Scoring scales for the collective engagement urban resilience framework.
\r\n\t
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"abf31c9873fc2d88b8ee05c6adb53a29",bookSignature:"Dr. David Bienvenido-Huertas",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10104.jpg",keywords:"Sustainable Construction, Innovative Construction, Construction Processes, Sustainable Design, Design Optimization, Maintenance Minimization, Energy Efficiency, Energy Conservation Measures, Thermal Comfort, Socio-cultural Integration, Urban Environment, Visual Impact",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 26th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 22nd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 10th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 11th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"David Bienvenido-Huertas has completed his Ph.D. as an Architect, currently, he is a researcher of the Building Construction II Department at Universidad de Sevilla, Spain",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"320815",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Bienvenido-Huertas",slug:"david-bienvenido-huertas",fullName:"David Bienvenido-Huertas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320815/images/system/320815.jpg",biography:"PhD Architect. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"71077",title:"Keeping Feet Dry: Rotterdam’s Experience in Flood Risk and Resilience Building",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91147",slug:"keeping-feet-dry-rotterdam-s-experience-in-flood-risk-and-resilience-building",body:'\nThe City of Rotterdam has undergone several city development plans since World War II. After the bombing of Rotterdam in 1940, the city drew up a reconstruction plan which focused on the major infrastructures within the center. However, it was only after the Germans left in 1945 did the reconstruction work finally took off. In 1946, Cornelius Van Traa drew up the Basic Scheme for the Reconstruction of the City of Rotterdam, most commonly referred to as the Basic Plan [1]. Much of the earlier efforts were focused on the reconstruction of the port which serves as the major economic backbone of Rotterdam.
\nIn February 1, 1953, a huge flooding disaster called the Great North Sea flood hit the Netherlands, Belgium and the United Kingdom. The Great North Sea flood inundated 160,000 ha of polderland and left a total of 1835 dead ([2], p. 740) in the South of Holland. The flooding disaster led to the development of the Deltaplan and in 1958 the plan was released prioritizing the implementation of the Deltaworks project which is a network of flood preventive infrastructures such as dams, sluices, storm surge barriers throughout the Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt river delta in the South of Holland. Since Rotterdam is an important port for the Netherlands the Deltaplan is very significant in the development of the city. It also coincided with the port expansion in the Botlek and Europoort areas which made Rotterdam the largest port in the world in the early 60s. The Deltaworks project necessitated the raising of existing dikes and storm closures except for the waterway between Rotterdam and Antwerp [2, 3]. This opening was necessary to provide access to both ports.
\nThe World Risk Report 2019 [4] indicated the risk exposure score of the Netherlands at 31.73 being a low-lying country threatened by sea level rise. However, the same report indicated that while the country has high exposure to disaster risks its vulnerability is very low and is ranked 77 over 180 countries. This can be attributed to the very strong and organized Dutch preventive infrastructure that has been in place for more than 60 years. In recent years, the Dutch have shifted its water management strategy from mitigation to a more climate adaptive way. Cities like Rotterdam have turned to this strategy since 2007 with the Water Plan 2. The city has been a frontrunner in climate change adaptation by designing innovative and inconspicuous water basins and reservoirs throughout the city. These infrastructure were built based on the studies and projections on sea level rise and its projected effects in the City of Rotterdam. The rising sea and river level remains a threat to the city especially during the storm season between October and April. But these are not the only threats present; heavy rainfall and low groundwater absorption are more often experienced in the city.
\nIn 2014, the City of Rotterdam formally joined the 100 Resilient Cities of The Rockefeller Foundation and in 2016 released its Resilience Strategy with seven resilience goals: (1) Rotterdam: a balanced society, (2) World Port City built on clean and reliable energy, (3) Rotterdam Cyber Port City, (4) Climate adaptive city to a new level, (5) infrastructure ready for the 21st century, (6) Rotterdam network—truly our city, and (7) anchoring resilience in the city (City of Rotterdam, 2016). Rotterdam’s Resilience Strategy highlight the city’s strong and robust “planning and control” but also “foresee a number of new transitions and challenges and will have to stay alert and be prepared to build capacity to adapt to these challenges” (p. 26) [5]. According to Spaans and Waterhout since joining the 100 Resilient Cities, Rotterdam expanded its resilience agenda from climate change adaptation to include other urban issues such as cyber security, social issues, education, and labor market [6]. However, the Resilience Strategy did not define what resilience is, instead boasted that resilience need not be explained because it is in the DNA of the Rotterdammers.
\nThere is no doubt that resilience is in the DNA of the Rotterdammers. The will to survive and rise up to adversity has been there since the bombing of the city in 1940—wherein a reconstruction plan was immediately created—and the Great North Sea flood in 1953—which led to the Deltaworks project. But resilience is not just about the infrastructure and while the Resilience Strategy of Rotterdam identified the Rotterdammers as resilient, how do the “Rotterdammers,” the stakeholders, define resilience? And what makes a city like Rotterdam resilient? Using in-depth interviews of key stakeholders in the City of Rotterdam, this study investigates the collective engagement in the city and how this has helped shape Rotterdam’s position in urban resilience.
\nCities are complex, multi-dimensional socio-ecological systems that have both the social systems (institutional, social, economic functions) and ecological systems (physical, spatial, built and natural environments). A resilient city uses this socio-ecological system as interrelated and interdependent networks to prepare and adapt to changes and disturbances. Natural disaster like flooding is one of the many disturbances that prompts change in cities.
\nCities that have experienced a disaster often go through series of transformations at different levels and scales. One key element in this transformation after a disaster is the capacity of the people to collectively engage to support and work together to overcome the disaster and become more resilient. Participation and engagement of stakeholders in development planning allows different sectors to discuss, design, develop and create solutions that benefit the general population. There is a perception that without a multi-stakeholder participatory approach stronger and more powerful sectors or sections of society may step on weaker sectors in the planning process. This results to a skewed development that leans to these more powerful sectors. This criticism is not without basis since most government initiated participatory consultation workshops are often done to present already pre-decided development plans.
\nCollective engagement is considered within the realm of collaboration and collaborative processes which means that multiple stakeholders across sectors and networks engage in collective decision-making and action. This collaborative process may be through formal and informal networks bounded by trust and mutual adaptation of roles among the institutional actors and non-institutional stakeholders. Collective engagement in urban resilience is a dynamic process of transformation that goes through a series of actions and is defined as,
\n\nA collaborative process participated in by multiple stakeholders to arrive at a solution or decision to increase urban resilience through both formal and informal means. It is the collaboration between and among stakeholders over a prolonged period with varying manners in achieving a level of resilience that contributes to a collective goal of urban resilience. Collective engagement as a collaborative process is characterized by having reciprocity, trust and mutual respect between and among state and non-state stakeholders. [7]
\nBuilding urban resilience requires the collective engagement of stakeholders in the vision of the city to become resilient. There are two approaches to urban resilience, the government approach and the self-organization approach. The collective engagement urban resilience framework incorporates the two approaches emphasizing that urban resilience can be achieved when the government and the self-organization (citizen) approach has the same concern and awareness on the city’s risks and vulnerabilities, and the same vision and goal to become resilient. This can be assessed in terms of the collaborative capacities of the institutional actors (government) and the non-institutional actors (citizens and citizen groups). It meets in the middle when both actors increase their capacities and collaboration to achieve their common goal (mutual adaptation of roles).
\nCollective engagement as a transformation framework has four dimensions—concern, action, efficacy and security. Each dimension reflects the level of urban resilience in terms of the collaborative capacities of the institutional actors and the non-institutional actors. These collaborative capacities may be in the partnerships formed by the institutional actors and the citizens and citizen groups, and/or the government-led collaborative initiatives, and/or self-organizations formed by the non-government stakeholders that contribute to the overall vision and goal of the city to become resilient. All stakeholders must have the shared vision and goals to achieve urban resilience and are committed to support these efforts.
\nThe collective engagement urban resilience framework begins from the collective concern which refers to the shared concern of the stakeholders on the risks and vulnerabilities of the city. Resilience requires public concern (p. 26) [8] but concern is ineffective if the people do not have the capacity to participate, engage and collaborate in creating a resilient city. Knowledge, skills and awareness increases their ability to participate, empowers the citizens and increases government accountability. Concern is also the catalyst for action, the second dimension of the framework. Collective action happens when there is a shared effort to achieve an outcome. It facilitates the exchange of information, knowledge and experiences to help in creating solutions. It is driven by the networks maintained by the stakeholders as individuals and groups. Social networks help in facilitating the required action towards a given issue. The sense of community is much more evident in this dimension where stakeholders with the help of their social networks cooperate to achieve a common agenda. In this dimension, the action taken by the government driven approach will be more policy oriented and general to benefit all of the stakeholders.
\nThe next dimension, collective efficacy, conjures a task specific construct that highlights shared expectation and mutual agreements by residents in local social control [9]. Collective efficacy is the result of having an empowered community that effectively takes action to improve their city but also a government that has a strong enabling environment and economy that help propagate growth. This dimension is built on mutual trust and regular interaction that is accessible to a wider network. Last, collective security refers to the security against disasters that the city and its citizens collectively enjoy, which is brought about by the alliance and partnership between the stakeholders and the city government. Engaging stakeholders in discussing problems and possible solutions help in developing arrangements with the government to push forward collaborative actions towards urban management and resilience. However, in order to this effectively governments should be open to collaborating with stakeholders and should have the necessary resources to be able to fully realize a resilient city.
\nThe framework shows that both government and self-organization approach begins at the collective concern and moves towards the different dimensions in different pathways and timescales to reach a level of efficacy and converge to a level of security. As illustrated in Figure 1 the overall urban resilience is also influenced by the human, social, institutional, economic and environmental capitals.
\nCollective engagement urban resilience framework. Source: Esteban [7].
This study is based on the findings of the first author’s fieldwork for her dissertation project “Collective engagement: from disaster-prone city to disaster-resilient city.” The Rotterdam city case study is one of the four case studies under the dissertation research. This study draws on the secondary data and primary data collected through key informants interviews conducted from November 2018 to February 2019. It focuses on how the disaster experience of Rotterdam led to the its current level of urban resilience, and the role and understanding of the stakeholders towards the vision of Rotterdam as a Resilient City. The primary data collected will be the main source of information supported by secondary data such as policy documents, scientific articles, government websites and other secondary sources.
\nThe Rotterdam city case study is based on 19 semi-structured interviews of key stakeholders following the criteria of the collective engagement urban resilience framework. Specifically, stakeholders who fall under the government approach and the self-organization approach. The government stakeholders identified for the study are the institutional actors (government workers and the water board) and the planners (academics). Under the self-organization approach stakeholders identified are citizens (non-government organizations, community council, housing associations, private citizens) and the capital stakeholders (architectural firm and the port authority). There was an initial list of 13 key knowledgeable persons in city development and planning, and disaster risk management in the City of Rotterdam targeted to be interviewed. Using the snowball sampling each key informants interview respondent was asked to recommend one or two persons until reaching the saturation point. In total, 19 interviews were done for the case study (9 institutional, 2 planners, 6 citizens and 2 capital stakeholders).
\nA set of scores were used to assess the urban resilience of Rotterdam using the collective engagement urban resilience framework. Each collective dimension consists of a set of variables and further operationalized into a criteria that falls under each score using a five-point Likert scale (Table 1).
\nCollective dimensions and variables | \nScore | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Poor | \nFair | \nModerate | \nGood | \nVery good | \n|
1 | \n2 | \n3 | \n4 | \n5 | \n|
Collective concern | \n|||||
Strong collective memory on disaster events | \nPoor remembrance of disaster events or no experience of disaster | \nRemembers past disaster events | \nRemembers past disaster events and the action of the city thereafter | \nPast disaster events passed on to new generation | \nPast disaster events stimulate current development of the city | \n
Strong network | \nNo presence or weak presence of organized groups | \nPresence of organized groups such as housing or community associations | \nPresence of both housing associations and community organizations | \nPresence of housing associations, community organizations and volunteers | \nLocally organized groups recognized by the government and working with local government | \n
Strong local knowledge and local adaptation measures | \nAbsence or poor local knowledge on how to address flooding | \nSome local knowledge and local adaptation measures | \nAdequate local knowledge and local adaptation measures | \nDemonstrable local knowledge and local adaptation measures | \nLocal knowledge and local adaptation measures combined with knowledge sharing within networks | \n
Collective action | \n|||||
Strong awareness and concern on disaster risk, preparedness, and management | \nPoor level of concern and awareness on disaster risk of the city | \nLow level of concern and awareness on disaster risk, preparedness, and management | \nAdequate level of concern and awareness on disaster risk, preparedness, and management | \nAware of the disaster risks in the city and understand disaster management | \nStrong awareness and understanding of disaster risks in the city and disaster management | \n
Strong presence of disaster risk management units | \nNo presence of local disaster risk management units | \nPresence of locally organized groups on disaster risk management and preparedness | \nPresence of local disaster risk management units recognized by the local government | \nPresence of local disaster risk management units coordinates with local community | \nLocal disaster risk management units have their own strategy plan | \n
Strong information, education and communication on disaster risk management | \nWeak or no information, education and communication on disaster risk management | \nAvailable information, education and communication on disaster risk management | \nAvailable and accessible information, education and communication on disaster risk management | \nAdequate dissemination of information, education and communication on disaster risk management | \nCitizen led dissemination of information, education and communication on disaster risk management | \n
Collective efficacy | \n|||||
Strong technical knowledge and advocacy on disaster risk management in the city | \nNo or weak technical knowledge and advocacy on disaster risk management | \nAwareness of some technical knowledge and disaster risk management | \nPractical understanding on disaster risk management | \nStrong understanding on disaster risk management and organized advocacy on disaster risk preparedness and planning | \nApplied understanding on disaster risk management and organized advocacy on disaster risk preparedness and planning | \n
Strong presence of city disaster risk management office | \nNo presence of city disaster risk management office | \nPresence of city disaster risk management office | \nCity disaster risk management office works closely with other departments in the city government | \nCity disaster risk management office works closely with local communities | \nCity disaster risk management office works closely with external agencies and organizations such as NGOs and the regional and national agencies | \n
Regular disaster risk management drills, workshops and information campaigns | \nNo or weak disaster risk management drills, workshops, and information, education and communication campaigns | \nPresence of at least one—disaster risk management drills, workshops, or information education and communication campaigns | \nRegular occurrence of at least two—disaster risk management drills, workshops, or information education and communication campaigns | \nRegular disaster risk management drills, workshops, and information education and communication campaigns | \nRegular disaster risk management drills, workshops, or information education and communication campaigns including at the primary and secondary education | \n
Collective security | \n|||||
Strong technical knowledge and expertise, social interest and advocacy on disaster risk management in the city, stakeholder, behavioral change | \nNo or weak technical knowledge and expertise and advocacy on disaster risk management | \nSome technical knowledge and expertise on disaster risk management | \nPractical technical knowledge and expertise on disaster risk management | \nStrong technical knowledge and expertise and skills on disaster risk management and organized advocacy on disaster risk preparedness and planning | \nApplied technical knowledge and expertise in physical infrastructure | \n
Strong national, regional, city disaster risk management | \nNo presence or weak concern on disaster risk management | \nPresence of an organization at the national or regional level on disaster risk management | \nOrganization dealing with disaster risk management works closely with national, and regional organizations with similar function | \nOrganization dealing with disaster risk management works closely with city government | \nOrganization dealing with disaster risk management works closely with external agencies and organizations such as NGOs and the regional and national agencies | \n
Strong information, education and communication on disaster risk, climate and disaster proof infrastructure in the city | \nWeak or no information, education and communication on disaster risk management, climate and disaster proof infrastructure in the city | \nAvailable information, education and communication on disaster risk management, climate and disaster proof infrastructure in the city | \nAvailable and accessible information, education and communication on disaster risk management, climate and disaster proof infrastructure in the city | \nAdequate dissemination of information, education and communication on disaster risk management, climate and disaster proof infrastructure in the city | \nCitizen led dissemination of information, education and communication on disaster risk management, climate and disaster proof infrastructure in the city | \n
Scoring scales for the collective engagement urban resilience framework.
Source: Esteban TAO. Draft Chapter 6. Mind the Gap. Rotterdam: Erasmus University Rotterdam; 2019 (Unpublished).
The results of the assessment of Rotterdam’s collective engagement and urban resilience are discussed below. Each collective dimensions scores given in Figure 2 were based on the discussion.
\nScores per collective dimension. Source: Esteban TAO. Draft Chapter 6. Mind the Gap. Rotterdam: Erasmus University Rotterdam; 2019 (Unpublished).
The Dutch have a collective knowledge on the history of the Netherlands relationship with water through history lessons from schools. Stakeholders interviewed recalled the 1953 Great North Sea flood as the catalyst for the creation of the Delta Plan and later on the implementation of the Delta Works. The construction of the vast preventive infrastructures in the Netherlands was communicated publicly making it common knowledge. The Maeslantkering and Oosterscheldekering are two large storm surge barriers in Rotterdam and Zeeland, respectively that residents are familiar with. The residents’ familiarity with the large preventive infrastructures were based on the history lessons about the 1953 flood, Delta Plan, and the Delta Works learned from school.
\nIn 1993 and 1995, the riverine threat in the Rhine began the paradigm shift in the Netherlands from preventive measures to more adaptive measures in terms of dealing with high river discharges. This shifted the water management approach of the Dutch from preventive to more adaptive. Policies such as the Flood Defence Act (1996), Room for the River (1997), and “Dealing differently with water” (2000) [10] led to Rotterdam adapting a more climate adaptive approach to flood management and city development. These near disaster events have directed the climate change adaptation and influenced Rotterdam’s plans and policies.
\nThere are two organizations at the local level the gebiedscommissie and the neighborhood committees. Members of the gebiedscommissie are elected by the residents while members of the neighborhood committees are chosen through lottery. The gebiedscommissie or the area committees are groups of people living in the community who play the role as “eyes and ears of an area for the city council” [11]. Most of the time the gebiedscommissie serves as an intermediary between the community and the government. The gebiedscommissie holds monthly meetings called the area commission evening where people can gather to discuss their concerns. This is also a venue for the city government to present their ideas and plans for the neighborhood.
\nAside from the gebiedscommissie and neighborhood committees, there are housing associations and building associations. These associations are mostly where residents congregate and discuss issues happening in their streets, buildings or community in general. There are also volunteers within each community such as those who volunteer in the community gardens. There are some well-organized neighborhoods in Rotterdam with a number of volunteers who help the city government in their projects. In Noordereiland, the buur bestuurd (neighborhood governance organization) act as a vigilance group to report suspicious activities within the neighborhood. Most of the time the neighborhoods will organize themselves based on what they perceive as important in the neighborhoods. This does not necessarily mean flood disasters or climate related threats. However, interviewees recognize that the social networks and organizations within and around the neighborhoods help make the community socially resilient.
\nInterviewees agree that Noordereiland is the only place where people know what to do when there is a flood. Noordereiland is a small community located outside of the dike area, along the River Meuse, and in the middle of the city. Residents of Noordereiland experience low level flooding every 2–5 years usually during the storm season. Since the residents regularly experience flooding and sea the water daily they understand that living in the area comes with risks of flooding. Most residents do not put valuables in the cellar of their buildings and know how to prepare during the storm season. They know that there is a possibility that their basements will be flooded or their cars parked on the quays run the risk of being washed away, as such many of the residents take precaution. The residents also know that they need to install wooden barriers and sand bags in front of their doors to keep the water from entering their homes.
\nThere is a general perception on the low level of awareness and concern of the people in Rotterdam on their flood risks and vulnerabilities. This can be attributed to the general “feeling of safety” that the people have because of the strong preventive infrastructures present in the city and in large the country. The completion of the Delta Works in 1997 with the final storm surge barriers built in Rotterdam (Maeslantkering) and Spijkenisse (Hartelkering) also marked the development of the first water management (Water Plan 1) in Rotterdam. The Water Plan 1 Urban water strategy and short term plan included a plan to increase Rotterdam’s water retention [12, 13]. This was because prior to the Water Plan 1 water retention was a “low priority in Rotterdam compared to other issues such as economic development, unemployment and safety” [14].
\nThe level of trust and reliance on the government is high because the people hold the government accountable for the taxes that they pay for. People expect the government to maintain the dikes and to keep people safe and dry because it is the government’s job to do so. This trust on the government is warranted since the people have remained safe since the Deltaworks project was implemented. However, the collective memory on the flooding disaster is disappearing because the people do not experience flooding or any disaster, disasters happen elsewhere, people are unaware of the threats and vulnerabilities in the city. Further scientists have predicted the possibility of a disaster from happening in the Netherlands at 1 in 10,000 years. This is often translated by the people as never going to happen in their lifetime. This low level of awareness and concern is disadvantageous when it comes to crisis management and disaster preparation.
\nThere are no community-based disaster risk management units or any community based group dealing with disaster risks. Such there are also no community plans in the event of an emergency. The only example of a community that has it its own self-organized crisis management plan is the port area as led by the Port Authority. The Port Authority has an adaptation strategy that they developed together with other companies in the port. They base their port adaptation strategies on the Delta Program predicted sea level rise and work together with the City of Rotterdam on the future direction of the port.
\nPeople get information on flooding, high water levels from the media, social media, television, newspapers and neighborhood newsletters but they are not concerned. Most of the interviewees mentioned that information during the storm season is often disseminated through leaflets. Information includes warnings and reminders specifically to residents in flood prone areas, i.e., Noordereiland.
\nOther means of communication provided by the city government to residents include information on websites such as the
The city government has a strong awareness and understanding on Rotterdam’s flood risks and vulnerabilities. The city development plans have moved towards sustainable development and climate change adaptation since the 1990s. A number of plans and policies were developed to guide the direction of Rotterdam’s growth towards a more sustainable, climate adaptive and resilient path. However, it was in the 2000s that climate change adaptation took a stronghold in the city development planning due to several near flooding events in 1993, 1995 and 1998. The Architectural Biennial in 2005 became the main turning point towards this direction of climate change adaptation with the Rotterdam Water City 2035 design study [12, 14, 15, 16, 17]. What ensued after is a series of development planning, studies and strategy development that takes into account the city’s position as an economic hub but also as one of the densest places in the Netherlands with highly vulnerable geographic and geologic position.
\nThe Rotterdam Water City 2035 combined urban design and climate change adaptation strategies to transform Rotterdam to an attractive city. The Water Plan 2 was adapted in 2007 which links urban and water highlighting the urgency to address climate change through adaptive measures [12, 14, 15, 17, 18]. The Water Plan 2 was integrated to the Rotterdam City Vision 2030 the mission statement of which is to the mission “build a strong economy and an attractive place to live” [19] (City of Rotterdam, 2019). The Rotterdam Climate Initiative (RCI) was also initiated in 2007 to focus on the port, carbon dioxide reduction and energy savings, in the city the RCI included an adaptation program. The RCI envisions Rotterdam to be the leader in water innovation while increasing resilience to climate change [20]. Similar to the RCI, the Rotterdam Climate Change Adaptation Strategy adapted in 2013 aims to achieve a climate proof Rotterdam by 2025 [21]. A year after Rotterdam joined the 100 Resilient Cities of the Rockefeller Foundation and in 2016 released its Resilient Strategy.
\nWith all the plans and strategies on resilience, there are no information campaigns widely disseminated in Rotterdam. There are also no information on disaster management only warnings such as announcements on tv, radio or through SMS when there are gas leaks from the port. These are more reactionary exercises rather than preparatory like a drill on flooding and evacuation. Further preparation and evacuation is seen as an individual responsibility yet this is not very well communicated to the residents.
\nThe City of Rotterdam does not have a specific disaster risk reduction management office. There is no government mandate for the creation of one at the city level since disaster management or crisis management as it is most commonly termed is dealt under the veiligheidsregio (safety region). Rotterdam is part of the 16 cities under the care of the veiligheidsregio Rotterdam-Rijnmond. Each of the sixteen cities has their own disaster management plan that is part of the regional disaster management plan.
\nThe city does have a “safety department” responsible for public safety issues and crisis management coordination with the veiligheidsregio and the city depending on the scale of the crisis. Water management and dike management are both under the jurisdiction of the waterboards. The waterboards have a dike army that regularly checks the dikes integrity. The Red Cross is also present in Rotterdam and has an existing pool of 3,000 Ready-to-Help volunteers. These volunteers are not trained but are citizens that are willing to be tapped in case of an emergency. Aside from the veiligheidsregio and the Red Cross, the City of Rotterdam also works with various academic and research institutions. Most of the time these academic and research institutions have projects within the city results of which are also shared with the city government and the residents.
\nThere are fire drills conducted by different institutions and organizations in their workplaces within the city. But there is no citywide drill on any type of disaster that people collectively participate in. The citizens receive information on disaster and emergency situations through an SMS alert (NL-Alert). Every first Monday of the month there is an alarm at 12 noon to inform people on whether everything is secure and safe or not. Other than that there are no other drills or campaigns being conducted throughout the city and even in primary and secondary schools. There are no disaster management and training in schools and in the city in general. This is not part of the school curriculum and is not part of the wider narrative. However, it was also noted by some interviewees that there are evacuation drills only done by specific organizations concerned on crisis management like the military and the Red Cross but these are not widely known by the general population.
\nThe multi-layer safety approach, prevention, spatial planning and crisis management, is known in the Netherlands and applied at the city level. Among the three approaches prevention is the highest priority in the country. Technical knowledge on water management, flood management, and climate change are translated in numerous preventive infrastructures. In Rotterdam, there is a Sand Engine Project which extends the shoreline and strengthens the dunes between Rotterdam and the Hague. The Maeslantkering and Oosterscheldekering storm surge barriers prevent storm surges of more than 3 m high and the dikes are also heightened along the coast and river.
\nRotterdam is also strong in spatial planning; the city has been in the forefront in developing climate adaptive strategies in the city that combines urban design and flood management. The city has a green roof policy and a water plan that allows public spaces to be used as retention basins like the water squares. The overall greening of the city is based on the city’s climate adaptive policies; the volume of water that can be retained in the event of a heavy rainfall for each neighborhood was calculated by the city to assess areas for improvement. One such project is the urban water buffer located under the Sparta stadium which collects water in an underground reservoir [22]. The collected rainwater is treated and used to water the grass for the football area. Another example is the water storage in Benthemplein where they can store water then released gradually to the surface. According to the interviewees this strategy is what they call the “keep, store or release” strategy which is especially helpful during the dry seasons.
\nThe biggest innovative climate adaptive infrastructure built in the city is the water storage underneath Museumpark parking garage. The Museumpark water storage has a capacity to hold 10,000 m3 in case of a flood and the biggest water storage in the country. The water storage and water squares help control the flood water level by storing the floodwater for a certain period before releasing to the open water system.
\nCrisis management is still fairly low in the city and relies on the veiligheidsregio.
\nCrisis management in the Netherlands is organized under the veiligheidsregio. The city government, fire brigades, waterboards and the veiligheidsregio all work together in the event of a disaster. There is also an agreement between the city government and the Red Cross to help especially in big disasters.
\nIn terms of flood risk management, there are three different government levels responsible, the city government, the waterboards and the Rijkswaterstaat. The Rijkswaterstaat holds most of the information including maps and simulations that is used in the entire country. Cities can access these data to predict flood events as well as design strategies based on these predictions. The data obtained from the Rijkswaterstaat on water levels are also used by the three waterboards in Rotterdam to give advice to close the Maeslantkering or not. The city government upon receiving data and forecasts gives the warning to the people and decides on whether to evacuate people or not.
\nThe port area as a special economic area of interest has its own crisis management plan. The Port Authority works together with the city government and veiligheidsregio on this plan and looks at three possible impacts of a disaster, casualties (deaths), economic and environmental effects. The adaptation strategy includes approaches to address these impacts using the multi-layer safety principle.
\nAccording to some interviewees, the City of Rotterdam has a disaster management plan that includes pre-identified evacuation centers in the city; however, people in general are not aware where these evacuation centers are. There are no other drills or disaster risk management activities being conducted except for the fire drill done at least once a year. There are no information on how to prepare for a possible flood event in the workplace or at home. Companies by law are required to conduct basic evacuation exercise for work safety but the rest of the population is not aware of these activities.
\nStill in terms of spatial planning, preventive and climate proof infrastructures, Rotterdam is equipped. However, most of these are still government driven rather than community driven. Participation of the community including information are fairly limited and mostly limited to smaller neighborhood projects that directly affect the community. Neighborhoods like Noordereiland (already mentioned), Hillegersberg and Agniesebuurt have community members who come together to find solutions for a common problem. In both Hillegersberg and Agniesebuurt, residents addressed their groundwater problems by lobbying to the city government to help address this problem and help keep their homes (mostly built on wooden poles) safe.
\nThe national government has also mandated all cities to conduct a stress test to help assess the level of risks and vulnerabilities of their city. Rotterdam is a pioneer on this since the city has an extensive model to identify the risks and vulnerabilities as well as projections on the effects of the key flooding threats. The results of the stress test will lead to the development of strategies for different scenarios in the city covering topics on climate change such as floods, droughts, and heat stress.
\nThe level of collective engagement on urban resilience in Rotterdam is scored at 4 or assessed as good (see Figure 3). The past disaster events, 1953 Great North Sea Flood, the flood threat in 1993 and 1995, pushed the government to bring out policies and plans to safeguard the country from flooding events. The government understands the importance of learning from these past disaster events in order to move forward. However, local adaptation and knowledge are only evident in Noordereiland where the government regularly communicates precautionary measures during the storm season.
\nCollective engagement on urban resilience. The total average score for Rotterdam is 4 or “good.” Source: Esteban TAO. Draft Chapter 6. Mind the Gap. Rotterdam: Erasmus University Rotterdam; 2019 (Unpublished).
The communities autonomous nature is evident in the way they also self-organize such that issues that are important for the residents like the community gardens are given more emphasis. The community garden around the city is a community initiative to make the area more attractive and more green. Through this initiative more people can be reached and encouraged to be involved in city development. This can be a way to introduce climate change issues by explaining the benefits of greening the environment to the community and the city.
\nThere is a level of awareness and understanding of the flood risks and vulnerabilities in Rotterdam among the residents. But the level of concern over these issues is not as strong as other issues that are present in the city such as social integration especially for lower income areas. This social and economic gap in Rotterdam is seen as a bigger threat than the threat of flooding in the city. The low level of concern over disaster issues makes it difficult for the government to encourage residents to prepare for the disaster. Many believe that since citizens pay for taxes that it is up to the government to do their job in taking care of everyone. This places a huge expectation on the government’s side. This is not enough to make a city resilient since everyone needs to make sure that each one takes necessary precaution against these possible disasters.
\nAll levels of the government from the Rijkswaterstaat, veiligheidsregio, waterboards and the city government are all involved in developing climate change adaptation strategies and crisis management. The mutually adapted roles of the key stakeholders, the city government, the waterboards, the veiligheidsregio, and the academe in delivering a level of safety and security in the city are high. Each of these actors knows the technical and scientific basis of the city development plans and policies. Programs and projects are anchored on these development plans and policies.
\nStill there is a need to increase the residents knowledge on these initiatives and the effects of climate change for them to understand the urgency of the matter and what they can do as an individual and a community. At present the NGOs and community groups have their community garden projects, some of them are also advocating solar panels and through these advocacies they are able to explain to the residents the value of the environment. However, the NGOs and community groups also feel that policies are not translated very well at the community level. This makes appreciation of the general framework of climate change, disasters, and resilience quite abstract.
\nLastly, the collective engagement urban resilience framework used in the case indicates that Rotterdam’s resilience approach is more government-led and less community-driven. This shows a rather low community resiliency although there are communities that are much more equipped than other communities. Such as Noordereiland in terms of knowledge, information and preparation for flood events are much more equipped than others, Hillegersberg and Agniesebuurt both have community members who initiate discussions with the city government to help their community and address their problems on groundwater.
\nThe authors would like to thank the interviewees for their most honest and candid responses.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
Noise pollution is defined as any disturbing or unwanted noise that affects or deteriorates human or wildlife. Although noise constantly surrounds us, noise pollution generally receives less attention than, for example, water quality and air quality concerns, because it cannot be seen, tasted or smelled. Nonetheless, it is an indisputable fact that noise has a negative impact on everyday life especially if we observe urban areas. This chapter presents two ways of dealing with noise pollution in terms of reducing its levels. One is a more traditional approach and the other a more modern and very popular today with many directions and ways of implementations. The first major section will describe noise barriers with all their advantages and disadvantages, while in the second major section, soundscape approach will be discussed. The common goal of both approaches and of this chapter is to address the problem of noise pollution while bearing in mind the overall quality of life especially in urban areas.
\nIn order to reduce noise pollution, different protection measures can be applied. In terms of traffic noise pollution, reducing the impact of traffic noise on both people and the environments can be achieved by planning and integrating the traffic routes outside the residential areas. In case of existing traffic routes within the residential areas, a good solution for reducing the noise levels is noise barriers [1, 2, 3]. Here we note that the noise barrier efficiency depends principally on their design. In the field of noise barriers, it is already established that the most favourable noise barriers are those which have a diffuse element on the top. In addition, the diffuse element can be circular, is Y or T shaped and is usually added on the top of the plain barrier. In particular, the Y and T shapes have proven to be a very good choice for the shape of the diffuse elements [4, 5, 6, 7]. Ishizuka and Fujiware [4] gave an extensive overview of the acoustic efficiency for several typical diffuse element forms placed at the top of the noise barrier. Figure 1 shows a plane (reference) noise barrier and several other noise barrier types obtained by adding capes at the top of noise barriers bearing in mind that the caps are made of different materials [4]. The optimization of T-shape noise barriers was more thoroughly studied by Baulac et al. [5] and Monazam and Lam [6], while Grainer et al. [7] explored the Y-shape noise barrier optimization.
\nDifferent types of noise barriers [4].
In Toledo et al. [8] a procedure was proposed for improving the acoustic efficiency of noise barriers using top-edge devices. Furthermore, in Toledo et al. [9] a procedure was developed for the optimization of well-based designs on the top of road barriers with both thick and very thin bodies by coupling a genetic algorithm with a 2D Dual BEM code. In addition, when placing a noise barrier in residential areas, studies have shown that it is also essential to keep in mind the “visual pleasantness” of the noise barrier which is the parameter introduced in Maffei et al. [10, 11].
\nGrubeša et al. [12, 13] have addressed the problem of economic feasibility of building noise barriers of various shapes and materials. Research and calculations done in this paper suggest a new specific noise barrier cost parameter (Ke) that must be taken into account during the optimization process of noise barrier shapes and materials while using computational calculations and optimization methods.
\nThere are three basic parameters which describe noise barriers: insertion loss (IL), transmission losses (TL) and barrier absorption coefficient. Noise barriers can be defined as a certain sound “obstacle” between the sound source and the observer, i.e. the sound propagates around and over noise barriers. However, in real-case scenarios, the sound propagates also through the noise barrier, which is usually neglected, i.e. the sound proportion passing through the barrier is substantially smaller than the sound proportion which will cross over and around the noise barrier. The noise level reduction achieved by the installation of noise barriers is often called an additional noise level reduction, since the noise level will be primarily reduced due to the distance from the source and the air absorption and furthermore because the noise barrier itself. When quantifying noise reduction, a parameter, entered losses, is also often used and is defined as the noise level reduction arisen from the installation of noise barrier (insertion loss). It represents the difference between the sound pressures pp\n and pn\n, which are measured at the observer location before and after the noise barrier is placed, with the same ground configuration and position of the source and receiver, calculated according to the expression in Eq. (1). This parameter is usually used for comparison of different noise barrier performances:
\nThe noise reduction parameter which arises from the installation of the noise barrier depends on the shape and material of the noise barrier, the frequency and type of sound source, the position of the noise barrier with respect to the source and the observer and the absorption properties of the soil on both sides of the noise barrier. The noise barrier effectiveness directly depends on the frequency of the sound propagating over it, and therefore the parameter insertion loss (IL) is also frequency dependent.
\nThe noise barrier sound-absorbing properties are qualified according to EN 1793-1 [14], while the airborne sound insulation index which corresponds to the transmitted noise barrier losses is defined in EN 1793-2 [15].
\nThere are three basic types of noise barriers. These are ground-mounted noise barriers, structure-mounted noise barriers and a combination of the first two types. Ground-mounted noise barriers are constructed of natural earth materials such as earth, stone, rocks or gravel. This type of noise barriers is typically constructed from excess materials in a noise-protected location, and source and availability of such natural materials are factors that can significantly affect the cost of such noise protection. Ground-mounted noise barriers take up more space than structure-mounted noise barriers. The reason for this is the slope of the embankment, which must gradually increase in order to maintain the stability of the whole structure. The increase is defined by the ratio m:n, where m is growth in the horizontal direction and n is growth in the vertical direction. For most embankments, the ratio is 2:1 or 1.5:1, while for stone embankments, the increase is usually 1:1.
\nStructure-mounted noise barriers or commonly called just noise barriers can be:
Panel, shown in Figure 2.
Freestanding which can be:
Panel noise barriers.
Brick and masonry noise barriers.
Cast-in place noise barriers.
Precast concrete noise barriers.
Green vertical noise barriers.
Panel noise barriers usually consist of a board or panel, which can be wooden, metal or concrete, and it can be constructed out of one piece, or it can be assembled at the place of noise barrier installation from several components. The panels are mounted between the base posts. The basic elements of this noise barrier type are the post and the elements which attach it to the foundation, the panels and the elements which attach the panels to the posts.
\nThere are several ways to set up or build a foundation for posts:
Reinforced concrete foundation with a post anchored to the top of the foundation using anchor bolts.
Reinforced concrete foundation where the post is partially embedded in the concrete mass during concreting.
Continuous foundation wall.
Unreinforced concrete foundation with post submerged to full depth of foundation.
Wooden posts dug into drilled cylindrical holes with stone fill.
Brick and masonry noise barrier units are constructed out of either finished brick or masonry made of precast concrete blocks. Both types of noise barriers can be built at the installation site (by hand or machine), or they can be prefabricated in the form of blocks which will be assembled at the installation site. The construction of the noise barriers at the installation site allows greater flexibility and better adaptation to the terrain on which the noise barriers are placed, while the advantage of blocks or modules manufactured in advance in a controlled environment is greater uniformity, better durability and regularly lower costs. A disadvantage of such blocks or modules is the need to allow access and space to work machines (e.g. cranes and transport vehicles) at the installation site area in order to enable the assembling of the whole noise barrier.
\nFree standing noise barriers can be concrete noise barriers moulded at the installation site. The process of building them involves digging the ground for support, laying down a steel reinforcement, pouring concrete, surface treatment and concrete hardening. In this particular construction, the casting and later hardening of concrete are carried out in different weather conditions, which can affect the quality of the final product. The advantage of these noise barriers is the fact that the shape and method of installation can be fully adapted to the terrain, which is the reason why these noise barriers are most commonly used on bridges and viaducts. An additional advantage of such noise barriers is their high structural strength and resistance to damage, which is why, alongside the noise protection and reduction function, they are very often used as retaining walls for separating traffic lanes for safety reasons.
\nFree standing noise barriers can also be precast or premanufactured, i.e. concrete panels are factory-made under controlled conditions and then delivered to the installation site where they are installed (please see Figure 6). Furthermore, free standing noise barriers can be designed as green vertical noise barriers which are shown in Figure 7. Currently green vertical noise barriers are becoming more and more popular in cities because, in addition to reducing noise, they also reduce air pollution and they do not take up additional space, i.e. they are built into existing freestanding walls or facades.
\nAn example of a transparent noise barrier on expressway.
To conclude, all of the aforementioned types of noise barriers are used as a measure of protection against traffic noise, while the choice of the noise barrier itself depends on the noise level at the location where the noise barrier is installed (i.e. acoustic properties of the sound source). In addition, the selection depends on the position of the noise barrier itself (distance of the noise barrier from the sound source and the receiver) and the allowed noise barrier height.
\nThe noise barrier construction can be made of different materials. It is possible to construct a noise barrier with only one material; however, more often the construction of noise barriers consists of several different materials. The choice of materials depends on several basic factors: acoustic properties, type and level of noise sources from which we are protecting a certain space, mechanical properties, aesthetic requirements on both sides of the noise barrier, regulations and the cost of an investment in noise protection for a certain space. In addition to the above-mentioned and described basic materials (concrete, metals, wood, etc.), sound-absorbing materials (e.g. stone wool) are often used in practical case scenarios. Such materials can be used as noise barriers’ fill and with their sound absorption properties increase the noise barrier efficiency.
\nConcrete is one of the most commonly used building materials. Concrete cast into blocks which are transported to the installation site or cast at the installation site is considered as one of the most durable construction. It is robust and can withstand high temperatures, strong sunlight, moisture, ice and salt. It is quite easy to shape and colour; thus, its appearance can vary. The versatility of concrete also relates to the shape and size of the slabs that can be produced (cast in place, prefabricated concrete blocks). In addition, concrete enables various installation techniques.
\nThree types of metal are most commonly used while constructing a noise barrier: steel, aluminium and stainless steel. Steel is the cheapest and most common of all metals used generally in construction. Thus, it is also generally used in the noise barrier construction, especially combined with concrete. Steel consists of a mixture of iron ore, coal and a small amount of other metals, while the ratio of the constituents varies depending on the desired physical properties.
\nFor structures that require a slightly lower mass, aluminium is used, mainly as a light alloy with additives of manganese, silicon, copper and/or magnesium. Depending on the type of elements added to the aluminium in the alloy and their ratio, different mechanical, thermal, industrial and acoustic properties are obtained. Aluminium and its alloys are weatherproof and can be easily coated and anodized in different colours, making them suitable for installations with specific aesthetic requirements.
\nStainless steel, which is a low carbon alloy with a minimum of 10.5% chromium, and is often mixed with nickel, molybdenum and titanium, is a very durable and resistant to corrosion due to its chromium alloy’s ability to bind to oxygen atoms from the air, thus creating an invisible thin protective film on the metal surface that protects the metal from oxidation and damage. Since stainless steel is almost completely resistant to corrosion, its surface does not need to be coated or additionally protected and is often used in areas with high humidity, especially if the noise barrier is in contact with or near seawater.
\nMetal panels have a great advantage over concrete materials, which is their light weight. Their low weight makes them particularly useful for vertical extensions of existing walls, that is, for installation on existing retaining walls and for installation on bridges. Due to their simple manufacturing and easy assembly, either by attachment or welding, they are often used on bridges and viaducts attached to the existing load-bearing structural elements of the bridge itself.
\nDifferent types of wood can be used in the production of noise barriers. The design range of constructions varies from simple, i.e. consisting of several wooden panels, to very complex structures made of multiple wooden pieces that can often be made of different types of wood. Wood is a natural, environmentally friendly material, which is very easy to process and has a low mass. Panels of wood that are creating a noise barrier parts can be installed piece by piece at the installation site or may be partially assembled on the ground prior to installation. Such noise barriers are easy to disassemble or remove, and the wood is from the aesthetic point of view, a very accepting and pleasing material to the environment. In addition, it does not conduct electricity. A significant problem with noise barriers made of wood is its flammability, and furthermore the smoke and gases resulting from its combustion are toxic. In addition to burning, the process of wood rotting in contact with moisture is very fast, which makes it necessary to protect it with a chemical preservative, which adds complexity to the process of producing the noise barriers and the need for more frequent maintenance. Wood products are not dimensionally stable and tend to change shape, which causes open cracks between joints, and the tendency to change shape increases with the dimensions of the wooden piece of the noise barrier itself.
\nTransparent panels can be made of glass or plastic materials, such as Plexiglas, Lexan, Acrylic, etc. which is shown in Figure 7.
\nGlass panels are usually made of tempered or laminated tempered glass. Tempering the glass strengthens the glass, and therefore such product becomes more resistant to breakage. If broken, the shards are small and grainy, with pieces generally no larger than 12 mm, which is far safer than knife-like shards that result from breaking glass that has not been heat treated. In addition to tempering, the glass panel can also be laminated. This type of glass is manufactured by inserting a translucent, rubber and flexible interlayer between the two tempered glass panels. When such glass breaks, small granular fragments are formed which remain glued to the interlayer.
\nTransparent panels are ideal for reducing or completely eliminating the visual impact of a noise barrier; however, their costs can be 20 times higher than those made of concrete or steel. The justification for their high cost can be found in improving safety in places where opaque noise barriers can have a negative effect on visibility. These types of panels are more sensitive to damage from flying debris and abrasive action as a consequence of the sandblasting effect that is inevitably due to the swirling dust that is always present on the pavement layer.
\nThere are several types of plastic materials available and often used in the construction of noise barriers: polyethylene, PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and fibreglass. Plastic panels can be installed in almost any situation due to their extremely low mass, easiness to mould and weatherproof features. Bearing in mind all of the aforementioned, they are increasingly used for the construction of noise barriers, especially those of a more complex shape. The problem with plastic materials is a slightly lower structural strength and flammability, i.e. the smoke and gases produced by the combustion of plastics are very toxic.
\nComposite materials for noise barriers can be defined as any product composed of two or more “basic” materials, for example, wood mixed with concrete and then placed on a concrete foundation. By combining basic materials, the characteristics of the final product (noise barriers) and its durability, and even in some cases safety, are altered.
\nTypical values of the noise barriers transmission loss (TL) parameter when looking at the A-weighted characteristic are from 10 dBA to 15 dBA. Noise barriers should be constructed of materials with a minimum density of 20 kg m2. A density of 20 kg/m2 can be achieved by lighter and thicker or heavier and thinner materials (i.e. higher material density enables a thinner material). Table 1 gives the approximate TL values for some common materials, tested for a typical A-weighted highway traffic frequency spectrum [16]. These values can be used as a rough guideline in designing noise barriers. For more accurate values, one would need to find material testing reports from authorised laboratories.
\nMaterial | \nThickness (mm) | \nWeight (kg/m2) | \nTransmission loss (dBA) | \n
---|---|---|---|
Concrete Block, 200 mm × 200 mm × 405 mm | \n200 | \n151 | \n34 | \n
Dense Concrete | \n100 | \n244 | \n40 | \n
Steel | \n1,27 | \n10 | \n25 | \n
Steel | \n0,95 | \n7,3 | \n22 | \n
Steel | \n0,79 | \n6,1 | \n20 | \n
Iron | \n0,64 | \n4,9 | \n18 | \n
Aluminium | \n1,59 | \n4,4 | \n23 | \n
Aluminium | \n3,18 | \n8,8 | \n25 | \n
Aluminium | \n6,35 | \n17,1 | \n27 | \n
Wood (Fir) | \n12 | \n8,3 | \n18 | \n
Wood (Fir) | \n25 | \n16,1 | \n21 | \n
Wood (Fir) | \n50 | \n32,7 | \n24 | \n
Plywood | \n12 | \n8,3 | \n20 | \n
Plywood | \n25 | \n16,1 | \n23 | \n
Glass | \n3,18 | \n7,8 | \n22 | \n
Plexiglas | \n6 | \n7,3 | \n22 | \n
Approximate values of transmission loss parameter for different types of materials.
The soundscape concept has been introduced to modify and complement the assessment of noise and its effects on humans. From the beginning, soundscape research has questioned the limits of existing acoustic measurements and the cultural dimension which Schafer included in his research for the first time in the 1960s [17].
\nA particular soundscape includes all the sounds from a certain acoustic environment received by the human ear. The first idea of soundscape was introduced by Schafer, in his book The New Soundscape [17]. His primary idea was to record a soundscape of the world in a form of a map similar to geographical maps. However, extremely rapid changes in the soundscapes have made this idea impossible to implement. Soundscapes, among other things, change rapidly due to the growth of the human population, people’s migration and traffic increase. On the other hand, it is possible and of great interest to record current soundscapes.
\nThe soundscape of a certain environment consists of various sound groups and sound sources. They can be divided into three major groups, biophony, geophony and anthrophony [17], which is shown in Figure 8.
\nSoundscape composition.
Biophony are all the sounds produced by living organisms in their natural habitat (Table 2). It is by far the most complex feature of soundscape because it combines all biological sound sources, from microscopic to large fauna that live in a given environment for a certain period of time. In environments that are rich with different voices of living beings, organisms produce acoustic signals in different spatial relationships which can sound as one or more sound signals. Geophony are all-natural sounds coming from non-biological sources in a certain environment (Table 2). Generally, they can be divided into four types: the sound effects of wind, water, climate and geophysical forces. Anthrophony are all sounds generated by humans in any natural environment. This group includes sounds coming from people, music and traffic noise.
\nWeather | \n
RS: wind, rain, thunder, earthquake, clouds | \n
D: sound propagation, absorption, reflection, refraction, diffusion, diffraction, masking | \n
Animals | \n
S: sound of animals: birds, mammals, insects, reptiles, amphibians; moving of animals: running, flying, jumping, landing; non-voice expressions: moving of insects’ wings | \n
D: sound propagation, masking | \n
Nature | \n
S: rivers and streams, waves, flux and reflux, vegetation excitation e.g. leaf rustle, falling of trees | \n
D: propagation of sound, masking, absorption, reflection, refraction, diffusion, diffraction | \n
Terrain | \n
S: barriers, dams | \n
D: propagation of sound, absorption, reflection, refraction, diffusion, diffraction | \n
Characteristics of non-anthropogenic sound elements (based on [17])
S—Sound sources or acoustic components and D—direct acoustic effects.
Bearing in mind all of the aforementioned, it can be concluded that the concept of soundscape as a field of research is extremely broad and requires a multidisciplinary approach. In studies and researches, apart from acoustic engineers, psychologists, physicians, builders, architects and sociologists should be involved.
\n\nTable 2 shows sound sources or acoustic components and direct acoustic effects of non-anthropogenic sound elements (biophony and geophony).
\nThe most common soundscape classification is the one with respect to the related environment, and therefore we can distinguish them as follows (Figures 9 and 10):
Natural soundscapes (e.g. marine, forest soundscape, etc.)
Rural soundscapes.
Urban soundscapes.
Soundscape classification.
Description of soundwalking (based on [18]).
Considering the way and style of today’s life, it can be concluded that the urban soundscape is most explored and is changing in a fast pace. A city’s soundscape encompasses all three active components which describe a certain soundscape; however, the largest impact is anthropogenic, i.e. sounds generated by various human activities. Looking through history, after the industrial and electrical revolution, the look and sound of the city have changed remarkably. Today a similar thing is happening, however as a result of the accelerated construction work and overcrowding of cities. One of the biggest problems in the city has become noise, and the biggest source of this noise is traffic [19].
\nOne of the possible ways to record a soundscape is the soundwalk method. Soundwalk method, as a concept, was first introduced by an urban planner Kevin Lynch [20, 21]. His idea was to follow the usual routes which people use on their commute and which are specific to places of interest with the goal of “capturing” their soundscape. The usual recording of a soundscape has the duration of 30 minutes. The 30-minute choice corresponds to the distance a man would walk across in an average European city and, on the other hand, keeps a certain homogeneity as far as activities in that particular soundscape are concerned. Recording takes place several times a day, for several days, however always at a nice and dry weather. Depending on the research premises, the question how to exactly and accurately process the data obtained from the recordings remains. Although most scientists in their studies claim that the soundwalk “walks” lasted for an average of 15 minutes, it is possible to record soundscapes for a longer period depending on the focus and goal of the research. It is also possible to “cut” or shorten the longer soundscape recordings and apply other acoustic “tools” to the soundscape recordings.
\nThe soundwalk method uses a recorder and a pair of binaural microphones places in the ears of the person who is performing the soundwalks, i.e. soundwalker. The soundwalker, as the name suggests, performs “walks” through a certain environment. The soundwalker needs to carefully breath while walking, and this kind of recording is performed normally in dry and sunny weather, unless we want to record a certain natural manifestation, such as rain. Recording is performed at the height of the walker (the binaural microphones are placed in the ears of the walker) and therefore the recorded signals are similar (at the highest possible level) to the signals heard by the pedestrians in that environment (Figure 11).
\nAn example of the soundwalker’s route.
There is still no consensus among scientists regarding the recording length of the soundscape. Namely, there is no clearly defined time limit that would determine the difference between authentically play backed soundscapes while simultaneously avoiding the listener’s fatigue. Reproduction of soundscapes in terms of its length depends on the researcher and the purpose of his research from a few minutes to several hours.
\nAlongside the soundwalk method, the researchers usually perform the analysis of the recorded soundscape with the “help” of the questionnaire which is again not defined by any standard or norm. The concept of the questionnaire, whose purpose is a detailed analysis provided by the listener, is not clearly defined, and moreover it depends again on research premises and focus [22, 23, 24]. Questionnaires vary from direct questions to listeners about the soundscape, requirements for a more detailed descriptions of the soundscape in terms of defining them as pleasant or unpleasant, attributes that may or may not be related to mathematical scales and adjective pairs that are not standardised so each researcher can use “their own” adjective pairs which they consider to best describe the soundscape and fit their research. An example of questionnaire [25] which uses bipolar adjective pairs is shown in Table 3.
\nPair no. | \nAssigned bipolar adjective pair | \nType of pair | \n
---|---|---|
1 | \nquiet – loud | \nAuditory | \n
2 | \ndeep - high-pitched | \n|
3 | \ndiverse - monotonous | \n|
4 | \npleasant - unpleasant | \nEmotional | \n
5 | \ndynamic – calm | \n|
6 | \nnatural - artificial | \n|
7 | \nharmonious - chaotic | \n|
8 | \nappealing - repulsive | \n|
9 | \nsoothing - stressful | \n|
10 | \nconspicuous – inconspicuous | \n|
11 | \ngentle – rough | \n
The adjective pairs used in questionnaire [25].
\nFigure 12 shows an example of performed soundscape analysis, in particular an expressway which stretches from the east to the west exit of the Zagreb, capital of Croatia [26]. To be more precise, Figure 12 shows a photograph of the recorded location using the soundwalking method, the route of the soundwalker, the spectrogram of the recording and the sound sources which were characterised as distracting obtained through a specially designed questionnaire for that particular research [26].
\nSoundscape analysis.
To sum it up, the questionnaires are not an objective acoustic parameter; however, they present a good measure of the listener’s perception of the soundscape. A major problem is how to correlate such a subjective parameter with objective acoustic parameters, i.e. loudness, sharpness, roughness and fluctuation strength [27].
\nThe ISO 12913-1 standard defines soundscapes as acoustic environments “as perceived by people, in context”. Thus, nowadays more and more soundscape studies are oriented towards human health, well-being and overall quality of life [28, 29, 30, 31]. In addition, the WHO Environmental Noise Guidelines for the European Region provide certain guidance on protecting human health from harmful exposure to environmental noise. The guidelines strongly recommend reducing the noise levels (Lden and Lnight) for the cases of environmental noise sources such as road traffic noise, railway noise, aircraft noise, wind turbine noise and leisure noise [32]. In the past the only possible approach to resolve this issue and reduce noise levels in an efficient way has been noise barriers which have been described thoroughly in previous sections. However, in order to construct and position an effective noise barrier, first one needs to have enough space for it, i.e. noise barriers can serve as a solutions only if they are planned before the actual building which is today a quite rare case scenario. In addition, if there is an opportunity to incorporate a noise barrier into an existing urban environment, researchers should take into account the “visual pleasantness” as well as the economic feasibility of the noise barrier.
\nFinally the noise barriers as a solution are focused only on reducing the noise levels from traffic sources, while the common and final goal of the WHO and researchers, with different types of expertise, is to improve the overall quality of life by using different tools, guidelines, descriptors and an interdisciplinary approach by designing, preserving and investigating pleasant acoustic environments, i.e. positive soundscapes [33, 34, 35, 36].
\nThere are several paths where soundscape research can be used as an instrument for reducing noise pollution.
\nOne of them is discovering what in particular makes a certain acoustic environment perceived as pleasant and then utilising those sound sources in negatively perceived soundscapes. Several soundscape studies have shown that the majority of population responds very well to the sound of water and birds singing, and therefore, those sound signals can be used for acoustic masking of unpleasant parts of other acoustic environments which may be rated as less pleasant [37].
\nWhen considering negatively perceived indoor soundscape, improvements regarding noise reduction can actually be achieved using specific acoustic absorptive materials and collaborating with architects regarding the layout of, e.g. open-space offices [38].
\nAnother solution can be mixing soundscapes with music. Music is something that is deeply personal, something that consumes us, and it alters our mood. It can lift us up, it can comfort us, and it can make us feel calm and relaxed. Because of that recent studies show good results in creating innovative “music soundscapes” which can be a powerful tool for healing the people from a stressful and overvibrant urban everyday life. To be precise by installing special gazeboes in urban parks and providing the user to combine the preferred music with an existing soundscape, one can create calming and relaxing zones that could provide a short music break from everyday obligations and help to endure the day in a better mood [39].
\nWhen considering only noise barriers as an instrument to combat noise and noise pollution, they have the ability to reduce noise levels by 3–20 dB. Over 3000 km of noise barriers have been installed alongside European rail networks. They are even more widely used alongside roads, including countries such as Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Spain and Netherlands. Keeping that in mind, it can be concluded that noise barriers as a solution are mainly focused on reducing the noise levels from traffic sources, while the goal of the WHO and many researchers is to improve the overall quality of life by using different tools, guidelines, descriptors and an interdisciplinary approach by designing, preserving and investigating positively perceived soundscapes as previously mentioned.
\nFor each noise barrier, its acoustic performance can be determined, as described in Section 2.1. Noise levels reduction with noise barriers. Here are some practical examples regarding the different performance of several noise barriers:
First, the results obtained by simulation for five simple 5-m straight noise barriers (made of different materials) are presented. Figure 13 shows the parameter of average noise reduction (ILavg) depending on the receiving position [40].
In [41] insertion loss values at 1/1 octave band were calculated bearing in mind the noise barrier types, while the height of all noise barrier was fixed at 5 m and the receiver’s position was 2 m from the noise barrier. Prediction of sound pressure levels for five types of road traffic noise sources attenuated by different types of barriers was conducted using acoustic simulation software Enpro (Environment Noise Prediction and Design Program). Predicted insertion loss data is shown Table 4.
In [42] a comparison of the obtained values for the green wall sound absorption coefficient and different common building materials was carried out (Figure 14).
Parameter of average noise reduction (ILavg) depending on the receiving position [40].
Frequency (Hz) | \n63 | \n125 | \n250 | \n500 | \n1 k | \n2 k | \n4 k | \n8 k | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Timber | \n2.0 | \n2.5 | \n9.7 | \n13.1 | \n15.9 | \n17.9 | \n18.0 | \n18.0 | \n
Metal | \n2.2 | \n7.7 | \n16.6 | \n19.0 | \n19.6 | \n18.9 | \n19.0 | \n18.7 | \n
Transparent | \n2.0 | \n3.4 | \n7.8 | \n12.7 | \n14.7 | \n14.9 | \n15.4 | \n15.7 | \n
Concrete | \n14.7 | \n14.4 | \n17.7 | \n19.0 | \n19.6 | \n19.9 | \n20.0 | \n20.0 | \n
Vegetation | \n6.3 | \n7.3 | \n12.3 | \n17.0 | \n18.6 | \n18.9 | \n19.3 | \n18.0 | \n
Predicted insertion loss data [41].
Comparison of sound absorption coefficient for the green wall and common building materials.
In addition, for each type of noise barrier, its visual stimulus can be determined by using soundscape research which is described in [41] where images of five types of noise barriers were investigated. In the aforementioned research, timber, metal, transparent glass, vegetation and concrete barriers were created using Adobe Photoshop CS4 software. A viewpoint was fixed in order to avoid influence of view angles. Furthermore, small and large portion of ivy images were covered on the transparent and concrete barriers images in order to evaluate the visual effect of vegetation.
\nFurthermore, in [43] a case study is presented, where a sample of residents living close to a railway line assessed noise-related aspects for several barriers with different visual characteristics in an IVR laboratory test. In particular, three main factors were analysed: the barrier type concerning the visibility of the noise source through the screen, the visual aspect of the barrier concerning some aesthetic issues and the noise level at the receiver concerning the acoustic performance of the barrier and the magnitude of the sound source. The main results of the ANOVA analysis showed that for transparent barriers, perceived loudness and noise annoyance were judged lower than for opaque barriers; this difference increased as noise level increased.
\nA much more effective way of reducing noise and noise pollution is to use noise barriers and soundscape together, by incorporating noise barriers, auditory ratings and visual assessment. Here we note that this way allows the design of better noise barriers and soundscapes and thus better acoustic urban environments. It has been proven that a noise barrier that better attenuates low frequencies such as a concrete noise barrier has a better acoustic rating. When considering user ratings, it has been proven in [41] that people respond much better to noise barriers made from natural materials and especially green walls, i.e. the visual pleasantness is much higher for that type of noise barriers.
\nTo sum it up, the best way to tackle this burning issue, i.e. noise pollution, is the combination of both methods (noise barriers and soundscape research). Both methods complement each other in a very good and effective way while moving and in a way breaking the limitations which each individual method has.
\nIn this chapter two different approaches for noise reduction have been described and discussed in detail. Finally, by comparing these approaches, it can be concluded that each one of them has its advantages, disadvantages and limitations. The final choice of noise reduction measure in most cases depends on the limitations regarding the location, cost, etc. It can be concluded that the best results regarding the reduction of noise pollution can be obtained by combining both described approaches. The approaches work very well and effective together and, in that way, extend the limitations which occur when using only one approach.
\nBearing in mind all of the aforementioned, urban planners, architects, doctors, psychologists as well as acoustic engineers should work together and benefit from each other’s work with a common cause to improve the overall quality of life. By collaborating together, it is possible to reduce noise pollution and moreover improve the human health and well-being of the residents, especially the ones living and working in urban areas.
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\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
\n\n\n\n
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