class III region is not actually a part of the HLA complex, but is located within the HLA region, because its components are either related to the functions of HLA antigens or are under similar control mechanisms to the HLA antigens.
The cell surface glycopeptide antigens of the HLA A, B and C series are called HLA Class I antigens [2]. HLA Class I antigens are expressed on all nucleated cells of the body. Additionally, they are found in soluble form in plasma and adsorbed onto the surface of platelets. Erythrocytes also adsorb HLA Class I antigens to varying degrees depending on the specificity (e.g. HLA-B7, A28 and B57 are recognizable on erythrocytes as so called “Bg” antigens). Immunological studies indicate that HLA-B (which is also the most polymorphic) is the most significant HLA Class I locus, followed by HLA-A and then HLA-C. There are other HLA Class I loci (e.g. HLA E, F, G, H, J, K and L), but most of these may not be important as loci for “peptide presenters”.
The HLA Class I antigens comprise a 45 Kilodalton (Kd) glycopeptide heavy chain with three domains, which is non-covalently associated with β2-microglobulin, which plays an important role in the structural support of the heavy chain [3]. The HLA Class I molecule is assembled inside the cell and ultimately sits on the cell surface with a section inserted into the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane and has a short cytoplasmic tail.
The general structure of HLA Class I, HLA Class II and IgM molecules show such similarity of subunits, that a common link between HLA and immunoglobulins, back to some primordial cell surface receptor is likely. The full 3-dimensional structure of HLA-A Class I molecules has been determined from X-ray crystallography [4]. This has demonstrated that the molecule has a cleft on its outermost surface, which holds a peptide. Consequently, if a cell becomes infected with a virus, the virally induced proteins within the cell are broken down into small peptides which are then inserted into this cleft during the synthesis of HLA Class I molecules. The HLA Class I molecules then translocate these virally (or self) induced peptides to the cell surface leading to activation of cytotoxic (CD8) T cells [5]. This role of HLA Class I, in identifying cells, which are changed (e.g. virally infected), is the basis for their expression on all cells [4]. Epitopes on certain expressed HLA Class I molecules also act as ligands for killer inhibitory receptors expressed on natural killer [6] cells, thereby influencing NK cell function [7].
The cell surface glycopeptide antigens of the HLA DR, DP and DQ loci are termed HLA Class II [1]. The tissue distribution of HLA Class II antigens is confined to the “immune competent” cells, including B-lymphocytes, macrophages, and endothelial cells and activated T-lymphocytes. The expression of HLA Class II, on cells, which would not normally express them, is stimulated by cytokines like interferon-γ and is associated with acute graft rejection in the setting of transplantation. HLA Class II molecules consist of two chains each encoded by genes in the “HLA Complex” on Chromosome 6 [3]. The T Cells, which link to the HLA Class II molecules, are Helper (CD4) T cells. This role of HLA Class II, in initiating a general immune response, is the rationale for their limited expression on “immunologically active” cells (B lymphocytes, macrophages, etc.) and not on all tissues [4].
A new HLA nomenclature was introduced in April 2010, replacing a system which had been in use since the 1990’s. The main drive for the change was that the old system could no longer accommodate the increasing number of HLA alleles that were being described. There are currently over 5,700 alleles described across all the classical and non classical HLA loci.
The old system was based on assigning significance to pairs of digits in the allele nomenclature (Fig 1). For example in the allele HLA-A*02010102L, the designation ‘HLA’ identifies the allele as a HLA allele. The dash (-) separates the HLA designation from the gene, in this case the ‘A’ gene. The ‘*’ is a separator. Of the actual allele name, the first two digits (02010102L) represents the allele group and in most instances, was synonymous with the Serological type (A2 in this case). The third and fourth digits (02010102L) identified the specific allele. All alleles whose nomenclature differed in these first four positions (02010102L) must code for proteins with different sequences. Alleles whose nomenclature differed in the fifth and sixth position (02010102L) code for proteins with silent mutations within the coding sequences. A sequence which differed by mutations in the introns or in the untranslated regions flanking the 3’ and 5’ ends of the exons were identified by different digits in the seventh and eighth positions (02010102L). In addition, a number of suffixes were used to identify sequences that were null, i.e. not expressed (N), those that had low expression (L), those that were secreted (S), those found only in the cytoplasm (C), those with questionable expression and those with aberrant expression (A).
Old HLA nomenclature
A key limitation of this old system was that it only allowed for up to 99 alleles which differ in any of the pairs of positions. The HLA-A*02 and B*15 allele groups were the first to run into this problem when more than 99 alleles were detected. At that time, the WHO Nomenclature Committee for the HLA system decided to adopt the rollover sequences A*92 and B*95 respectively for A*02 and B*15. When A*0299 was identified, the next A*02 allele described was named A*9201. Similarly when B*1599 was identified the next B*15 allele described was named B*9501. Recently however, a number of other HLA types started to fast approach 99 alleles. These include A*03, B*40, B*44 and DRB1*11. Adopting rollover sequences for all of these was impractical. A rollover system of sorts had already been adopted for HLA-DPB1. When HLA-DPB1*9901 was identified, the next HLA-DPB1 allele was named ‘within the existing sequences’ as HLA-DPB1*0102.
In 2010, a new nomenclature system was adopted (Fig 2) [8, 9]. This introduced colons ‘:’ as separators between pairs of digits. HLA-A*02010102L therefore became HLA-A*02:01:01:02L. The pairs of digits separated by colons are known as Fields. The first and second digits of the old nomenclature form the 1st Field of the new nomenclature. The third and fourth digits of the old nomenclature form the 2nd Field of the new nomenclature. To help reduce confusion in adopting the new nomenclature, the leading ‘0’ in alleles 1-9 of each allele group was kept.
New HLA nomenclature
The introduction of the colons means that each Field is no longer restricted to 99 digits but can be expanded limitlessly. Once HLA-A*03:99 was identified, the next A3 allele could be named HLA-A*03:100.
With the introduction of colons and therefore the removal of the artificial restriction of 99 digits, there is no more need for rollover sequences. HLA-A*92 and B*95 were renamed A*02 and B*15 respectively and their associated alleles remapped. A*9201 became A*02:101. A*9202 became A*02:102 etc. HLA-B*9501 became B*15:101. HLA-B*9502 became B*15:102 etc. HLA-A*02:100 and B*15:100 were not used to help make the remapping easier. However other HLA types which exceed 99 alleles will use allele 100. HLA-DPB1 alleles were also remapped. HLADPB1*0102 became HLA-DPB1*100:01.
A number of other changes were made to the nomenclature. The ‘w’ was dropped from HLA-Cw alleles but not from Cw antigens. HLA-Cw*0102 became HLA-C*01:02. The ‘w’ was kept in antigen names to avoid confusion with complement factors as well as with KIR ligand groups. For ambiguous allele strings, the codes ‘P’ and ‘G’ were introduced. A group of alleles that share the same nucleotide sequences within exons 2 and 3 for HLA class I and exon 2 for HLA class II were named after the first allele in the sequence and given a code of ‘G’ as a suffix. E.g. HLA-A*02:01:01 and HLA-A*02:01:02 could be named HLA-A*02:01G. A group of alleles that share the same protein sequences in the α2 and α3 domains, irrespective of the nucleotide sequence differences could be named after the first allele in the sequence and given a code of ‘P’ as a suffix e.g. HLA-A*02:01:01P.
The most important function of MHC molecule is in the induction and regulation of immune responses. T-lymphocytes recognize foreign antigen in combination with HLA molecules.
In an immune response, foreign antigen is processed by and presented on the surface of a cell (e.g. macrophage). The presentation is made by way of a HLA molecule. The HLA molecule has a section, called its antigen (or peptide) binding cleft, in which it has these antigens inserted. T-lymphocytes interact with the foreign antigen/HLA complex and are activated. Upon activation, the T cells multiply and by the release of cytokines, are able to set up an immune response that will recognize and destroy cells with this same foreign antigen/HLA complex, when next encountered. The exact mode of action of HLA Class I and HLA Class II antigens is different in this process. HLA Class I molecules, by virtue of their presence on all nucleated cells, present antigens that are peptides produced by invading viruses. These are specifically presented to cytotoxic T cells (CD8) which will then act directly to kill the virally infected cell. HLA Class II molecules have an intracellular chaperone network which prevents endogenous peptide from being inserted into its antigen binding cleft. They instead bind antigens (peptides) which are derived from outside of the cell (and have been engulfed). Such peptides would be from a bacterial infection. The HLA Class II molecule presents this “exogenous” peptide to helper T cells (CD4) which then set up a generalized immune response to this bacterial invasion. Thus it is apparent that MHC products are an integral part of immunological health and therefore it is no surprise to see a wide variety of areas of clinical and genetic implications.
HLA typing was applied to kidney transplantation very soon after the first HLA determinants were characterized [10-12]. The importance of reducing mismatched antigens in donor kidneys was immediately apparent with superior survival of grafts from HLA identical siblings compared to one haplotype matches or unrelated donors. It is apparent that the effect of HLA matching is significant, even with the highly efficient immunosuppression used today. The important things include need for ABO compatibility and the need for a negative T-lymphocyte crossmatch (using cytotoxicity). Complement binding anti-HLA Class I antibodies present at the time of transplant will cause “hyperacute rejection” of the graft (i.e. when the T cell crossmatch is positive).
In this serological test, lymphocytes are added to sera, which may or may not have antibodies directed to HLA or other cell surface antigens [13]. If the serum contains an antibody specific to an HLA (Class I or Class II) antigen on the lymphocytes, the antibody will bind to this HLA antigen. Complement is then added. If there is a cell bound antibody that is able to fix complement, the complement pathwayis activated causing membrane damage. The damaged cells are not completely lysed but suffer sufficient membrane damage to allow uptake of vital stains such as eosin or fluorescent stains such as Ethidium Bromide. Microscopic identification of the stained cells, indicates the presence of a specific HLA antibody. The cells used for the test are lymphocytes because of their excellent expression of HLA antigens and ease of isolation compared to most other tissue. The most important use of this test is to detect specific donor-reactive antibodies present in a potential recipient prior to transplantation.
This test has long been used to type for HLA Class I and Class II antigens, using antisera of known specificity. However, the problems of cross-reactivity and non-availability of certain antibodies have led to the introduction of DNA-based methods.
When lymphocytes from two individuals are cultured together, each cell population is able to recognize the “foreign” HLA class II antigens of the other. As a response to these differences, the lymphocytes transform into blast cells, with associated DNA synthesis. Radio-labelled thymidine, added to the culture, will be used in this DNA synthesis. Therefore, radioactive uptake is a measure of DNA synthesis and the difference between the HLA Class II types of the two people. This technique can be refined by treating the lymphocytes from one of the individuals to prevent cell division, for example by irradiation. It is thus possible to measure the response of T lymphocytes from one individual to a range of foreign lymphocytes. It has thus proved possible by using the mixed lymphocyte culture (MLC) test to use T lymphocytes to define what were previously called HLA-D antigens. The “HLA-D” defined in this way is actually a combination of HLA-DR, DQ and DP.
An important use of the MLC is in its use as a “cellular crossmatch” prior to transplantation especially bone marrow. By testing the prospective donor and recipient, an in-vitro transplant model is established which is an extremely significant indicator of possible rejection or Graft-Versus-Host reaction.
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) methods rely on the ability of certain enzymes to recognize exact DNA nucleotide sequences and to cut the DNA at each of these points [14]. Thus, the frequency of a particular sequence will determine the lengths of DNA produced by cutting with a particular enzyme.
The DNA for one HLA (Class II) antigen, e.g. DR15, will have these particular enzyme cutting sites (or “restriction sites”) at different positions compared to another antigen, e.g. DR17. Consequently, the lengths of DNA observed when DR15 is cut by a particular enzyme, are characteristic of DR15 and different to the sizes of the fragments seen when DR17 is cut by the same enzyme [15].
The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a revolutionary system for investigating the DNA nucleotide sequence of a particular region of interest in any individual [16]. Very small amounts of DNA can be used as a starting point, such that it is theoretically possible to tissue type using a single hair root. Sequencing DNA has been transformed from a long and laborious exercise to a technique that is essentially automatable.
The first step in this technique is to obtain DNA from the nuclei of an individual. The double stranded DNA is then denatured by heat into single stranded DNA. Oligonucleotide primer sequences are then chosen to flank a region of interest. The oligo- nucleotide primer is a short segment of complementary DNA, which will associate with the single stranded DNA to act as a starting point for reconstruction of double stranded DNA at that site.
If the oligonucleotide is chosen to be close to a region of special interest like a hypervariable region of HLA-DRB then the part of the DNA, and only that part, will become double stranded DNA, when DNA polymerase and deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates are added. From one copy of DNA it is thus possible to make two. Those two copies can then, in turn, be denatured, reassociate with primers and produce four copies. This cycle can then be repeated until there is a sufficient copy of the selected portion of DNA to isolate on a gel and then sequence or type.
There are a number of PCR based methods in use. For example:
By this method, the DNA for a whole region (e.g. the HLA DR gene region) is amplified in the PCR. The amplified DNA is then tested by adding labeled (e.g. Radioactive) oligonucleotide probes, which are complementary for DNA sequences, characteristic for certain HLA antigens. These probes will then “type” for the presence of specific DNA sequences of HLA genes.
PRA has been used to measure patient HLA sensitisation ever since pre-formed donor specific HLA antibodies were associated with hyperacute rejection in renal transplantation in the 1960’s [17]. As traditionally defined, PRA refers to the percentage of an antibody screening panel with which the patient’s serum reacts. A kidney patient with a PRA > 85% is considered highly sensitised. This measure of PRA however relies on the composition of the panel which may not necessarily reflect the antigen frequencies in the donor population. This measure of PRA is not therefore a good reflection of the chances of the patient finding a compatible donor. Variations in cell panels, both commercial and in house, result in wide variations in recorded PRA for patients on the waiting list.
The calculated PRA (cPRA) was introduced to overcome this problem [18]. The cPRA can be calculated in a number of different ways, but relies on the identification of a potential recipient’s anti-HLA antibody profile. This has been made much easier by the wide adoption of solid phase assays such as Luminex. Luminex assays, especially those involving the use of single antigen beads (SABs) allow fine specificity definition and allow the strength of the reactions (MFI) to be used to assess immunological risk and help decide whether or not specificity should be listed. The cPRA is then calculated by defining a set of unacceptable mismatches for that recipient, and weighting those mismatches according to the frequency of the antigen in the donor population. This could be based on the frequency of different HLA antigens in the most recent 10,000 deceased donors.The cPRA therefore gives a measure of the chances of a patient finding a compatible donor in the donor pool.
cPRA removes some of the variability between laboratories using different panels and allows a PRA value to be assigned which reflects the patients’ transplantability.
Acute and chronic allograft rejection can occur in HLA-identical sibling transplants implicating the importance of immune response against non-HLA targets. Non-HLA anti-bodies may occur as alloantiboides, yet they seem to be predominantly autoantibodies. Antigenic targets of non-HLA antibodies described thus far include various minor histocom-patibility antigens, vascular receptors, adhesion molecules, and intermediate filaments. Non-HLA antibodies may function as complement and non-complement-fixing antibodies and they may induce a wide variety of allograft injuries, reflecting the complexity of their acute and chronic actions.
The adaptive immune response recognises infection through presentation of pathogen-derived peptides in association with MHC to the host T cells. One of the mechanisms which pathogens use to evade this immune response is to down regulate their MHC cell surface expression. Natural Killer cells are able to detect altered expression of MHC through a number of cell surface receptors leading to target cell lysis [19]. These receptors include the killer immunoglobulin like receptors (KIR), which are also expressed on some effector T cells. In humans, the KIR gene cluster is located on chromosome 19. KIR genes are both polygenic and polymorphic [20]. The KIR gene cluster codes for 15 expressed KIR genes and 2 pseudo genes.
The ligands for KIR receptors are HLA class I molecules [21]. These include HLA-C locus antigens with either Asn (Group 1 HLA-C antigens) or Lys (Group 2 HLA-C antigens) at position 80, the HLA-Bw4 epitope and some HLA-A antigens. KIR receptors binding to HLA class I are either inhibitory or are stimulatory with the overall effect of NK cell interaction with the target cell dependent on the balance between these inhibitory and stimulatory signals. It is thought that the inhibitory KIR’s bind class I with greater affinity than the corresponding activating KIR with the effect that under normal circumstances the inhibitory signal prevails. The ‘missing self’ hypothesis holds that NK cell alloreactivity occurs when the ligand for inhibitory KIR receptors is down regulated or ‘missing’, leading to activation. This however requires that KIR receptors engage their cogent HLA class I molecules during maturation to acquire effector function. NK cells that express only inhibitory KIRs for absent HLA class I molecules are hypo responsive in the non transplant setting.
Inhibitory KIR receptors possess long cytoplasmic tails with immunoreceptor tyrosine based inhibitory motifs (ITIMs). Activating KIR receptors have short cytoplasmic tails that pair with adaptor molecules with immunoreceptor tyrosine based activating motif (ITAMs). The nomenclature for KIR receptors therefore includes an ‘L’ (long tail) for inhibitory KIR’s and an ‘S’ (short tail) for activating KIR’s. The nomenclature also includes ‘P’ for pseudo genes. The inhibitory and activating KIR receptors share sequence and structural similarities in their extracellular domains. KIR’s have either 2 or 3 extracellular immunoglobulin domains and this is reflected in their nomenclature as either ‘2D’ or ‘3D’, giving KIR receptors nomenclature such as KIR2DL1, KIR2DS2 and KIR3DL1, where the final digit indicates the order in which the genes were described.
The KIR genes assemble into haplotypes with two haplotypes described, ‘A’ and ‘B’. The ‘A’ haplotype has only one activating KIR (2DS4), while the ‘B’ haplotype has a higher number of activating KIRs and generally possess more KIRs than the ‘A’ haplotype.
The major histocompatibility complex class I related chain was first described in the 1990’s [22]. The genes are located centromeric to the HLA class I B gene. The only two MIC genes which are expressed are MICA and MICB. MICA and MICB share a significant amount of sequence homology with HLA class I and have some similarity in their conformation. MICA and MICB antigens have α1, 2 and 3 domains like classical HLA antigens but do not associate with β2 microglobulin and do not bind peptide for presentation to T cells. Instead, MIC antigens serve as ligands for the NKG2D receptor on NK cells and on some T cells.
MICA and MICB genes are polymorphic but not as much as the classical HLA class I genes. Over 70 MICA alleles and over 30 MICB alleles have been described [23]. Unlike HLA class I where the polymorphic residues are located mainly in the region that forms the peptide binding groove, polymorphism in MIC is more dispersed throughout the α2 and α3 domains. There is also polymorphism in the trans-membrane region. Many MIC antigens have the same extracellular domains with the only differences lying in the trans-membrane regions.
MICA and MICB antigens are constitutively expressed on epithelial cells, especially those of the gastrointestinal tract and on fibroblasts, monocytes, dendritic cells and on endothelial cells. They are not constitutively expressed on lymphocytes. They are however up regulated in stressed cells.
The structure of MICA is similar to that of HLA class I but has some striking differences. Like HLA class I, MICA has three extracellular domains (α1, 2 and 3), a transmembrane region and a cytoplasmic domain. Unlike HLA class I, the MICA protein does not associate with β2 microglobulin. The MICA α1 and 2 domains form a platform that is analogous to the platform formed by HLA class I α1 and 2 domains. In HLA class I, this platform forms the peptide binding groove. The MICA molecule however has extensive disordering of sections of the alpha helix in the α2 domain resulting in a very shallow groove, incapable of binding peptide. The MICA α1 and 2 platform domains do not interact with the α3 domain except for being linked together through a short linker chain. This allows for some flexibility in the structure.
The NKG2D receptor forms a complex with MICA by binding orthogonal to the alpha helices of the platform α1 and 2 domains.
HLA presents the major genetic barrier to stem cell transplantation. However, evidence that other genetic systems are involved includes GvHD and some degree of rejection even when transplanting with HLA identical siblings. A non HLA system which is thought to contribute to this is the minor histocompatibility antigen (mHA) system. Minor histocompatibility antigens comprise of peptides derived from proteins in which some degree of polymorphism exists such there may be differences between the patient and donor repertoires. These peptides can be presented to the immune system by both HLA class I and II antigens.
The best characterised minor antigens are the Y chromosome derived HY peptide and the autosomal HA1 to HA5 peptides. Minor histocompatibility antigens such as HA1 and HA2 have restricted tissue distribution and are present normally only on haematopoietic cells. Others such as HY are more ubiquitously distributed, expressed for instance on gut epithelium. HA1 and HA2 are expressed on leukaemic cells and some tumour cells, making them potential targets for cellular therapy. Minor HLA antigens are restricted by certain HLA types such as HLA-A2 for instance.
Crossmatching was developed in an attempt to identify recipients who are likely to develop acute vascular rejection of a graft from a given donor. This phenomenon, hyperacute rejection (HAR) [24], is a result of preformed antibodies against the donor; referred to as donor-specific antibodies (DSA). Such antibodies are usually formed as the result of previous exposure to HLA, generally through pregnancy, blood transfusion or previous transplantation [25]. There are other debated forms of developing anti-HLA Abs such as via microbial exposure but the above three are thought to be the most prevalent. Particularly relevant is the exposure of women during pregnancy, to their partner’s HLA. This commonly results in direct sensitization against the partner, potentially making him an unsuitable living donor. HAR may also occur in blood group incompatible transplantation or rarely as a result of other non-HLA antibodies.
Preformed antibodies cause rejection by binding to HLA antigens expressed on the endothelium of vessels in the transplanted kidney, resulting in activation of the complement cascade with resultant thrombosis and infarction of the graft. HAR can occur immediately upon reperfusion of the donor kidney. This catastrophic outcome necessitates the immediate removal of the graft. Clearly avoiding HAR is desirable and crossmatching helps predict and hence prevent this [17].
There are different types of crossmatch tests available.
A CDC crossmatch involves placing recipient serum (potentially containing donor-specific anti-HLA antibodies) onto donor lymphocytes (containing HLA antigens). A cytotoxic reaction (deemed ‘positive’) suggests the presence of preformed DSA.
CDC crossmatching was pioneered by Terasaki and colleagues in the 1960s [13, 17]. It identifies clinically significant donor specific HLA antibody mediated responses for a given recipient. Lymphocytes from the donor are isolated and separated into T and B cells. Serum from the recipient is mixed with the lymphocytes in a multi-well plate. Complement is then added (usually derived from rabbit serum). If donor-specific antibody is present and binds to donor cells, the complement cascade will be activated via the classical pathway resulting in lysis of the lymphocytes.
The read-out of the test is the percentage of dead cells relative to live cells as determined by microscopy. The result can thus be scored on the percentage of dead cells, with 0 correlating to no dead cells; scores of 2, 4 and 6 represent increasing levels of lysis. On this basis, a score of 2 is positive at a low level, consistent with approximately 20% lysis (generally taken as the cut-off for a positive result). A score of 8 represents all cells having lysed and indicates the strongest possible reaction. The use of a scoring system allows a semi-quantitative analysis of the strength of reaction. Another way to determine the strength of the reaction is to repeat the crossmatch using serial doubling dilutions of the recipient serum (often known as a ‘titred crossmatch’). In this way, dilutions are usually performed to 1 in 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 and so on. In the situation of a high titre of high avidity DSA it may be that many dilutions are required for the test to become negative (e.g. 1 in 128). With antibody at a low level or one with a low affinity, a single dilution may be enough to render the crossmatch result negative. This may also give an indication as to the likelihood that a negative crossmatch could be achieved with a desensitization protocol.
The basic CDC crossmatch can be enhanced by the addition of antihuman globulin (AHG). This technique increases the sensitivity of the CDC crossmatch as a result of multiple AHG molecules binding to each DSA attached to thedonor cells thereby amplifying the total number of Fc receptors available for interaction with complement component 1, which increases the likelihood of complement activation and cell lysis.
It is also possible to have a negative crossmatch in the presence of a DSA and this can happen in the following conditions:
antibody titre is too low to cause complement activation
antibody is of a type that does not activate complement and
antigen for which the antibody is specific is expressed only at very low levels on the donor’s lymphocytes.
A further consideration relates to variations in antibody levels in a given individual’s serum samples, collected at different times. The most reactive serum is generally called the ‘peak serum’. This may have been collected several years earlier, with the ‘current serum’ showing quite different reactivity. As an example, the peak serum may show a clear positive CDC crossmatch result, but as the antibody levels have fallen in subsequent sera, so too may the degree of cell lysis in the assay. This may render the CDC crossmatch negative. Nevertheless, the antibodies found in the peak sera may still be of relevance, indicating that re-exposure to the relevant antigen could initiate a memory response with the risk of early and aggressive rejection. For this reason, patients on transplant waiting lists have sera collected at frequent intervals; variations can be monitored and newly appearing HLA antibodies can be detected.
There are important differences in HLA expression between T and B cells, which influence the interpretation of the crossmatch. T cells do not constitutively express HLA class II so the result of a T-cell crossmatch generally reflects antibodies to HLA class I only. B cells on the other hand express both HLA class I and II, as well as a larger range of surface markers, icluding Fc receptors. Because of this, a positive B-cell crossmatch is more difficult to interpret than a positive T-cell cross match. It may be due to antibodies directed against HLA class I or II or both, or it may be due to antibody binding to other sites, that may or may not be clinically important. Hence, if the T- and B-cell crossmatches are positive the interpretation is that there may be either single or multiple HLA class I DSA/s or a mixture of HLA class I and II DSA. While a negative T-cell crossmatch in the setting of a positive B-cell crossmatch suggests either there may be one or more class II DSA/s but no class I antibodies or that there is a low-level DSA to a class I antigen with greater lysis of B cells relative to T cells. This is often due to the fact that B cells express higher levels of HLA class I than do T cells [26]. When class I complement fixing HLA DSA are present at a significant level one would expect both the T and B-cell crossmatches to be positive. A negative B-cell crossmatch in the presence of a positive T-cell crossmatch therefore suggests a technical error. This is not unusual as B cells tend to be less resilient than T cells and their viability can often be a concern in the assays.
Transplanting in the setting of a positive T-cell crossmatch, which is not due to an autoantibody, is likely to generate a very poor outcome. Patel and Terasaki described the outcomes of 30 such transplants [17]. Twenty four (24) patients lost their grafts immediately to HAR while another three lost their grafts within 3 months. It is not clear why the other three patients had less severe reactions but it may relate to false positive crossmatches generated by autoantibodies given that dithiothreitol (DTT) which cleaves the multimers of IgM antibodies was not used in their assays. Other possibilities include false positive tests or lower immunogenicity of the antibodies or antigens in those cases.
A recent study investigated whether IVIg or plasma exchange was more effective at desensitizing crossmatchpositive recipients so that they might be crossmatch-negative at the time of transplant [27]. While most patients were successfully desensitized there was a group of 10 patients who did not achieve a negative crossmatch but were still transplanted. Of this group 70% developed AMR with 50% losing their grafts. Given this data, even after reducing the antibody titre with a desensitization protocol before transplant, a persistent positive T-cell crossmatch remains an absolute contraindication to transplantation.
B-cell CDC crossmatching is not as predictive of HAR as the T-cell CDC crossmatch and there has been much controversy about its role [28]. Many centres do not perform B-cell crossmatching for cadaveric renal transplantation because of uncertainty about the significance of a positive result. The major limitation is a rate of false positive results of up to 50% [29]. In some cases this reactivity may be due to non-HLA molecules on the surface of the B lymphocytes, including the presence of Fc receptors. While a negative result is reassuring a positive result may mean a transplant is cancelled when it was safe to proceed. Another argument against the routine use of B-cell crossmatching is that antibodies to class II antigens are of less significance in generating antibody-mediated rejection. But recently it has been found that they are not so benign [30].
B-cell crossmatches are often performed as part of the immunologic assessment before live donor transplantation when there is more time to determine the significance of the result. Paired with information about the presence of DSA, determined by more specific means such as antigen-coated beads (Luminex, discussed below) the B-cell CDC crossmatch results may be more meaningful [31]. If a B-cell crossmatch is positive and there are no detectable antibodies to class I or II antigens, the result may be falsely positive while a positive result in the presence of detectable DSA signifies that the identified DSA may be functionally relevant in that it can activate complement and were associated with increased risk of rejection [32]. This has led to the suggestion that the B-cell CDC crossmatch should not be used alone to determine transplant suitability and that it be interpreted only in the light of accompanying Luminex results [31].
A flow crossmatch involves adding recipient’s serum to donor lymphocytes and then incubating them with fluorescein-labelled antibodies against human IgG (antihuman IgG fluorescein isothicyanate [FITC]). This fluorescein-labelled antibody will bind to all the IgG antibodies in the recipient serum. If a DSA in this serum then binds to the donor lymphocytes, it will be detectable by flow cytometry.
Flow crossmatching is performed using the same initial base ingredients as CDC crossmatching (i.e. donor lymphocytes and recipient serum) and was first described in 1983 [33]. The two are mixed to allow antibody binding and after washing, fluoresceinated AHG is added to bind attached DSA and hence allow detection by flow cytometry. The read-out may be reported simply as positive or negative or can be further quantitated. Intensity of fluorescence above control, referred to as channel shifts, may be reported while another means of quantitation is to determine the number of dilutions of recipient serum required to generate a negative result.
The subtype of antibody can also be determined by the isotype specificity of the fluorescently labelled detection antibody. Hence if only IgG antibodies are of interest the detection antibody chosen will be of the type that binds only to IgG and not IgM or IgA [34]. Furthermore the subtype of IgG can be elucidated by choosing a detection antibody that binds only to IgG1, 2, 3 or 4. Refining the analysis in this way provides information about the likelihood of complement activation
The role of flow crossmatching in the pre-transplant assessment is controversial. The significance of a positive result is mainly of interest when the CDC crossmatch is negative. In this setting the positive flow crossmatch is likely to be caused by a non-complement fixing antibody, a non-HLA antibody or a low-level antibody that is below the threshold of sensitivity of the CDC methodology. In patients who are not known to be sensitized several studies have suggested that a positive T- or B-cell flow crossmatch was not predictive of increased rejection rates or worse graft survival while in sensitized patients other studies have suggested inferior graft survival [30, 34-39]. A possible reason for this difference is that there would be a higher false positive rate in non-sensitized patients than in sensitized patients given that they are not expected to have a positive result. Another factor determining the significance of the result is the cut-off values used to determine a positive test [34]. These are not applied uniformly between centres and those that apply a very low cut-off value will increase sensitivity at the expense of specificity.
Some transplant clinicians do not use flow crossmatching as part of their pre-transplant assessment and rely on CDC crossmatching along with defining DSA by Luminex, otherwise known as ‘virtual crossmatching’. Others contend that flow crossmatching adds important information on the strength of donor-specific antibody reactivity and should be considered in the context of donor-specific antibody results and CDC crossmatching to help develop an overall opinion on the likelihood of immune complications. The area remains controversial and no clear recommendation can be made at this time.
Virtual crossmatching refers to the comparison of the anti- HLA antibodies of the recipient, derived from Luminex, with the HLA of the donor [40]. If there is a DSA present this would represent a positive virtual crossmatch. Antibodies are defined against HLA class I and II antigens. Synthetic microspheres (beads) coated with HLA antigens are commercially available for this testing. Beads may be coated with multiple HLA antigens for screening purposes or a single HLA antigen for defining specificity of antibodies more precisely. For the virtual crossmatch, multiple beads each coated with a single HLA antigen are mixed with recipient serum. Anti-HLA antibodies present bind to the beads and are detected by an isotype-specific (e.g. IgG) detection antibody via flow cytometry. Unique fluorochromes within the beads mark the HLA antigen specificity of each bead. This technique is as sensitive as flow crossmatching and provides the specificity of the antibody [41].
It has long been established that the presence of antibodies that react with human leucocytes portend worse long-term graft survival [42]. This information has been further refined by more sensitive antibody detection systems, particularly Luminex. It has been shown that recipients with DSA have worse graft survival than those with third party anti-HLA Abs (antibodies against HLA antigens that are not donor-specific) who in turn have reduced graft survival compared with recipients without any anti-HLA antibodies [43]. Therefore, the presence of a DSA suggests inferior graft survival compared with no DSA even in the presence of a negative CDC crossmatch [44].
Luminex testing offers significant advantages over CDC and flow crossmatch in terms of defining the HLA specificity of identified antibodies. The presence of a DSA detected by Luminex in the setting of a negative or positive CDC crossmatch appears to have prognostic importance in terms of graft survival and acute rejection risk; however, there are insufficient data to determine the significance of a DSA with a negative flow crossmatch [40, 44-46].
In each assay, negative control beads provide a minimum threshold for a positive result. Positive results can then be graded as weak, moderate or strong on the basis of the degree of fluorescence of the positive bead. This result can be scored as a median fluorescence index (MFI) or molecules of equivalent soluble fluorescence. The molecules of equivalent soluble fluorescence of a DSA have been shown to correlate with antibody titre and predict graft failure [47].
While Luminex testing has added significantly to the understanding of crossmatching, the methodology has some significant limitations that can make interpretation difficult. Limitations include possible interference by IgM antibodies, variable antigen density on beads, conformational changes to antibodies in the process of binding to the beads, and gaps in the HLA antibody repertoire in bead sets. [45, 48, 49].
All of the above-mentioned crossmatching techniques attempt to detect a donor-reactive antibody likely to result in acute or chronic antibody-mediated rejection. The presence of sensitization of the cellular arm of the immune system, particularly T cells, can be assessed by cytokine assays such as ELISPOTs. These assays detect the number of recipient T cells producing cytokines such as interferon gamma when encountering donor antigen presenting cells. The assays are conducted in plates coated with a capture antibody for the cytokine of interest. The mixed donor and recipient leucocytes are added to the plate and incubated. After washing to remove the cells the reaction is developed by adding a second antibody for the cytokine of interest and then stained for that antibody [50].
Understanding of the transplantation antigens and crossmatching is a vital tool in transplant. Crossmatching plays a key role in assessing immune compatibility between a donor and recipient. A positive T-cell CDC crossmatch would usually mean that a particular pairing should not proceed. But in some cases, a desensitization protocol may allow such a transplant to occur, avoiding hyperacute or early acute rejection. However they have inferior longterm graft outcomes compared with patients who are not sensitized to their donor. The advent of flow crossmatching and Luminex assays has allowed the detection of very lower titre, anti-HLA antibodies of uncertain clinical significance.
CDC crossmatching along with Luminex should be used in determining anti-HLA antibodies. The role of flow crossmatching is less clear and its help in decision making is unclear. The ideal future crossmatch will be highly sensitive in identifying DSA and provide accurate prediction of the functional significance of the antibody. This will hopefully allow differentiation between transplants that can safely proceed in the face of a clinically irrelevant DSA while providing clear prognostic information in the setting of more serious antibodies.
Further studies are required to better define the significance of very low-level DSA, noncomplement fixing antibodies, IgM antibodies and non-HLA antibodies as well as the importance of assessing T cellular sensitization.
In general, a functionality and performance of any social or economic process is conditioned by an appropriate information support, while several parts of social and economic process might be involved into macroprocess structure and functionality and quantified via two independent linguistic sets. On one hand, the first linguistic set contains elements, which provide transfer of signals coming from external environment to macroprocesses and are denoted as
The presented chapter is divided into nine sub-chapters, where the first two of then deal with economic system and economic object and contain a brief description of macroprocesses (MAC Process), microprocesses (MIC Processes) and creative economy (CE) processes, where the process denoted as Cultural Heritage Creation and Management plays a role of principle importance (see also Section 4) and the DTS System plays a role of the core process and is being discussed within Sections 5 and 6. However, the DTS System provides a bi-directional data transfer as well, while the first transfer direction is getting started from CE processes to MAC and the second one starts from MAC and is finished at CE Processes as well (see also Sections 7 and 8), while the MIC Processes play a role of the data transfer mediator. The chapter is being closed by Section 9, which deals with DTS System implementation aspects, while an appropriate economic network seems to be a principal facility applied for those purposes (see also Section 9).
\nThe creative economy creates an integral part of standardized economy represented by micro and macroeconomic processes implemented and operated within adequate economic system and object, while any firm or company is considered to be the economic object. On the other hand, any economic object might be identified with managed, management system and information system while any system is represented by external and internal structure and between both structure types exists a zone denoted as a
The Data Transfer System (hereinafter as DTS System)
When considering the cultural heritage creation process, the microeconomic business processes represent those types of processes, which enable producing of products denoted as cultural heritage artifacts. That production is realized within firm or company, which has its own business strategy. With respect to Balanced Scorecard Methodology [2], the strategy includes five perspectives: (a) economic perspective, (b) perspective of internal business processes, (c) customer’s perspective, (d) education and growth perspective, and (e) technological perspective. The perspectives related to (a), (b), (d), and (e) are closely related to
The business processes denoted as
In general, the business processes denoted as
On one hand, the Cultural Heritage Creation and Cultural Heritage Management processes are running within different cultural institutions and organizations, while museums and galleries play a role of principal importance there and should be managed. There might be applied conventional and advanced approaches to Cultural Heritage Management. There might be applied various advanced approaches, while one of them can be based on Knowledge Management. This approach has been applied, when preparing the exhibition
The success of the exhibition revealed that digitized art can be efficiently and effectively combined with presentations of original artefacts and bring synergy effects highly appreciated by its audience. The paper represents an attempt to make relevant conclusions from this experiment that might help to organizers to build similar innovative events in the future [4].
\nA taxonomy of performance closely related to Creative Economy identifies three fundamental forms of capital observable in the financial assets, access to liquidity or monetary income of its owner. On the other hand, the cultural capital manifests itself as long lasting dispositions for ownership of academic knowledge, skills, cultural goods as well, while the social capital is defined as the resources accumulated through belonging to durable network of institutionalized relationships. The symbolic capital transcends economic, cultural, and social capital as a form of prestige bestowed upon its owner based on recognition of her legitimate competence and authority [5, 6, 7, 8, 9].
\nThe above-mentioned four categories are closely related to performance in the creative industries. All creative industries display a significant ration of “symbolic content” to functional usage, which also varies from one to the next. As a result of that, the creative outcomes derive a large part of their value from subjective experiences that rely heavily on using symbols to manipulate emotions and perceptions [10, 11, 12]. Cultural goods are non-material goods directed to public of consumers, for whom they generally serve as an aesthetic or expressive rather than clearly utilitarian function [6, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16].
\nEconomic, cultural, and social capitals are all reflected in the following three core dimensions of performance in the creative industries: commercial performance, artistic merit, and social impact. The first two core dimensions, commercial performance and artistic merit represent key components of creative industry performance research [11, 17, 18]. However, those components usually have long and short term nature Whilst the former directly reflects the notion of national capital, the latter is close in its definition to that of “symbolic cultural capital” as the capacity to define and legitimize cultural and artistic values, standards and styles” [6, 19].
\nThis taxonomy is hereby applied to all relevant levels of performance analysis in the creative industries. They create two distinct categories within existing literature. The first is being focused on creative production processes and investigates roles and contributions of the individual worker, the creative project team and the creative group assigned to this process. The second deals with creative outcome, its distribution and consumption. It examines the creative project, the creative organization, and the creative network of organizations from one-off event (e.g. an annual festival) to semi-permanent regional cluster and industry [6]. However, the above-mentioned description creates a good basis for further research with DTS System as well, while many of those aspects are being applied and developed within Section 7 of that chapter.
\nThe Business Process Linguistic Modelling (hereinafter known as the BPLM approach) is working with the use of semantic networks and so-called reference databases, while is based on two principle issues [20]:
\n\n
A structure and functionality of any BP might be described via TNL text, which consists of common logical sentences, while any logical sentence consists of text strings [Ts (I, j)] i = 1….n, (serial number of logical sentence contained within TNL text) and j = 1….m1 (serial number of the text string contained within logical sentence).
\nEach text strings Ts (I, j) has its own semantic meaning assigned via [Tsem (i, j)], while formulas (1)–(3) might be postulated
\nWhere
\nThe {Word (i, j)} set represents linguistic representation facility denoted as the linguistic set, while its content is created by two subsets:
[Ts (i, j)] – which contains text strings being created as a result of the first stage related to TNL text content semantic analysis, however those strings have not yet adequate semantic meaning and they might be of a text or numeric nature, e.g. [Ts (i, j)] = [1500 centigrade, IA poise, 25 grams]
However, they get it after assignment of adequate text string selected from semantic dictionary quantified via [Tsem (i, j)] subset as well. while the [Tsem (i, j)] subset content is represented so that Tsem (i, j)] = [glass melt temperature, glass melt viscosity, glass melt quantity].
After unification of both subsets with respect to formula (1) a final content of the {Word (i, j)} = {[glass melt temperature, 1500 centigrade], {[ glass melt temperature, IA poise], {[glass melt quantity, 25 grams]}
A content of [Tsem (i, j)] is created by linguistic variable items and a content of [Ts (i, j)] is created by linguistic variable values. Therefore, the {Word (i, j)}is denoted as the linguistic set.
However, we need an appropriate set such words, to describe any business process (Pe) structure functionality, while the {Pe (i, j)} set might be applied for those purposes. Because, the words quantified via sets represented by formulas (1)–(3) and they have a linguistic character, they will be considered to be linguistic sets and they will be applied business process (Pe) structure functionality. It means, the {Pe (i, j)} might be approximated via {Words (i, j)} set and formula (4) might be postulated
\n{Pe (i, j)} – is a linguistic set, which quantifies a business process closely related to linguistic variable items and values contained in the {Words (i, j)} linguistic sets.
\nOn the other hand, any business horizontal structure is being created by set functions, which generate pre-defined outputs based on appropriate inputs, while formula might be postulated
\nHowever, those functions may be described via {Words (i, j)} linguistic sets as well, while formula (6) can be postulated
\nIt means, any business process (BP) function can be approximated via set of words, which creates an integral part of TNL text. This is the first important principle of BP modeling linguistic approach. However, there is the second important issue as well Any BP function set consists of three principal subsets [Object (i, j)], [Action (i, j)] and [Result (i, j)] see also formula (7)\n
\nand the [Action (i, j)] set elements “are responsible for” generation of pre-defined BP outputs based on appropriate BP inputs. The [Object (i, j)] subset elements provide interconnection to BP input set and the [Result (i, j)] subset elements provide interconnection to BP output set.
\n\n
In general, no BP can generate required pre-defined outputs without appropriate inputs. As a result of that, they must be defined and quantified very precisely. Because of considering the BP modeling linguistic approach, they have to be postulated via linguistic sets as well, denoted as {Petx (i, j’)}, where i = 1…n and has the same meaning like in the case of BP linguistic sets and j’ is a serial number of linguistic subset {Petx (i, j’)}5 consists of (see also formula (8))
\nWhen applying business process {Pe (i, j)}6 linguistic set to {Petx (i, j’)} linguistic set, with respect to formulas (9)–(11), we can get adequate BP functionality results in form of {Res1 (i, j”)} set
\nwhere j” =1…m3\n
\nHowever, the {Res1 (i, j”)} linguistic set represents two type of business process outputs: primary and secondary outputs, while the {Tbex (i, j”’) linguistic set elements represent BP functionality primary products and {Retx (i, j””) linguistic set elements represent BP functionality secondary products and formula (10) might be postulated
\nand
\n\nFormulas (9)–(11) create basis of Principle Businesses Process Linguistic Modeling Equation (hereinafter known as PBPL Equation [21]. This equation has an endless number of solutions and any of them is closely related to the actual problem area solution.
\nThe transformation operands play an important role when providing conversion of process inputs into pre-defined outputs and might be quantified adequate linguistic sets {[TOP1 (i, j1)]}, {[TOP2 (i, j2)]} [22]. A linguistic set denoted as {[TOP1 (i, j1)]} is a set, the elements of which contain data concerned with the
A business metric is any type of measurement used to gauge some quantifiable component of a company\'s performance, such as return on investment (ROI), employee and customer churn rates, revenues, and EBITDA. Business metrics are part of the broad arena of business intelligence, which comprises a wide variety of applications and technologies for gathering, storing, analyzing, and providing access to data to help enterprise users make better business decisions.
\nThe core parts of metrics include: (a) measurement units, (b) reporting period (c) reporting frequency, (d) the current value of the metric with the latest data, (e) previous values of metrics and (f) trend – this is the change in value over time when comparing it with the actual value to previous values7 [24].
\nOn one hand, the business provided in any firm or company is identified by a set of business processes, which are running there. On the other hand, any business process (BP) is represented by its own vertical and horizontal structure, while both structure types might be quantified via adequate linguistic sets and the {Pe (i, j)}linguistic set consists of two subsets {Pe1 (i, j1)} and {Pe2 (i, j2)}. The {Pe1 (i, j1)} linguistic set consists of further subordinated set {[TOP1 (i, j1)]} concerned with BP transformation operands and {[TOP2 (i, j2)]} one is concerned with business process transformation tools.
\nHowever, the {Pe2 (i, j2)} linguistic set is concerned with business process metrics issues as well, while two types of BP metrics might be postulated: (a) external metrics and (b) internal metrics. When quantifying both metrics types via linguistic sets formula (12) might be postulated
\nWhere
\n[EM (i, j3)] – is a linguistic set, which represents BP external metrics
\n[IM (i, j4)] – is a linguistic set, which represents BP internal metrics
\nBoth the above-mentioned linguistic sets seem to be independent and they might be postulated as individual linguistic sets {[EM (i, j3)]} and {[IM (i, j4)]}. The {[EM (i, j3)]} linguistic set represents a BP external metrics, which is concerned with BP inputs [IMP (I, j3a)], and BP outputs [OUTP (i, j3b)]}. The {[IM (i, j4)]} linguistic set represents a BP internal metrics, which is concerned with BP production devices [DEV (i, j6)], BP production tools [TOOL (i, j7)], and BP human resources [HR (i, j8)] [22] With respect to the above-mentioned issues the following formulas might be postulated
\nHowever, that representation of business process metrics will be applied within Section 7 of that chapter as well.
\nA System of Data Transfer from Creative Economy business processes to Micro and Macro processes and vice versa based on Cultural Heritage Processes (hereinafter known as Data Transfer System—DTS-System) represents a complex system, which should provide an appropriate information and knowledge-based support for business processes running within Creative Economy System (CE System), System of Microprocesses (MIC System) and System of Macroprocesses (MAC System), which create an integral part of social and economic processes as well, while a Culture Heritage Creation and Management plays a role of principle importance in the above-mentioned DTS System. On the other hand, the DTS System should provide a bi-directional data transfer: (a) Data Transfer from Creative Economy business processes to Micro and Macro processes and (b) Data Transfer from Macroprocesses (MA Processes) to Creative Economy business processes (CE Processes), while the MIC System plays a role of intermediator agent as well. The entire DTS system should be implemented and operated via Economic Network System (EN System), which consist of three EN subsystems.
\nThe DTS system is represented by its own
Layout of the DTS system external and internal structure. Source: The Authors.
The DTS system is represented by its own
In general, any system of business processes might have its own vertical and horizontal structure, while the same is concerned with wit business processes, which create an integral part of the creative economy system. With respect to the fact, that the creative economy process system (CEPS) described within that contribution contains a set of business processes closely related to cultural heritage production and management, that system vertical structure is created by two business process: (a) Cultural heritage creation - production (b) (CHCP) and Cultural heritage management (CHMP). The CEPS system horizontal structure is created by elements shown in Figure 2.
\nCEPS system linguistic set objectives. Source: The Authors.
The previous section deals with CEPS system horizontal and vertical structure elements, however there is one more important aspect, which is closely related to content of culture heritage creation and culture heritage management processes, which play a role of principle importance within Creative Economy System to be investigated. However, there is another component, which create the CEPS system content as well, while any of those components has its own structure elements and those elements are denoted as the linguistic sets8 and are concerned with appropriate objectives shown in Figure 3, while the structure of appropriate subordinated linguistic sets is shown in Figure 4.
\nCEPS system linguistic set objective subsets. Source: The Authors.
The DTS System – Conceptual Model. Source: The Authors.
In general, any process or business process horizontal structure is created by appropriate business process functions (BPFs), which might be quantified via adequate linguistic sets, which enable quantifying the BPFs information and knowledge-based support closely related to a given business process. When looking at Figure 2 you can see the creative economy business process functions DATRA_03_01 up to DATRA_03_05 and the above-mentioned linguistic sets postulated as {[Performance dimensions (i. j)]}, {[Economic capital (i. j)]}, {[Cultural capital (i. j)]}, {[Symbolic capital (i. j)]}, {[Social capital (i. j)]}.
\nIn Figure 2, there are specified BPFs and appropriate linguistic sets closely related to those BPFs information and knowledge-based support, however in Figure 3 the reader might see the specification in more details as well.
\nThe DTS System – Conceptual Model is a standardized system denoted as DATRA_09 Data Transfer Conceptual Model, which should provide a bi-directional data transfer. On one hand, from Creative Economy Business Processes (CEP Processes) to Microprocesses (MIC Processes) and (MIC Processes) and from Microprocess to Macroprocesses (MAC Processes) and on the other hand, we have to consider the data transfer from macroprocesses, throughout microprocesses up to CEP Processes as well, while DTS System – Conceptual Model consists of four subsystems as shown in Figure 4. Moreover, the individual subsystems include sets of adequate components will be written within further sections of that chapter.
\nHowever, the DTS System contains a set of adequate business processes as postulated within Figure 4 as well, while a business process modeling linguistic approach (hereinafter known as BPLM Approach) should be applied to quantify the data transfer from CEP Processes up to MAC Processes. The BPLM Approach is based on specialized type of sets denoted as the linguistic sets.9 The structure and functionality of data transfer conceptual model subsystems is described within further sections of that chapter
\nIn Figure 4, there are shown the DTS System – Conceptual Model subsystems, which are being described within subsequent sections as well, while the data transfer related to an appropriate business process internal metrics is shown in Figure 5a and b and the principal layout of the DTS System structure and bi-directional functionality is shown in Figures 6 and 7.
\n(a) The principal layout of Data transfer between CE Process and MIC Process internal metrics items Part 1 (cultural and symbolic capital) and intellectual capital part 2. Source: The Authors. (b) The principal layout of Data transfer between CE Process and MIC Process internal metrics items Part 2 (social capital) and intellectual capital part 3. Source: The Authors.
The principle layout of DTS2 System Conceptual Model. Source: The Authors.
Data transfer from MAC to MIC and CE processes. Source: The Authors.
When investigating the subsystem DATRA_05 structure and functionality, we must consider CE Processes and MIC Process structure and metrics, on the other hand, the MIC Process functions might be defined generally regardless their content, while CE Processes and MIC Process metrics plays a role of principal importance within that subsystem functionality description.
\nNow, we shall postulate the linguistic sets closely related to internal and external metrics10 of CE Processes and MIC Process, while the CE Process external metrics items are represented by the following linguistic sets: access to liquidity {ALI(i, j)]}, financial assets, {FAT(i, j)]}, monetary income {MOI(i, j)]} and the CE Process internal metrics items are represented by those linguistic sets cultural capital{[CULC (i, j)]}, symbolic capital {[SYMC (i, j)]}, social capital {[SOCC (i, j)]}, and performance dimensions {[PEDC (i, j)]. On the other hand, the MIC Process external metrics items are postulated as follows: material input {[MI (i, j)]}, material input cost {[MICS (i, j)]},, output material {[OMP (i, j)]}, products and output material product assets {[OMPA (i, j)]}, while MIC Process external metrics items are represented by production device {[PDEV (i, j)]} linguistic set, by production tool{[PTOOL (i, j)]} linguistic set, and human resources {[HR (i, j)]} linguistic set. The human resources {[HR (i, j)]} linguistic set contains three subordinated sets: (a) intellectual capital 1 – (ICA1 (i, j)), (b) intellectual capital 2 – (ICA2 (i, j)) and (c) intellectual capital 3 – (ICA3 (i, j)) linguistic set.
\nNow, we shall investigate the data transfer between BPFs denoted as economic capital {[EC (i, j)]} and cultural capital {[CULC (i, j)]} within CE Process items: access to liquidity {ALI(I, j)]}, financial assets FAT(I, j)]}, monetary income {MOI(I, j)]}, {[CULG(I, j)]}, and MIC Process external metrics items postulated as: material input {[MI (i, j)]}, material input cost {[MICS (i, j)]},, output material {[OMP (i, j)]}, products and output material product assets {[OMPA (i, j)]}.
\nThe data transfer between Economic and cultural capital within CE Process and MIC Process external metrics items is running in the following steps:
The CE Process linguistic set{[EC (i, j)]: [ALI(I, j)]} content determines a possibility of the cultural heritage production or acquisition initiation and is closely related {[MICS (i, j)]} set within MIC Process.
The CE Process linguistic set {[EC (i, j)]: [FAT (I, j), MOI (I, j)]]} content indicates financial aspects of cultural heritage artefact production or acquisition financial contribution within creative economy activities.
The CE Process linguistic set {[CULC (i, j)]: [CULG (i, j)]} content indicates of cultural heritage artefact production or acquisition material contribution within creative economy activities.
Now, we shall investigate the data transfer between BPFs, the internal metrics of which is represented by linguistic sets denoted as cultural capital {[CULC (i, j)]}, symbolic capital {[SYMC (i, j)]}, social capital {[SOCC (i, j)]}, and performance dimensions {[PEDC (i, j)]}within CE Process items and MIC Process internal metrics items postulated as follows:
\nThe
The
However, the (ARTAP (i, j)) – artistic aspect linguistic set includes further subordinated sets postulated as follows: (a) artistic standards (ARTTSTA (i, j)), (b) artistic styles (ARTTSTY (i, j)), and artistic values (ARTVAL (i, j)) as well, while the {[SYMC (i, j)]} subset content is closely related to intellectual capital 2 – (ICA2(i, j)) linguistic subset existing within MIC processes.
\nThe principal layout of Data transfer between CE Process and MIC Process internal metrics items Part 1 (cultural and symbolic capital) and intellectual capital part 2 is shown in Figure 5a.
\nThe
Further subordinated linguistic sets postulated as follows:
(COMPER (i, j)
Artistic dividend (ARTDI (i, j))
Talent (TALEN (i, j))
Technology (TECHN (i, j))
Tolerance (TOLER (i, j))
(ARTMER (i, j))
(SOCIMP (i, j
Affects individuality change (ICAF (i, j))
Awards (AVAR (i, j))
Civilizing effect on society (CEOS (i, j))
Critical evaluations (CEVA (i, j))
Nominations (NOMI (i, j))
and the {[SYMC (i, j)]} subset content is closely related to intellectual capital 3 – (ICA3 (i, j)) linguistic subset existing within MIC processes.
\nThe
(PERFT (i, j))
Artistic merit cumulative values through time and space (AMECVTS (i, j))
CEP11 cumulative values through time and space (CEPCVTS (i, j))
(MANPERF (i, j)),
Creative production process (CRP (i, j))
Outcome consumption (OUC (i, j))
Outcome distribution (OUD (i, j))
while the (PERFT (i, j) subset content is closely related to intellectual capital 3 – (ICA3 (i, j)) linguistic subset and (MANPERF (i, j)) subset content is closely related to material input {[MI (i, j)]}, material input cost {[MICS (i, j)]},, output material {[OMP (i, j)]}, products and output material product assets {[OMPA (i, j)]} linguistic sets existing within MIC processes.
\nWhen considering the System of Creative Economy two principle aspects should be considered and respected. The first one is closely related to a huge set of appropriate business processes running within that system. However, the second aspect is concerned with the fact, that system should respect adequate system theory principles as well, while any system vertical structure is being created by: (a) subsystems, (b) components and (c) modules and (d) sub-modules actually. With respect to that theory, we can define two principle subsystems related to creative economy system. The first subsystem is closely related to art creative activities and the second one is concerned with scientific, research and development activities. We shall discuss the art creative activities, where cultural heritage administration plays a role of principle importance and creates a target subsystem of the Creative Economy system discussed within that section, while the subsystem concerned with scientific research and development will be omitted. The cultural heritage administration relatively individual system seems to be the principle subsystem of the creative system and the core business process running within that system. As a result of that two main business processes might be defined: (a) CHC Cultural heritage artifact creation and CHM Cultural heritage artifact management. Furthermore, we shall discuss a set of problems concerned with structure and metrics related to both above-mentioned main business processes.
\nThe CHC Cultural heritage artifact creation main business process horizontal structure might contain a lot of different business process functions (BPFs), however the linguistic sets representing its external and internal metrics might be defined as follows: (a) cultural heritage artifact creation economic data {[CHACED (i, j)]}, (b) cultural heritage artifact data {[CHAD (i, j)]}, and (c) cultural heritage artifact production data {[CHAPD (i, j)]}.
\nOn the other hand, the CHM Cultural heritage artifact management main business process has its own vertical structure represented by three subprocesses: (a) CHM-01 Cultural heritage artifact acquisition, (b) CHM-02 Cultural heritage artifact processing, and (c) CHM-03 Cultural heritage artifact delivery, while the CHM- 01 business process external and internal metrics is represented by the following linguistic sets: (a) cultural heritage artifact technical data {[CHATD (i, j)]}, (b) cultural heritage artifact commercial data {[CHACD (i, j)]}, (c) cultural heritage artifact operational data {[CHAOD (i, j)]}, and (d) cultural heritage artifact economic data {[CHAED (i, j)]}. The CHM- 02 business process external and internal metrics is represented by the following linguistic sets: (a) Cultural heritage artifact archival processing data {[CHAAPD (i, j)], (b) Cultural heritage artifact economic processing data {[CHAEPD (i, j)]}, (c) Cultural heritage artifact objective processing data {[CHAOPD (i, j)]}.
\nThe CHM- 03 business process external and internal metrics is represented by the following linguistic sets: (a) cultural heritage delivered artifact data {[CHADD (i, j)]}, (b) cultural heritage delivered searcher’s data {[CHASD (i, j)].
\nRemark:
\n\n
The business process denoted as Cultural Heritage Administration seems to be the core process and consists of two: main process as mentioned within previous section. However, the metrics linguistic sets related to both main processes are described within previous section as well, while the algorithms of data transfer among Cultural Heritage Administration subprocesses and CEP processes are described within following subsections with respect to the CEP Process functions and their metrics. We shall describe the transfer of data contained within linguistic sets {[CHAED (i, j)]}, {[CHAD (i, j)]}, and{[CHAPD (i, j)]} closely related with CHC Cultural heritage artifact creation business process and CEP Process subordinated business processes generalized as follows:
\nThe {[CHAED (i, j)]}, and{[CHAPD (i, j)]} LS content is being transferred to
The {[CHAD (i, j)]} and {[CHAPD (i, j)]} LS content is being transferred to
The {[CHAED (i, j)]}, {[CHAD (i, j)]}, and {[CHAPD (i, j)]} linguistic set (LS) content is being transferred to
The {[CHAED (i, j)]}, {[CHAD (i, j)]}, and {[CHAPD (i, j)]} linguistic set (LS) content is being transferred to{[
The {[CHAED (i, j)]}, {[CHAD (i, j)]}, and {[CHAPD (i, j)]} linguistic set (LS) content is being transferred to
The {[CHAED (i, j)]}, {[CHAPD (i, j)]}, and {[CHAD (i, j)]} LS content is being transferred to
In general, any business process is represented by an appropriate vertical and horizontal structure and external and internal metrics approximated by adequate linguistic sets12 as well. While the
On the other hand, the
The MAC Process metrics13 item is represented by hierarchic structure, while at the first hierarchic level is created by three subordinated linguistic sets: (a) goods market {MAC:[GM (i, j)]}, (b) financial market {MAC:[FM (i, j)]}, and labour market {MAC:[LM (i, j)]}, while the second hierarchic level has the following structure {MAC:[GM(GDP (i, j)]}, {MAC:[GM(EA (i, j)]}, {MAC: [LM(WA (i, j)]},{MAC: [FM(CA (i, j)]}, {MAC: [FM(SA (i, j)]}, {MAC: [LM(WA (i, j)]}, MAC: [LM(PR (i, j)]}, MAC: [LM(WAPRE14 (i, j)]
\nThe microprocess metrics linguistic sets cover MIC Process external metrics, while the external metric set contain the following subsets: (a) Material input cost items {[MICI (i, j)]}, (b) Material input items {[MII (i, j)]}, (c) Output material product assets {[OMPA (i, j)]} and (d) Output material product assets {[OMP (i, j)]}
\nThe data transfer from microprocesses external metrics to macroprocesses is running in the following steps:
Material input cost {[MII (i, j)]} and {[MICI (i, j)]}, linguistic set content is being transferred to {MAC: [GM (EA (i, j)]},]} linguistic set
Output material product assets {[OMPA (i, j)]} and Output material product assets {[OMP (i, j)]} linguistic set content is being transferred to {MAC:[GM(EA (i, j)]}, linguistic set
Output material product assets {[OMPA (i, j)]} and Output material product assets {[OMP (i, j)]} linguistic set content is being transferred to {MAC:[GM(GDP (i, j)]}, linguistic set
Output material product assets {[OMPA (i, j)]} and Output material product assets {[OMP (i, j)]} linguistic set content is being transferred to {MAC:[FM(GDP (i, j)]}, linguistic set MAC: [FM(CA (i, j)]} and {MAC: [FM(SA (i, j)]}.
Output material product assets {[OMPA (i, j)]} and Output material product assets {[OMP (i, j)]} linguistic set content is being transferred to {MAC: [LM(WA (i, j)]}, MAC: [LM(PR (i, j)]}, MAC: [LM(WAPRE.
The data transfer from microprocesses internal metrics to macroprocesses is running in the following steps:
The {MIC: IM:[DEV (i, j)]} and {MIC:[IM:TOOL (i, j)]} linguistic content is being transferred to MAC: [FM(CA (i, j)]}, {MAC: [FM(SA (i, j)]}, and {MAC:[GM(EA (i, j)]} linguistic sets
The {MIC: IM:[DEV (i, j)]} and {MIC:[IM:TOOL (i, j)]} linguistic content is being transferred to {MAC: [LM(WA (i, j)]}, MAC: [LM(PR (i, j)]}, MAC: [LM(WAPRE.
The {MIC: IM:[HR (i, j)]} linguistic content is being transferred to {MAC: [LM(WA (i, j)]}, MAC: [LM(PR (i, j)]}, MAC: [LM(WAPRE.
After having completed the previous step, the extracted data and data segments or fragments are transformed to data structure, which might be accepted by application, which enables generating adequate creative economics strategies.
As mentioned above, the DTS Systems operates within two directions. It provides data transfer from CE Processes to MAC Processes, while the MIC Processes play a role of mediator, when running the data transfer between CE and MAC Processes and that type of transfer is covered by DTS1 Subsystem, the data transfer between MAC and CE processes is covered by DTS2 Subsystem. We shall describe a structure and functionality of DTS2 Subsystem in that section.
\nIn general, the creative economy processes (CE Processes) are closely related to social and economic processes, which represent external environment and provide transfer of signals or data to set of macroprocesses, which represent an outgoing point for data transfer concerned to social and economic requirements related to CE and MIC processes. On one hand, when considering the social processes, a set of cultural and art processes play a role of principle importance. On the other hand, when considering the economic processes the research and development processes create basis from creative economy point of view, while the logistics, and personal management processes play a role of principle importance for the research and development processes and for production processes as well. Both of the above-mentioned processes (social and economic) provide transfer of data to MAC processes, which are necessary from external and internal source analysis and they play an important role, when generating values closely related to KPI indicators postulated at national economy level.
\nHowever, the KPI indicator values postulated at national economy level are being transferred to MIC processes, where their decomposition related to appropriate MIC process busines levels (strategic, tactic and operational) and play an important role at BPMIV setting and evaluation of performance related to adequate processes running within MIC processes set. However, the KPI indicators play an important role MIC and CE process management as well, while cultural heritage creation and management seems to be the core process from creative economy processes point of view. The principal layout of data transfer from MAC to MIC and CE processes is shown in Figure 6.
\nAs mentioned above (see also Section 7.1), the DTS System – Conceptual Model is a standardized system denoted as DATRA_09 Data Transfer Conceptual Model, which should provide a bi-directional data transfer. On one hand, from Creative Economy Business Processes (CEP Processes) to Microprocesses (MIC Processes) and (MIC Processes) and from Microprocess to Macroprocesses (MAC Processes) and on the other hand, we have to consider the data transfer from macroprocesses, throughout microprocesses up to CEP Processes as well, while DTS System – Conceptual Model consists of four subsystems as shown in Figure 4. However, the social and economic processes create significant elements of DTS System external environment and generate appropriate data important for functionality of MAC Processes, which provide services for KPI indicator generation [22] within an appropriate firm or company business strategy creation [25, 26].
\nHowever, there is data and information generated as a result of text [27, 28] and image sematic analysis [29, 30], as well, while some of those algorithms might be applied, when providing analysis of the firm or company external and internal resources before getting started business strategy creation and KPI generation too. Subsequently, the KPI indicators are being decomposed [22] and assigned to adequate MIC Processes organization units and their metrics [24] item values are being set simultaneously. After having completed the above-mentioned action the management of MIC and CEP Processes might be started, where logistic, personal financial and research and development management play a role of principle importance as well, while the production processes are significant for MIC process management and cultural heritage creation and management are significant from CEP Processes point of view.
\nThe principle layout of DTS2 System Conceptual Model is shown in Figure 7.
\nThe above-mentioned DTS System implemented via so called economic network, which seems to be relatively independent system and consist subsystems covering data transfer within CE, Micro and Macroprocesses (EN-S1 Subsystem) and Macro, Micro and CE Processes (EN-S2 Subsystem) as well.
\n\n
However
The
However, the
The EN-S1 subsystem structure and functionality is being discussed within previous sections and the EN-S2 subsystem structure and functionality will be discussed within individual and independent contribution.
\nThe principal layout of Economic Network structure is shown in Figure 8.
\nThe principal layout of Economic Network structure. Source: The Authors.
The Economic Network system (EN System) plays a role of information and knowledge-based supporting facility for CE, MIC, and MAC Processes. However, the EN System provides services related to KPI creation and decomposition, which is important for business strategy design within MIC and CE processes as well and is being designed as an information system and as a knowledge-based system too. On one hand, when considering the information system, the linguistic sets are implemented as standardized database tables, on the other hand, considering the knowledge based system the linguistic sets create basis of adequate reference databases and play a role semantic network elements. When considering the user’s communication with the information system an appropriate database management system for those purposes should be applied and when considering the user’s communication with an adequate knowledge-based system an appropriate inference system is used for those purposes. The above-mentioned aspects should be respected within EN System design and implementation, while a selected GraphDB [31] system will be applied for EN System design and implementation and an adequate application program should be created.
\nAt present, the creative economy seems to a new branch, which provides interconnection between cultural standardized economy sphere and includes different activities related to culture and cultural heritage creation and management. However, providing those activities requires intellectual, material, and financial support as well, while all of them are closely related to macroeconomy and microeconomy objectives. On the other hand, the creative economics processes are the business processes too. However, they have adequate vertical and horizontal structure require an appropriate information, knowledge-based and organization support as well in order to assure their proper and efficient functionality, while their information support and metrics elements are closely related to each other. As a result of that the data or information transfer plays a role of principal importance and is running in two stages: (a) from creative economy to microeconomy BPs and (b) from microeconomy to macroeconomy BPs. Of course, the data transfer from DTS System external area represented by social and macroprocesses to CE Processes play an important role as well, while a set of MIC Processes represent an appropriate go-between element and an integral part of sensors and effectors, acting within grey zone, which exists between BP external and internal environment.
\nThe above-mentioned DTS System implemented via appropriate economic network, which seems to be relatively independent system and consist subsystems covering data transfer within CE, Micro and Macroprocesses (EN-S1 Subsystem) and Macro, Micro and CE Processes (EN-S2 Subsystem) as well.
\nThe above-mentioned stages are being implemented and operated via appropriate economic networks, the (a) phase activities are covered by economic network I and the (b) phase are covered by economic network II. Both above-mentioned economic network subsystems should be implemented and operated via adequate Datawarehouse system, where the economic network subsystems EN-S1 and EN-S2 could be implemented via Datamart I and Datamart II and both have their own ETL systems, which provide extraction of data from appropriate linguistic sets (E), the data transformation (T) to pre-defined structure of multidimensional tables and data loading (L) to the above DataMart I and Datamart II. On the other hand, there is an appropriate OLAP system, which should enable providing data selection and analysis with respect to authorized user requirements. Moreover, that system could contain a software, which enables providing a semantic analysis of EU documents and extracting data, which are inserted into a software, which prepares supporting data concerned to business strategy of the firm or company, which deals with creative economy activities.
\nAt present, the creative economy seems to a new branch, which provides interconnection between cultural standardized economy sphere and includes different activities related to culture and cultural heritage creation and management. However, providing those activities requires intellectual, material, and financial support as well, while all of them are closely related to macroeconomy and microeconomy objectives. On the other hand, the creative economics processes are the business processes too. However, they have adequate vertical and horizontal structure require an appropriate information, knowledge-based and organization support as well in order to assure their proper and efficient functionality, while their information support and metrics elements are closely related to each other. As a result of that the data or information transfer plays a role of principal importance and is running in two stages: (a) from creative economy to microeconomy BPs and (b) from microeconomy to macroeconomy BPs. Of course, the data transfer from DTS System external area represented by social and macroprocesses to CE Processes play an important role as well, while a set of MIC Processes represent an appropriate go-between element and an integral part of sensors and effectors, acting within grey zone, which exists between BP external and internal environment. The above-mentioned DTS System implemented via appropriate economic network, which seems to be relatively independent system and consist subsystems covering data transfer within CE, Micro and Macroprocesses (EN-S1 Subsystem) and Macro, Micro and CE Processes (EN-S2 Subsystem) as well The above-mentioned stages are being implemented and operated via appropriate economic networks, the (a) phase activities are covered by economic network I and the (b) phase are covered by economic network II. Both above-mentioned economic network subsystems should be implemented and operated via adequate Datawarehouse system, where the economic network subsystems EN-S1 and EN-S2 could be implemented via Datamart I and Datamart II and both have their own ETL systems, which provide extraction of data from appropriate linguistic sets (E), the data transformation (T) to pre-defined structure of multidimensional tables and data loading (L) to the above DataMart I and Datamart II. On the other hand, there is an appropriate OLAP system, which should enable providing data selection and analysis with respect to authorized user requirements. Moreover, that system could contain a software, which enables providing a semantic analysis of EU documents and extracting data, which are inserted into a software, which prepares supporting data concerned to business strategy of the firm or company, which deals with creative economy activities.
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Integrity - We are consistent and dependable, always striving for precision and accuracy in the true spirit of science.
\n\nOpenness - We communicate honestly and transparently. We are open to constructive criticism and committed to learning from it.
\n\nDisruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
\n\nIntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Ogbureke and Christopher Bingham",authors:[{id:"82914",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalu",middleName:"Ugwa Emmanuel",surname:"Ogbureke",slug:"kalu-ogbureke",fullName:"Kalu Ogbureke"},{id:"150716",title:"Dr.",name:"Christopher",middleName:null,surname:"Bingham",slug:"christopher-bingham",fullName:"Christopher Bingham"}]},{id:"31769",doi:"10.5772/32666",title:"Epithelial-Mesenchymal Interactions in Oral Cancer Metastasis",slug:"epithelial-mesenchymal-interactions-in-oral-cancer-metastasis",totalDownloads:2568,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"753",slug:"oral-cancer",title:"Oral Cancer",fullTitle:"Oral Cancer"},signatures:"Silvana Papagerakis and Giuseppe Pannone",authors:[{id:"90514",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Pannone",slug:"giuseppe-pannone",fullName:"Giuseppe Pannone"},{id:"92278",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvana",middleName:null,surname:"Papagerakis",slug:"silvana-papagerakis",fullName:"Silvana Papagerakis"}]},{id:"48229",doi:"10.5772/60081",title:"Radioresistance in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma — Possible Molecular Markers for Local Recurrence and New Putative Therapeutic Strategies",slug:"radioresistance-in-head-and-neck-squamous-cell-carcinoma-possible-molecular-markers-for-local-recurr",totalDownloads:1948,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"4533",slug:"contemporary-issues-in-head-and-neck-cancer-management",title:"Contemporary Issues in Head and Neck Cancer Management",fullTitle:"Contemporary Issues in Head and Neck Cancer Management"},signatures:"Federica Ganci, Andrea Sacconi, Valentina Manciocco, Giuseppe Spriano, Giulia Fontemaggi, Paolo Carlini and Giovanni Blandino",authors:[{id:"89490",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanni",middleName:null,surname:"Blandino",slug:"giovanni-blandino",fullName:"Giovanni Blandino"},{id:"95819",title:"Dr.",name:"Federica",middleName:null,surname:"Ganci",slug:"federica-ganci",fullName:"Federica Ganci"},{id:"95822",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Sacconi",slug:"andrea-sacconi",fullName:"Andrea Sacconi"},{id:"95823",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Manciocco",slug:"valentina-manciocco",fullName:"Valentina Manciocco"},{id:"95824",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Spriano",slug:"giuseppe-spriano",fullName:"Giuseppe Spriano"},{id:"95827",title:"Dr.",name:"Giulia",middleName:null,surname:"Fontemaggi",slug:"giulia-fontemaggi",fullName:"Giulia Fontemaggi"},{id:"177182",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Carlini",slug:"paolo-carlini",fullName:"Paolo Carlini"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"48215",title:"Local Metastasis in Head and Neck Cancer - an Overview",slug:"local-metastasis-in-head-and-neck-cancer-an-overview",totalDownloads:3048,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"4533",slug:"contemporary-issues-in-head-and-neck-cancer-management",title:"Contemporary Issues in Head and Neck Cancer Management",fullTitle:"Contemporary Issues in Head and Neck Cancer Management"},signatures:"Suwarna Dangore–Khasbage",authors:[{id:"82999",title:"Dr.",name:"Suwarna",middleName:null,surname:"Dangore-Khasbage",slug:"suwarna-dangore-khasbage",fullName:"Suwarna Dangore-Khasbage"}]},{id:"63725",title:"Early Detection and Multidisciplinary Approach to Oral Cancer Patients",slug:"early-detection-and-multidisciplinary-approach-to-oral-cancer-patients",totalDownloads:1243,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"“Oral cancer” is a term usually describing oral cavity and oropharyngeal malign tumors. The most histologic type of carcinoma is squamous cell carcinoma, seen in oral and oropharyngeal region with the incidence of 90%. Prevention or early diagnosis of premalignant and oral cancer requires increased public awareness and educating practitioners to be skillful in identifying oropharyngeal region pathology. To prevent oral cancers, the etiological factors should be known, and measures must be taken according to those factors. Premalignant lesions are leukoplakia, lichen planus in oral and cutaneous form, erythroplakia, stomatitis nicotina, and submucous fibrosis. Premalignant lesions should be treated, if possible, or followed up on carefully. To date, there are many clinical, histopathological, radiological, and optical techniques to diagnose or capture precancerous and oral cancer lesions early. The routine management of oral cancers is firstly surgical resection with or without postoperative adjuncts and other therapies such as the use of postoperative chemoradiation and radiation. Successful treatment of oral cancer patients is a complex issue that requires a multidisciplinary approach, including oral and maxillofacial surgeons, oral and maxillofacial radiologists, ENT specialists, medical and radiological oncologists, prosthodontists, dentists, speech therapists, supportive care experts, and also pathologists or, if possible, oral and maxillofacial pathologists.",book:{id:"8631",slug:"prevention-detection-and-management-of-oral-cancer",title:"Prevention, Detection and Management of Oral Cancer",fullTitle:"Prevention, Detection and Management of Oral Cancer"},signatures:"Nihat Akbulut and Ahmet Altan",authors:[{id:"262769",title:"Dr.",name:"Nihat",middleName:null,surname:"Akbulut",slug:"nihat-akbulut",fullName:"Nihat Akbulut"},{id:"268500",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmet",middleName:null,surname:"Altan",slug:"ahmet-altan",fullName:"Ahmet Altan"}]},{id:"63395",title:"The Impact of Sequencing Human Genome on Drug Design to Treat Oral Cancer",slug:"the-impact-of-sequencing-human-genome-on-drug-design-to-treat-oral-cancer",totalDownloads:915,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Of all the known cancers, oral cancer is the most preventable and it is the second most deadly cancer after the breast cancer. Out of 609,640 deaths of overall cancers, 13,500 died of oral cancer. In spite of this enormous increase in loss of life, there are no useful drugs to treat oral cancer. Sequencing human genome identifies with precision and accuracy the specific mutations responsible for causing oral cancer. In this chapter, a novel approach to design drugs to attack mutated genes in squamous cell carcinoma responsible for causing oral cancer is proposed. Alkylating aziridines attack single-stranded DNA shutting off genes. Using dinitrobenzamide dye as a carrier for aziridine, we successfully made a novel class of drugs (CB 1954) which shuts off gene of a solid tumor, Walker Carcinoma 256, in rats. We translated the animal work in humans by using quinone as a carrier for aziridines making AZQ (US Patent 4,146,622) for attacking glioblastoma for treating brain cancer in humans. We propose to search for a carrier for aziridines to attack squamous cell carcinomas to treat oral cancer. Ethical issues are discussed. Since tobacco smoking causes oral cancer, it is the most preventable disease.",book:{id:"8631",slug:"prevention-detection-and-management-of-oral-cancer",title:"Prevention, Detection and Management of Oral Cancer",fullTitle:"Prevention, Detection and Management of Oral Cancer"},signatures:"Abdul Hameed Khan",authors:[{id:"262416",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul Hameed",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"abdul-hameed-khan",fullName:"Abdul Hameed Khan"}]},{id:"67124",title:"Introductory Chapter: Head and Neck Cancer",slug:"introductory-chapter-head-and-neck-cancer",totalDownloads:898,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"8631",slug:"prevention-detection-and-management-of-oral-cancer",title:"Prevention, Detection and Management of Oral Cancer",fullTitle:"Prevention, Detection and Management of Oral Cancer"},signatures:"Sivapatham Sundaresan and Paliarasu Rajapriya",authors:[{id:"187272",title:"Dr.",name:"Sivapatham",middleName:null,surname:"Sundaresan",slug:"sivapatham-sundaresan",fullName:"Sivapatham Sundaresan"}]},{id:"66850",title:"Thyroid Anatomy",slug:"thyroid-anatomy",totalDownloads:981,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In ancient times, the Celsius first identified the masses in the neck and reported that their surgical removal was fatal. The sources related to thyroid surgery show that the success of the neck masses with the surgical intervention was limited until the second half of the nineteenth century. Among the names leading the development of thyroid surgery in contemporary times are Emil Theodor Kocher, Theodor Billroth, William James Mayo, and William Stewart Halsted. In this chapter, we will be investigating thyroid gland embryology, histology, and anatomy that is essential to the practicing thyroid surgeon.",book:{id:"7883",slug:"knowledges-on-thyroid-cancer",title:"Knowledges on Thyroid Cancer",fullTitle:"Knowledges on Thyroid Cancer"},signatures:"Sinan Binboga, Eyup Gemici and Elif Binboga",authors:[{id:"291528",title:"Dr.",name:"Sinan",middleName:null,surname:"Binboga",slug:"sinan-binboga",fullName:"Sinan Binboga"},{id:"295739",title:"Dr.",name:"Eyup",middleName:null,surname:"Gemici",slug:"eyup-gemici",fullName:"Eyup Gemici"},{id:"295740",title:"Dr.",name:"Elif",middleName:null,surname:"Binboga",slug:"elif-binboga",fullName:"Elif Binboga"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1081",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:302,paginationItems:[{id:"280338",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Tsutsumi",slug:"yutaka-tsutsumi",fullName:"Yutaka Tsutsumi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280338/images/7961_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fujita Health University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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