\r\n\t \r\n\tComputer graphics are not entirely an original topic, because it defines and solves problems using some already established techniques such as geometry, algebra, optics, and psychology. The geometry provides a framework for describing 2D and 3D space, while the algebraic methods are used for defining and evaluating equality related to the specific space. The science of optics enables the application of the model for the description of the behavior of light, while psychology provides models for visualization and color perception. \r\n\t \r\n\t3D computer graphics (or 3D graphics, three-dimensional computer graphics, three-dimensional graphics) is a term describing the different methods of creating and displaying three-dimensional objects by using computer graphics. \r\n\tThe first types of graphic interpretations were put in the plane (two-dimensional 2D). Requirements for a universal interpretation led to a three-dimensional (3D) interpretation content. From these creations have arisen applied mathematics and information disciplines of graphic interpretation of content - computer graphics. It relies on the principles of Mathematics, Descriptive Geometry, Computer Science and Applied Electronics. \r\n\t \r\n\t3D computer graphics or three-dimensional computer graphics use a three-dimensional representation of geometric data (often in terms of the Cartesian coordinate system) that is stored on a computer for the purpose of doing the calculation and creating 2D images. The images that are made can be stored for later use (probably as animation) or can be displayed in real-time. \r\n\t \r\n\tObjects within the 3D computer graphics are often called 3D models. Unlike rendered (generated) images, data that are ""tied"" to the model are inside graphic files. The 3D model is a mathematical representation of a random three-dimensional object. The model can be displayed visually as a two-dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering or can be used in non-graphical computer simulations and calculations. With 3D printing, models can be presented in real physical form. \r\n\t \r\n\tComputer graphics have remained one of the most interesting areas of modern technology, and it is the area that progresses the fastest. It has become an integral part of both application software, and computer systems in general. Computer graphics is routinely applied in the design of many products, simulators for training, production of music videos and television commercials, in movies, in data analysis, in scientific studies, in medical procedures, and in many other fields.
",isbn:"978-1-78985-853-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-638-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-854-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"de29c8802680e89528bdbecf055dffd1",bookSignature:"Dr. Dragan Mladen Cvetković",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8770.jpg",keywords:"Vector Graphics, Graphic design, 3D model, Computer-Aided Design (CAD), Computer-Aided Architectural Design (CAAD), 3D Rendering, Virtual engineering, 3D Mapping, 3D projection on 2D planes, Video games, 3D Printing, 3D Computer Graphics in Science",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 28th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 18th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 17th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 6th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 5th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"24 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101330/images/system/101330.jpg",biography:"Dragan Cvetković graduated in Aeronautics from the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, in 1988. In the Aeronautical Department he defended his doctoral dissertation in December 1997. So far, he has published 63 books, scripts, and practicums about computers and computer programs, aviation weapons, and flight mechanics. He has published a large number of scientific papers in the Republic of Serbia and abroad as well. Since March 20, 2007, he worked at the Singidunum University in Belgrade as an assistant professor. And from October 1, 2013, he has been working as the Dean of the Faculty of Informatics and Computing at the same university. He became a full professor in the field of informatics and computing in March 2014.",institutionString:"Singidunum University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Singidunum University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247041",firstName:"Dolores",lastName:"Kuzelj",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247041/images/7108_n.jpg",email:"dolores@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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1. Introduction
An open-end winding induction machine, fed by two 2-level VSIs, offers several advantages when compared to a standard wye or delta connected induction machine drive. The main features of an open-end winding induction machine drive can be summarized as [1, 2]: equal power input from both sides of each winding, thus each VSI is rated at half the machine power rating; each phase stator current can be controlled independently; possibility to have twice the effective switching frequency (depending on the modulation strategy); extensibility to more phases, therefore multiphase induction machines can be considered if current reduction is required; possibility of reducing common-mode voltage; and certain degree of fault tolerance, as there is voltage space vector redundancy.
However, an open-end winding induction machine drive can have some drawbacks, such as [1]: possibility of zero sequence current flowing in the machine because of the occurrence of zero sequence voltage; increased conduction losses; more complex power converter requirements, i.e., more power devices, circuit gate drives, etc.
To supply energy to an open-end winding machine, different power converter topologies have been developed; for instance, [3–6] propose an open-end winding induction machine drive based on two 2-level VSIs fed from isolated DC sources. This topology has the advantage of avoiding the circulation of zero sequence current; however, two isolation transformers are needed. On the other hand, [7–11] present a topology based on two 2-level VSIs fed by a single DC source. In this case, a zero sequence current could circulate in the machine windings (depending on the modulation strategy used), but just one transformer is needed, reducing the volume and cost of the drive.
Multilevel topologies for open-end winding AC drives are presented in [12–16] where different voltage levels can be achieved in the machine phase windings with certain power converter configurations, then reducing the output voltage distortion but increasing the system cost and complexity.
In the past decades, significant research effort has been focused on direct frequency changing power converters, such as the matrix converter (MC) [17] or the indirect matrix converter [18]. It is known that these power converter topologies offer a suitable solution for direct AC–AC conversion, achieving sinusoidal input and output currents, bidirectional power flow capability and controllable input power factor, without using bulky energy storage elements [18]. Matrix converters have been utilized to supply open-end winding AC machines such as reported in [19–21].
In this chapter, the application of an IMC with two output stages to supply energy to an open-end winding induction machine is described [22–24]. For evaluation purposes, simulations and experimental results are presented.
2. Power converter topologies for open-end winding induction machine drives
An open-end winding induction machine drive can be supplied by different configurations of power converters. Some of the most common topologies will be reviewed in this chapter.
2.1. Two 2-level voltage source inverters fed by isolated DC sources
This is the basic power converter for open-end winding AC drives. The circuit configuration is shown in Figure 1 where a standard two-level VSI is connected at each side of the machine stator winding [3]. The VSIs are supplied by isolated DC power sources.
Figure 1.
Two 2-level VSIs fed by isolated DC sources for an open-end winding AC machine drive.
The voltage vectors for inverter 1 are shown in Table 1; the same space vectors are valid for inverter 2, but with superscript 2. As each VSI can produce eight voltage space vector locations independent of the other, there are 64 voltage vector combinations of the full converter, resulting in a vector locus similar to a three-level neutral point clamped (NPC) inverter [6].
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStates of inverter 1 [SA1SB1SC1] \n\t
\n
\n
\n\t
V11=[100]
\n
V21=[110]
\n
V31=[010]
\n
V71=[111]
\n
\n
\n\t
V41=[011]
\n
V51=[001]
\n
V61=[101]
\n
V81=[000]
\n
\n
Table 1.
Switching states of the individual inverters
Let Vij=[Vi1Vj2] with i,j=1...8 be the phase voltage vector combination of the dual-inverter output. A representation of the vector locations is shown in Figure 2 [6].
Figure 2.
Space vector locations of the dual-inverter scheme.
2.2. Two 2-level voltage source inverters fed by a single DC source
This topology is basically the same described in Section 2.1, but now just one DC supply is considered for the drive, as shown in Figure 3. The disadvantage of this converter is that zero sequence current could circulate in the machine windings because of the generation of output zero sequence voltage; however, this issue can be addressed with an appropriate modulation strategy for the inverters [7].
Figure 3.
Two 2-level VSIs fed by a single DC source for an open-end winding AC machine drive.
2.3. Multilevel topologies
Several multilevel power converters have been developed for open-end winding induction motor drives. For example, Figure 4a shows a three-level inverter [12] and Figure 4b shows a five-level inverter [16]. The main advantage of the multilevel topologies is that the machine phase voltage presents lower voltage distortion, increasing the performance of the drive; but on the other hand, the complexity and cost of the system are also increased.
Figure 4.
(a) Three-level inverter and (b) five-level inverter for open-end winding AC machine drives.
2.4. Direct power converters
Modern direct power converters consider matrix converter and indirect matrix converters. A matrix converter [17] is a direct frequency converter consisting of nine bidirectional switches (three switches per phase) allowing to connect any of the output terminals to any of the input voltages. For an open-end winding induction motor drive, two MCs are required, connected in the arrangement shown in Figure 5. The main features of a matrix converter are: bidirectional power flow capability, sinusoidal input and output currents without bulky energy storage elements, and controllable input power factor. For a standard matrix converter, a total of 36 IGBTs and diodes are required in this topology.
Figure 5.
Open-end winding induction motor drive based on matrix converters.
An indirect matrix converter [18] is also a direct frequency converter having the same features of an MC, but now a DC stage is clearly identified in the topology. The IMC consists of an input rectifier, an AC–DC matrix converter, built of six bidirectional switches; this rectifier produces the DC voltage to supply the converter output stage which is a standard two-level VSI. To supply an open-end winding AC machine, two output inverters are required as can be seen in Figure 6. Considering the six bidirectional switches of the input stage and the two output stages, a total of 24 discrete IGBTs and diodes are required in this topology.
Figure 6.
Open-end winding induction motor drive based on indirect matrix converter.
3. Model of the open-end winding induction motor drive based on IMC
The complete drive of Figure 6 can be modeled by state equations which describe the dynamic behavior of the system. The effects of power devices dead-times on zero sequence voltages are neglected. All the equations derived below are written in fixed abc coordinates.
The differential equations for the input side are:
vs=Rfis+Lfdisdt+viE1
is=Cfdvidt+iiE2
where
vs=[vsavsbvsc]T,is=[isaisbisc]TE3
vi=[viavibvic]T,ii=[iiaiibiic]TE4
are the source voltage and current (3), and the rectifier input voltage and current (4).
The DC link voltage can be obtained as:
vDC=SrT⋅viE5
with the rectifier switching matrix:
Sr=[Sap−SanSbp−SbnScp−Scn]E6
where Sxp,Sxn∈{0,1} with x=a,b,c. The output pole voltage of Inverter 1 (vo1) and Inverter 2 (vo2), with respect to the negative DC link rail, are defined in (7).
vo1=Si1⋅vDC,vo2=Si2⋅vDCE7
where the switching matrices of Inverter 1 (Si1) and Inverter 2 (Si2) are:
As mentioned before, the dual-inverter fed open-ended winding induction motor drive may suffer from zero sequence current caused by zero sequence voltage. This zero sequence voltage is produced because of the asymmetry of the instantaneous phase voltages applied to the machine windings (due to the voltage space vectors used). In general, zero sequence currents may give rise to increased RMS phase current, thus increasing the system losses, high current/voltage THD, and machine over-heating and vibrations. The zero sequence voltage is given by [11]:
vzs=vA1A2+vB1B2+vC1C23E22
The zero sequence voltage contributions from the 64 space vector combinations are shown in Table 2. As can be noted, there are twenty voltage space vectors that do not produce zero sequence voltage; thus in order to avoid the circulation of zero sequence current in the machine windings, only these space vector combinations could be used in the modulation strategy for the dual inverter [9].
Zero sequence voltage contributions from different space vector combinations
Moreover, from Table 2 and Figure 2, it can be noted that there are two different but equivalent sets of active vectors producing null zero sequence voltage (see Table 3), which could be used along with the zero vectors: V11, V22, V33, V44, V55, V66, V77, and V88.
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\tSet 1\n\t\t
\n\t\t
V15
\n
V35
\n
V31
\n
V51
\n
V53
\n
V13
\n
\n
\n\t
\n\t\tSet 2\n\t
\n\t
V24
\n
V26
\n
V46
\n
V42
\n
V62
\n
V64
\n
\n
Table 3.
Active space vectors producing null zero sequence voltage
5. Common-mode voltage
Conventional PWM inverters generate alternating common-mode voltages relative to ground which generate currents through the motor parasitic capacitances to the rotor iron [25]. These currents find their way via the motor bearings back to the grounded stator case. The so-called bearing currents have been found to be a major cause of premature bearing failure in PWM inverter motor drives [26].
One of the main features of an open-end winding induction machine drive is the possibility of reducing the common-mode voltage by using certain space vector combinations of the dual-inverter topology (Figure 2). In general, for an open-end winding machine, the common-mode voltage is given by [8]:
vcm=16(vA1+vB1+vC1+vA2+vB2+vC2)E23
where vAi, vBi, vCi, with i=1,2, are the pole voltages of each inverter with respect to a common point of the drive (usually ground).
For the topology depicted in Figure 6, the common-mode voltage is given by:
vcm=16(vA1G+vB1G+vC1G+vA2G+vB2G+vC2G)E24
where the common point G is the grounded neutral point of the source. These voltages can also be expressed as:
where vpG and vnG are the voltages of the positive and negative rail of the DC link with respect to the grounded neutral point of the source, respectively; Sxpi,Sxni∈{0,1} with x=A,B,C, i=1,2 are the switching functions of the inverter devices (0: switch opened, 1: switch closed) and Sxni=1−Sxpi (because of the complementary operation of the upper and lower switches of each inverter leg). Therefore,
wherevra, vrb, and vrc are the converter input phase voltages and Sxp, Sxn with x=a,b,c are the switching functions of the rectifier. Accordingly, vpG and vnG will always be segments of different input phase voltages and
|vpG(t)|=|vnG(t−to)|,to∈ℝE31
thus
∫0TvpG2dt=∫0TvnG2dtE32
Differentiating (29) with respect to Nsw and equating to zero, it can be found that vcmRMS2 (and implicitly vcmRMS) achieves a minimum value at Nsw=3, which means that in order to reduce the RMS common-mode voltage at the machine terminals, only three upper inverter switches should be closed at each switching period.
This can be further investigated by considering a virtual midpoint of the DC link as a reference point (see point 0 in Figure 6). Then, (24) can be rewritten as:
where the contributions of the input and output stages to the overall common-mode voltage have been separated (v0G and vcm0, respectively). The voltage v0G is the voltage between the reference point 0 and the grounded neutral point of the source. This voltage can be calculated as:
v0G=12[(Sap+San)vra+(Sbp+Sbn)vrb+(Scp+Scn)vrc]E34
It can be seen in (34) that v0G depends on the modulation of the input stage, which is totally defined by the duty cycles of the rectifier stage. On the other hand, the voltage vcm0 can be rewritten as:
vcm0=16[NswvDC2+(6−Nsw)(vDC2)]=16[NswvDC−3vDC]E35
Therefore, it can be seen in (35) that by using Nsw=3, the contribution of the output inverters to the common-mode voltage is eliminated [8]. Table 4 shows the voltage space vector combinations of the dual-inverter topology which do not produce common-mode voltage.
As can be noted from Table 4 and Figure 2, there are larger and lower active vectors available which produce zero common-mode voltage. Any of them could be considered in the modulation strategy for the dual-inverter system depending on the machine voltage requirement. However, from Table 2 and Table 4, it can be appreciated that the space vectors which reduce the common-mode voltage are not the same vectors which reduce the zero sequence voltage; thus, if a common-mode voltage is required, a compensation should be done for the zero sequence voltage; in other case, large zero sequence current components will circulate in the machine windings; a type of compensation will be reviewed in the following section.
In this section, PWM strategies for an open-end winding induction motor drive based on a two-output IMC are described.
6.1. Modulation strategies for the input stage of the IMC
The modulation for the input (rectifier) stage of the converter aims to obtain a positive DC link voltage in each sampling period and unity displacement factor at the input [27]. Two different space vector modulation (SVM) strategies can be used for the rectifier [28]. One modulation maximizes the DC voltage by commutating between the largest and the second largest positive line input voltage (Figure 7). The other modulation produces a reduced DC voltage commutating between the lowest and the second lowest input line voltage (Figure 8).
Figure 7.
(a) Space vector locations for maximum DC voltage. (b) Maximum DC voltage
If θref,i is the angle of the voltage reference vector; the γ−δ duty cycles for both modulation strategies are given in (36)–(38). Further details about the modulations for the input stage can be found in [27, 28].
dγR=dγdγ+dδ,dδR=dδdγ+dδE36
with
dγ=sin(π3−θref,i),dδ=sin(θref,i)E37
the duty cycles for maximum DC voltage and
dγ=cos(θref,i),dδ=cos(π3−θref,i)E38
the duty cycles for reduced DC voltage. Figure 9a shows the transition from reduced DC voltage to maximum DC voltage and Figure 9b shows the opposite situation.
Figure 8.
(a) Space vector locations for reduced DC voltage. (b) Reduced DC voltage.
Figure 9.
Transition between both rectifier modulation strategies.
The rectifier SVM for reduced DC link voltage decreases the voltage gain by 3. Thus, the transition between reduced and maximum DC link voltage should take place when the output voltage reference is higher than 1.53⋅Vph,input=0.866⋅Vph,input.
6.2. Modulation strategies for the output stages of the IMC
6.2.1. Carrier-based modulation strategy
In a PWM strategy based on a triangular carrier (SPWM), the duty cycles for each leg of inverter 1 are [29]:
da=12(m(t)cos(2πmfk)+1)E39
db=12(m(t)cos(2πmfk−2π3)+1)E40
dc=12(m(t)cos(2πmfk+2π3)+1)E41
In this case, It is necessary a variable modulation index given by m(t)=mo(dγ+dδ) to compensate the fluctuations of the DC link voltage, mo is the final modulation index (0≤mo≤1), mf=fs/fois the frequency index (fo: output frequency, fs: switching frequency) and 0≤k≤mf. Duty cycles of inverter 2 are obtained using (39)–(41), but considering a phase shift of 180° for the cosine functions. For implementation purposes, the duty cycles da, db, and dc are transformed into equivalent α−β−0 duty cycles. Thus, considering Figure 10, the α−β−0 duty cycles are:
d0=1−dmaxE42
dα=dmax−dmidE43
dβ=dmid−dminE44
d7=dminE45
Figure 10.
A single inverter stage duty cycles.
To obtain a correct balance of the input currents and the output voltages in a switching period, the modulation pattern should produce all combinations of the rectification and the inversion switching states [27], resulting in the following duty cycles for the active vectors:
dαγ=dαdγR,dβγ=dβdγR,dαδ=dαdδR,dβδ=dβdδRE46
The duty cycle corresponding to the switching state [SApSBpSCp]=[000] is:
d00=d0,tot−dminE47
and the combined zero vectors duty cycles are:
d0γ=d00dγR,d0δ=d00dδRE48
The output stages duty cycles are different for each inverter and are represented in Figure 11 [23] for inverter i (i=1,2).
Figure 11.
Inverters duty cycles.
6.2.2. Space vector modulation strategy for zero sequence reduction
As mentioned in Section 4, in an open-end winding induction machine drive, the zero sequence voltage can be reduced by using the active space vectors given in Table 3. The zero vectors are mapped depending on the sector information [9]. The mapping is shown in Table 5.
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\tSector\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\tI\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\tII\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\tIII\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\tIV\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\tV\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\tVI\n\t\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\tSet 1 zero vectors\n\t\t
\n\t\t
V55
\n
V33
\n
V11
\n
V55
\n
V33
\n
V11
\n
\n
\n\t
\n\t\tSet 2 zero vectors\n\t
\n\t
V22
\n
V66
\n
V44
\n
V22
\n
V66
\n
V44
\n
\n
Table 5.
Mapping of zero vectors
The duty cycles for the output stages are calculated as:
where m(t)=mo(dγ+dδ) and 0≤mo≤1. θref,o is the angle of the output reference voltage space vector. As in the carrier-based modulation strategy, the duty cycles of the rectifier and the inverters should be combined; thus the active vector duty cycles are given in (46).
The combined zero vectors duty cycles are:
d0γ=d0dγR,d0δ=d0dδRE50
Thus, the switching sequence, which is the same for both output stages, is shown in Figure 12, commutating the input stage with zero DC current [27].
Figure 12.
Standard switching sequence for IMCs.
6.2.3. Space vector modulation strategy for common-mode voltage reduction
If only the voltage space vectors shown in Table 4 are used in the modulation strategy for the output stages of the IMC, the contribution of the dual-inverter to the overall common-mode voltage can be eliminated. The duty cycles for the IMC outputs are calculated as in (49) – (50). However, as mentioned in Section 5, the space vectors producing null vcm0 are not the same vectors producing null zero sequence voltage. Hence, as in this SVM strategy, the vectors used to modulate the converter output stages will eliminate the common-mode voltage; a compensation must be performed to avoid the circulation of zero sequence current in the machine.
The average zero sequence voltage within a sampling interval can be eliminated by forcing the zero sequence volt-seconds to zero [11] by applying the null voltage vectors with unequal times. Accordingly, the standard switching sequence used in the IMC [27] is modified in order to reduce/eliminate the average zero sequence voltage within a sampling period. For the modulation strategy presented, the duty cycles for both output VSIs are the same, which can be noted in Figure 13.
Figure 13.
Modified switching sequence for the IMC with two outputs.
Taking into account that the same space vectors sequence applied in γR interval is applied in the δR interval but in reverse order, then the value of x, which causes the cancellation of the zero sequence volt-seconds, is calculated at every sampling period to satisfy [11]:
where vzsk with k=1,2,3,4, is the zero sequence voltage value at intervals x0γ, αγ, βγ, and (1−x)0γ, respectively. The value of vzsk can be calculated by using (22) and considering the space vectors used in the modulation strategy.
7. Open-end winding induction machine drive
In this section, the application of a two-output IMC supplying an open-end winding induction machine will be presented. The performance of the drive by using some of the modulation strategies discussed above will be shown and analyzed via simulation and experimental results. The simulations are carried out in a PSIM/MATLAB simulation platform. On the other hand, experimental results are obtained using the setup shown in Figure 14. The IMC has been designed and built at the Power Electronics, Machines and Control lab facilities, University of Nottingham, UK. A six-pole induction machine rated at 7.5 kW is used. A DSP board, based on the TMS320C6713 processor, is used as the control platform. The calculation of duty cycles is carried out on the DSP among several other tasks. An FPGA interface board, designed at Nottingham University, is used to implement the modulation strategies and data acquisition. Communication between the DSP and a PC is achieved using a DSK6713HPI (Host Port Interface) daughter card. The converter input stage uses SK60GM123 modules and the output stages use SK35GD126 modules. The switching frequency is 10 kHz and voltages and currents are also sampled at 10 kHz. The load used in the experimental system is a DC generator, supplying a resistive load, coupled with the induction motor shaft.
Figure 14.
Experimental setup.
7.1. SVM strategy for zero sequence voltage reduction and changing DC voltage
The modulation strategies, presented in Section 6.1 and 6.2.2, are used to implement a standard feedforward vector control scheme [30] for the machine currents (Figure 15). Simulation and experimental results are shown in Sections 7.1.1 and 7.1.2, respectively.
Figure 15.
Feedforward vector control scheme of induction machine.
7.1.1. Simulation results
The performance of the vector control scheme is verified by applying step changes in the dq-axis reference currents. Figure 16 shows the waveforms obtained by applying a step change in the q-axis reference current from 7.7 to 10 A at t=0.16s, while d-axis current is kept constant at 6 A. Figure 16a shows dq reference currents and their corresponding responses. A good tracking of the reference currents is obtained. The motor currents and phase a voltage are shown in Figure 16b. The step change in q-axis current is followed with changes in the magnitude and phase of the instantaneous machine currents. Moreover, a transition between reduced virtual DC voltage to maximum virtual DC voltage can be noticed in the output phase voltage of Figure 16b (bottom).
Figure 16.
q-axis current step change. (a) Motor q-axis current (top) and d-axis current (bottom). (b) Motor currents (top) and phase voltage (bottom).
Figure 17a shows the performance of the control scheme when a step change from 6 to 8 A is applied in d-axis reference current while q-axis current is kept constant at 7.7 A. The motor currents and phase- a voltage are shown in Figure 17b. Again, the transition between both modulation strategies for the input rectifier can be noticed.
Figure 17.
d-axis current step change. (a) Motor q-axis current (top) and d-axis current (bottom). (b) Motor currents (top) and phase voltage (bottom).
Figure 18 (top) shows the converter input phase voltage and current; the unity input displacement factor can be noted. Figure 18 (bottom) shows the output zero sequence voltage that has been obtained from the voltage across the load in each phase and then applying (22). As can be seen, the zero sequence voltage has been eliminated due to the modulation strategy used for the output stages.
Figure 18.
Input phase voltage and current (top) and zero sequence voltage (bottom).
7.1.2. Experimental results
The dq-axis currents are shown in Figure 19a. As the speed controller saturates when a step change in the speed reference takes place, a step change in q-axis current reference is applied. The d-axis current reference is kept constant at 6 A. A good performance of the control scheme can be appreciated agreeing with the simulated results. The instantaneous motor currents and phase a voltage are shown in Figure 19b. Again, the transition between both rectifier modulation strategies can be noted in the output phase voltage (Figure 19b bottom) when the change in q-axis reference current is applied.
Figure 19.
q-axis current step change. (a) Motor q-axis current (top) and d-axis current (bottom). (b) Motor currents (top) and phase voltage (bottom).
Figure 20a shows the dq machine currents when a step change in d-axis reference current is applied while q-axis current is kept constant at 7.7 A. The motor currents and phase- a voltage are shown in Figure 20b. A good correspondence with the simulation results can be noted.
Figure 20.
q-axis current step change. (a) Motor q-axis current (top) and d-axis current (bottom). (b) Motor currents (top) and phase voltage (bottom).
Finally, Figure 21 (top) shows the input phase voltage and current. The zero sequence voltage shown in Figure 21 (bottom) is not exactly zero, but this is probably due to the measurement procedure because not all of the channels are sampled at the same time and because in Figure 18 the input switches are ideal.
Figure 21.
Input rectifier voltage and current (top) and zero sequence voltage (bottom).
7.2. SVM strategy for common-mode voltage reduction and zero sequence voltage compensation
Simulation and experimental results for the modulation strategy presented in Section 6.2.2 will be shown in this section. The rectifier is modulated to maximize the DC link voltage (Figure 7) and the full drive is tested in open-loop v/f operation.
7.2.1. Simulation results
The DC link voltage and phase- a machine voltage are shown in Figure 22a, top and bottom, respectively. The reference output voltage and frequency were set to 150 V and 50 Hz, respectively. The machine currents for 25 Hz operation are shown in Figure 22b (top), while Figure 22b (bottom) shows machine currents for 50 Hz operation.
Figure 22.
(a) DC link voltage (top) and output phase voltage (bottom). (b) Machine currents for 25 Hz output (top) and 50 Hz output (bottom).
Small disturbances, occurring every 60°, can be noted in the motor currents shown in Figure 22b. These current disturbances are due to the application of zero voltage vectors to machine windings, see PWM pattern in Figure 13, aiming to reduce the zero sequence voltage. During the application of zero voltage vectors, each machine phase winding is supplied with a voltage of −VDC or +VDC. When −VDC voltage is applied to the machine windings, the current decreases according to the zero vector duty cycle. Figure 23 shows the current disturbance along with the corresponding DC link voltage and output phase voltage.
The input (supply) currents are shown in Figure 24 (top) while Figure 24 (bottom) shows the converter input phase voltage (blue) and current (green) for an output reference of 150 V and 50 Hz. The unity displacement factor is evident in Figure 24 (bottom).
The low-order harmonics of the machine currents are presented in Table 6.
Figure 23.
Phase a machine current (top), DC link voltage (middle), and machine phase- a voltage (bottom).
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\tCurrent Harmonic\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\tRMS Value (A)\n\t\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
Fundamental
\n\t\t
14.400
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
2nd
\n\t\t
0.250
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
3rd
\n\t\t
0.184
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
4th
\n\t\t
0.112
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
5th
\n\t\t
0.025
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
6th
\n\t\t
0.815
\n\t
\n
Table 6.
Harmonic content of the machine currents
Figure 24.
Input currents (top) and input phase voltage and current (bottom).
Figure 25a shows the common-mode voltage separated into v0G and vcm0 as defined in (33)–(35). Due to absence of the reference point 0 in the real (and also simulated) converter, the common-mode voltages v0G and vcm0 shown in Figure 25a top and bottom, respectively, are obtained as:
It can be seen in the simulation results that the contribution of the output inverters to the common-mode voltage is completely eliminated due to the modulation strategy used. Figure 25b shows the zero sequence voltage (top) and its frequency spectrum (bottom). It can be noted that the low-order zero sequence harmonics are reduced because of the asymmetry of the null vector duty cycles used in the switching sequence for each output stage.
Figure 25.
(a) Common-mode voltages v0G (top) and vcm0 (bottom). (b) Zero sequence voltage (top) and its frequency spectrum (bottom).
7.2.2. Experimental results
Figure 26a (top) shows the DC link voltage while Figure 26a (bottom) shows the voltage across the machine phase- a winding. The output phase voltage presents a fundamental component of 141 V, 50 Hz, slightly less than the voltage reference (150 V) because of the device voltage drops. As can be seen, the modulation strategy used results in a bipolar pulse width modulated voltage at the converter output. The machine currents for 25 Hz and 50 Hz operation are shown in Figure 26b (top and bottom), respectively. The reference output voltages are set to 75 and 150 V, respectively. Correspondence between the simulation and the experimental result can be observed.
In Figure 26b, the effect of the zero voltage vectors in the PWM pattern shown in Figure 13 is also observed. The supply currents are shown in Figure 27 (top), again with good correspondence with the simulation study. Figure 27 (bottom) shows the input phase voltage and current.
Figure 28a shows the common-mode voltages v0G (top) and vcm0 (bottom). The voltage v0G follows very closely the simulation results shown in Figure 25. The voltage vcm0 is not exactly zero, but this is probably due to the measurement procedure because not all of the channels are sampled at the same time and because in Figure 25 the input switches are ideal. Finally, Figure 28b shows the zero sequence voltage (top) and its frequency spectrum (bottom), agreeing closely with the simulation results.
Figure 26.
(a) DC link voltage (top) and output phase voltage (bottom). (b) Machine currents for 25 Hz output (top) and 50 Hz output (bottom).
Figure 27.
Input currents (top) and input phase voltage and current (bottom).
Figure 28.
a) Common-mode voltages v0G (top) and vcm0. (bottom). (b) Zero sequence voltage (top) and its frequency spectrum (bottom).
8. Conclusion
The open-end winding induction machine has been presented in this chapter. Different power converter topologies for this type of machine connection have been shown and briefly discussed. Because of the advantages of indirect matrix converter, emphasis has been done in the application of this converter to control the machine. Therefore, an indirect matrix converter with two outputs stages has been proposed to supply energy to the open-end winding induction motor. This topology has been thoroughly modeled and pulse width modulation strategies for the input and output stages of the proposed topology have been shown. Issues such as zero sequence voltage and common-mode voltage, presented in the dual-inverter configuration, have been analyzed and strategies to eliminate and/or reduce such effects have been presented. The control and modulation strategies have been simulated and experimentally tested in a prototype rig. Results for open and closed-loop operation of the open-end winding topology based on IMC have been shown.
Acknowledgments
This work was funded by Fondecyt Chile under Grant 1151325. The financial support of CONICYT/FONDAP/15110019 is also acknowledged.
\n',keywords:"Open-end winding, Electrical drive, Matrix converter, Pulse width modulation (PWM)",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/48929.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/48929.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48929",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48929",totalDownloads:1494,totalViews:501,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 3rd 2014",dateReviewed:"July 2nd 2015",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"November 18th 2015",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Open-end winding induction machines fed from two standard two-level voltage source inverters (VSI) provide an attractive arrangement for AC drives. An alternative approach is to use a dual output indirect matrix converter (IMC). It is well known that IMC provides fully bidirectional power flow operation, with small input size filter requirements. Whilst a standard IMC consists of an AC–DC matrix converter input stage followed by a single VSI output stage, it is possible to replicate the VSI to produce multiple outputs. In this chapter, an open-end winding induction machine fed by an IMC with two output stages is presented. Different modulation strategies for the power converter are analyzed and discussed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/48929",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/48929",book:{slug:"induction-motors-applications-control-and-fault-diagnostics"},signatures:"Javier Riedemann, Rubén Peña and Ramón Blasco-Giménez",authors:[{id:"174336",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Riedemann",fullName:"Javier Riedemann",slug:"javier-riedemann",email:"jriedema@ubiobio.cl",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Bío-Bío",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"174648",title:"Dr.",name:"Rubén",middleName:null,surname:"Peña",fullName:"Rubén Peña",slug:"ruben-pena",email:"rupena@udec.cl",position:null,institution:null},{id:"175684",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Blasco-Gimenez",fullName:"Ramón Blasco-Gimenez",slug:"ramon-blasco-gimenez",email:"r.blasco@ieee.org",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Power converter topologies for open-end winding induction machine drives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Two 2-level voltage source inverters fed by isolated DC sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Two 2-level voltage source inverters fed by a single DC source",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Multilevel topologies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Direct power converters",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Model of the open-end winding induction motor drive based on IMC",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Zero sequence voltage",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Common-mode voltage",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Pulse width modulation strategies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"6.1. Modulation strategies for the input stage of the IMC",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"6.2. Modulation strategies for the output stages of the IMC",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"6.2.1. Carrier-based modulation strategy",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"Table 5.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"6.2.3. Space vector modulation strategy for common-mode voltage reduction",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16",title:"7. Open-end winding induction machine drive",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"7.1. SVM strategy for zero sequence voltage reduction and changing DC voltage",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"7.1.1. Simulation results",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"7.1.2. Experimental results",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"7.2. SVM strategy for common-mode voltage reduction and zero sequence voltage compensation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"Table 6.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"7.2.2. Experimental results",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Wang Y, Panda D, Lipo,TA, Pan D. Open-winding power conversion systems fed by half-controlled converters. 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Berlin: Springer, 2001.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Javier Riedemann",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Bío-Bío, Concepción, Chile
Department of System Engineering and Control, Polytechnic University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"4688",title:"Induction Motors",subtitle:"Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics",fullTitle:"Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics",slug:"induction-motors-applications-control-and-fault-diagnostics",publishedDate:"November 18th 2015",bookSignature:"Raul Igmar Gregor Recalde",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4688.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"113744",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:"Igmar",surname:"Gregor",slug:"raul-gregor",fullName:"Raúl Gregor"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"48819",title:"Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems",slug:"induction-generator-in-wind-power-systems",totalDownloads:2295,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Yu Zou",authors:[{id:"174152",title:"Dr.",name:"Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Zou",fullName:"Yu Zou",slug:"yu-zou"}]},{id:"48933",title:"Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor Induction Generators by Using the Computer and Driver",slug:"active-and-reactive-power-control-of-wound-rotor-induction-generators-by-using-the-computer-and-driv",totalDownloads:1354,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Fevzi Kentli",authors:[{id:"174723",title:"Prof.",name:"Fevzi",middleName:null,surname:"Kentli",fullName:"Fevzi Kentli",slug:"fevzi-kentli"}]},{id:"49535",title:"Analysis and Methodology for Determining the Parasitic Capacitances in VSI-fed IM Drives Based on PWM Technique",slug:"analysis-and-methodology-for-determining-the-parasitic-capacitances-in-vsi-fed-im-drives-based-on-pw",totalDownloads:1343,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Rudolf Ribeiro Riehl, Fernando de Souza Campos, Alceu Ferreira\nAlves and Ernesto Ruppert Filho",authors:[{id:"37044",title:"Prof.",name:"Ernesto",middleName:null,surname:"Ruppert",fullName:"Ernesto Ruppert",slug:"ernesto-ruppert"},{id:"39440",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"de Souza Campos",fullName:"Fernando de Souza Campos",slug:"fernando-de-souza-campos"},{id:"174758",title:"Prof.",name:"Rudolf",middleName:null,surname:"Riehl",fullName:"Rudolf Riehl",slug:"rudolf-riehl"},{id:"177415",title:"Prof.",name:"Alceu",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira Alves",fullName:"Alceu Ferreira Alves",slug:"alceu-ferreira-alves"}]},{id:"49110",title:"Health Condition Monitoring of Induction Motors",slug:"health-condition-monitoring-of-induction-motors",totalDownloads:1138,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Wilson Wang and Derek Dezhi Li",authors:[{id:"7052",title:"Professor",name:"Wilson",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Wilson Wang",slug:"wilson-wang"}]},{id:"48825",title:"Failure Diagnosis of Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor with Broken Rotor Bars and End Rings",slug:"failure-diagnosis-of-squirrel-cage-induction-motor-with-broken-rotor-bars-and-end-rings",totalDownloads:1381,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Takeo Ishikawa",authors:[{id:"119231",title:"Prof.",name:"Takeo",middleName:null,surname:"Ishikawa",fullName:"Takeo Ishikawa",slug:"takeo-ishikawa"}]},{id:"49282",title:"Fuzzy Direct Torque-controlled Induction Motor Drives for Traction with Neural Compensation of Stator Resistance",slug:"fuzzy-direct-torque-controlled-induction-motor-drives-for-traction-with-neural-compensation-of-stato",totalDownloads:959,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Mohammad Ali Sandidzadeh, Amir Ebrahimi and Amir Heydari",authors:[{id:"105063",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:"Ali",surname:"Sandidzadeh",fullName:"Mohammad Sandidzadeh",slug:"mohammad-sandidzadeh"},{id:"174969",title:"Prof.",name:"Amir",middleName:null,surname:"Ebrahimi",fullName:"Amir Ebrahimi",slug:"amir-ebrahimi"},{id:"174970",title:"Dr.",name:"Amir",middleName:null,surname:"Heydari",fullName:"Amir Heydari",slug:"amir-heydari"}]},{id:"48877",title:"Development of Fuzzy Applications for High Performance Induction Motor Drive",slug:"development-of-fuzzy-applications-for-high-performance-induction-motor-drive",totalDownloads:946,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Ali Saghafinia and Atefeh Amindoust",authors:[{id:"174893",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Saghafinia",fullName:"Ali Saghafinia",slug:"ali-saghafinia"}]},{id:"49470",title:"A Robust Induction Motor Control using Sliding Mode Rotor Flux and Load Torque Observers",slug:"a-robust-induction-motor-control-using-sliding-mode-rotor-flux-and-load-torque-observers",totalDownloads:848,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Oscar Barambones, Patxi Alkorta, Jose M. 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Bhattacharyya, P. Patel, F. G. Tseng and T. K. Barik",authors:[{id:"78847",title:"Dr.",name:"Tarun",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Barik",fullName:"Tarun Barik",slug:"tarun-barik"},{id:"78878",title:"Prof.",name:"Tarun",middleName:null,surname:"Bhattacharyya",fullName:"Tarun Bhattacharyya",slug:"tarun-bhattacharyya"},{id:"78881",title:"Dr.",name:"Tuhin",middleName:"Subhra",surname:"Santra",fullName:"Tuhin Santra",slug:"tuhin-santra"},{id:"78889",title:"Mr.",name:"Prateek",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",fullName:"Prateek Patel",slug:"prateek-patel"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"66478",title:"Mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek): Retrospect and Prospects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85657",slug:"mungbean-em-vigna-radiata-em-l-wilczek-retrospect-and-prospects",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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Mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) is cost-effectively most important crops of the pulse group. The mungbean is also known as green gram, golden gram and moong. Mungbean belonging to the subgenus Ceratotropis is a diploid species with 2n = 2x = 22 chromosomes. Worldwide, this crop is of minor importance with restricted geographical distribution, and has cautiously been subjected to detailed and intensive genetic and cytogenetic investigations. These legumes have a strategic position in Southeast Asian countries for nutritional security and sustainable crop production. Due to rich in quality protein, minerals and vitamins, they are inseparable ingredients in the diets of a vast majority of Indian population. When supplemented with cereals, they provide a perfect mix of essential amino acids with high biological value. Mungbean has the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in symbiotic association with Rhizobium bacteria, which enables them to meet their own nitrogen requirement and also benefit the succeeding crops [1]. These crops have also been reported to smother weed flora appreciably (20–45%) when intercropped with tall cereals and consequently, reduce the cost incurred on weed control [2]. On account of short duration and photo-thermo insensitivity, they are considered excellent crops for crop intensification and diversification. A seed of mungbean is highly nutritious containing 24–28% protein, 1.0–1.5% fat, 3.5–4.5% fibre, 4.5–5.5% ash and 59–65% carbohydrates on dry weight basis [3] and provide 334–344 kcal energy [4]. Mungbean protein is considered to be easily digestible. The dried grains of mungbean can be split or eaten whole after cooking and made into a soup or dhal. The iron availability in mungbean improves substantially to 7.2–11.3% through cooking practices such as soaking, fermenting and sprouting [5]. Mungbean is also widely relished as sprouts. The germinated grains have higher nutritional value as compared with asparagus or mushroom [6, 7]. Green pods and seeds can be cooked as vegetables. These pulses are frequently fed to children, convalescents and geriatrics or used when “breaking” a long fasting period owing to their ease of digestibility. The haulms are used for fodder and the beans husks and small broken pieces are useful as a feed concentrate. The crops are also grown for hay, green manure and cover crop. Mungbean makes better hay than urad bean as the stems and leaves are less hairy.
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2. Origin and domestication
\n
Mungbean is of Indian origin as is evidenced by their occurrence at archeological sites in the continent. Vigna radiata is native to north eastern India-Myanmar regions of Asia [8, 9]. Vigna radiata var. sublobata Verdc. is the closest wild relatives of the cultivated mungbean, respectively, and are regarded as their putative progenitors [10, 11, 12, 13]. Based on morphological evidence alone, many researchers have considered var. sublobata as progenitor of mungbean [14, 15]. The detailed morpho-chemotaxonomic studies on wide collections of var. sublobata [12, 13, 16, 17], cross ability and chromosome pairing evidence [11, 18, 19, 20] have led to the conclusion that var. sublobata is a polymorphic taxon; two distinct morphological groups of it are the wild progenitors of mungbean and can be designated as V. radiata var. sublobata. The wild collections have characteristics conducive to domestication like annual growth habit, erect plant type, photoperiod insensitivity, more pods with high number of seeds, and smaller leaves. The present day cultivars of mungbean might have originated from new combinations of the already existing variants, changes in growth habit and seed size have been brought about by possible accumulation of recessive mutant genes [21]. Moreover, during domestication the dehiscent nature of pods and seed hardness of the wild progenitors have been selected out.
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3. Ecology
\n
Mungbean is tropical grain legumes widely grown in the sub-tropical countries of South and Southeast Asia [22, 23]. These legumes are grown at low to intermediate elevations on rainfed ecology. They perform best on good loamy soils with a well distributed rainfall of 750–900 mm per year, but are reasonably resistant to drought and susceptible to water logging. Mungbean is grown in kharif, winter and spring/summer seasons in different agro-ecological regions. Mungbean is grown as sole crops or as intercrops with sugarcane, maize, pearl millet, cotton, groundnut, sorghum and pigeonpea during kharif, as sole relay crop in rice fallows during winter and a sole catch crop during spring/summer seasons.
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4. Historical perspective
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Pure lines continued even during the early 40s to mid from these landraces were isolated on the basis of colour of stem, foliage, flower, unripe and ripe pods, seed colour and texture and other morphological features. The types selected were best suited in their respective regions mostly under low management. In mungbean, the first promising variety released was Type 1 for cultivation in Uttar Pradesh in 1948. It is a local selection from Muzaffarpur (Bihar). A large number of varieties were developed afterwards through selection from local materials and were released in different states between 1948 and 1970. Some of the important varieties developed through selection are Co 1 and ADT 1 (Tamil Nadu), Jalgaon (Maharashtra), Khargone 1, Krishna (Madhya Pradesh), and G 65 (Punjab). Jawahar 45 (Hybrid 45) released in 1971 in Madhya Pradesh and Type 44 released in Uttar Pradesh in 1972 was perhaps the first varieties developed through hybridization. Afterwards, a number of varieties were developed mainly through selection from the germplasm [24, 25]. Earlier a variety Virat has been released from ICAR—Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh; it is mature by 55 days only and fitted to rice wheat cropping system. This has resulted in development of appropriate production technologies and improved varieties besides basic knowledge on these crops.
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5. Genetics
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Information on the genetics of unusual traits in a crop is crucial for its systematic breeding programmes. Several studies have been conducted to know the genetics of qualitative and quantitative traits in addition resistance to major diseases and insect pests in mungbean, the results of which are presented in Table 1.
Chlorophyll mutants have been reported in mungbean with lethal and nonlethal effects. The albino seedling is controlled by monogenic recessive inheritance for the induced xantha, variegata, and greenish yellow chlorina mutants
Inheritance of the number of clusters per node shows that a single dominant gene ‘C’ conditions one cluster per node and its recessive counterpart ‘c’ determines three clusters per node
Resistance to shattering in the interspecific hybrids between mungbean and urd bean was dominant but nonshattering plants could not be recovered in the segregating generations suggesting that the pod shattering is a quantitatively inherited trait
Thickness of the texture layer in seeds is under the quantitative genetic control while inheritance of the brown pigment in the texture layer The presence of brown pigment being dominant to its absence
Inheritance of mottling in the seed coat is monogenic. The presence of anthocyanin being dominant to its absence. It indicated that the inheritance of black and green seed colours was controlled by a single gene, ‘B’ with black being dominant over green
Seed coat colour The dominant alleles, ‘A’ and ‘Sp’, condition green and spotted seed coat whereas their recessive counterparts confer yellow and non-spotted colours
Traditionally, mungbean has been grown during kharif season. Development of short duration and disease resistant varieties has led their cultivation during spring/summer season in North and central India and during winter (rice fallows) in the coastal peninsula. The major constraints in achieving higher yield are lack of exploitable genetic variability, absence of suitable ideotypes for different cropping systems, poor harvest index, and susceptibility to biotic and abiotic stresses, besides non-availability of quality seeds of improved varieties. The major yield limiting harriers are lack of seedling vigour, excessive flower production, flower drops, poor pod setting, poor harvest index, monocarpic senescence, low response to inputs, narrow adaptation, indeterminate growth habit, staggered maturity and sensitivity to photoperiods and temperature. The phenomenon of compensation among yield components is considered to be main yield limiting factor. Limited variability has been exploited in varietal development programmes of these crops. Pedigree analysis of the released cultivars indicated that a small number of parents with high degree of relatedness were repeatedly used in crossing programmes. Diseases and insect pests cause considerable yield losses to mungbean. Mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV), cercospora leaf spot (C. canescens, C. cruenta) and powdery mildew (Ertisiphe polygoni DC) are of considerable economic importance. Mungbean yellow mosaic virus and leaf crinkle during kharif and mungbean yellow mosaic virus during spring in North India and powdery mildew during winter season in coastal peninsula are the major diseases. During the vegetative stage, defoliators like hairy caterpillars, semi-looper and caterpillar are the common pests. Activity of thrips starts at the bud stage and poses serious problems when the crop attains peak flowering, resulting in heavy flower drop. There is no resistant variety against these insect pests. Pre-harvest sprouting especially in mungbean poses a serious threat to timely sown crop during rainy season. Intense heat and hot winds during May-June lead to flower drop and poor pod set in spring/summer crop.
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7. Research needs
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Varieties developed in the past with resistance to single stress may not be a viable solution as new diseases and insect pests are emerging. Therefore, varieties having resistance to more than one stress provide greater insurance. For mungbean, high yielding cultivars with crop duration of 85–90 days for kharif season and 65–70 days for spring season combining determinate growth habit, high harvest index and reduced photoperiod sensitivity are required. For summer cultivation, extra early varieties of 55–60 days with synchronous maturity are desirable. Vegetative growth should terminate with flowering and assimilates should be transported to developing pods [65, 66]. Recently, large seeded varieties like Pusa Vishal, SML 668, TMV 37, etc., with early and synchronous maturity have been developed which have great market demand. To break the yield plateau in mungbean, there is a need to develop suitable plant type for target environments. In high input cereal-cereal systems, mungbean has to fit in gaps. For this, plant type that is determinate, photo-thermo insensitive, early maturing and high yielding with high harvest index needs to be developed. Good seedling vigour, distinctive vegetative and reproductive phases and high harvest index will be essential components of this plant type. There is good scope to utilize wild and cultivated Vigna species to incorporate novel characters and broaden the genetic base.
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8. Molecular diversity analysis
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Assessment of genetic diversity using RAPD analysis shows close similarity among mungbean cultivars [67]. The study reveals narrow genetic base of Indian cultivars probably due the repeated use of limited ancestors in their pedigrees. This observation has further been confirmed using RAPD [68, 69] and ISSR [70, 71] markers. Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers have also been used in mungbean to test their usefulness in genetic diversity assessment [67]. The long primers yielded significantly higher number of discrete and detectable bands as well as polymorphic bands than 10-base primers. The results show that long primers can be used efficiently for analyzing genetic diversity and the relationships in mungbean germplasm.
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9. Mapping of genes/QTLs
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Increasing the seed weight has been one of the major objectives to develop high yielding varieties. Molecular markers are now available which are linked to orthologous seed weight loci. RFLP markers to locate major QTLs for orthologous seed weight in mungbean. They found that the genomic regions in cowpea and mungbean that have the major effect on seed weight span the same RFLP markers in both the species. These markers are co-linear in arrangement on homologous linkage groups in both the crops. Attempts to breed large and hard seeded varieties of mungbean have not been very successful because of negative genetic correlation between these two traits as a result of pleiotropy or genetic linkage. Studies on the genetic relationship between hard seededness and seed weight, however, are not conclusive. QTL mapping approach using molecular markers have been employed to investigate the linkage relationship between these two traits (Table 2).
In order to develop high yielding disease resistant varieties in mungbean, the common breeding methods employed were pure line selection, hybridization followed by pedigree selection, mutation breeding and wide hybridization. While exercising selection, major emphasis has been placed on short duration, photo and thermo-insensitivity, synchronous maturity and resistance to mungbean yellow mosaic virus and powdery mildew. More than 150 varieties have been developed in India employing pure line selection, pedigree method of selection following hybridization, mutation and wide hybridization. The first variety of mungbean was Type 1 developed from local selection of Muzaffarpur (Bihar), which has been extensively been used afterward as one of the parents in hybridization programmes for the development of improved varieties like Type 2, K 851, T 44 and Sunaina. Utilization of T 44 in hybridization has resulted in the development of Pusa Baisakhi which, in turn, has given PIMS 4 and Jyoti. Through mutation breeding, about 14 varieties using gamma rays or occasionally ethyl methane sulphonate as mutagens have been developed. Varieties developed through mutation like CO 4, Pant Moong 2, TAP 7, BM 4, MUM 2 and TARM 1.
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10.1 Parental selection
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The main reason that the expected yield advances by the conventional component breeding methods have not materialized in mungbean is that the parents used in crossing programmes are not duly evaluated before their use. Seed yield of parents has a positive significant bearing on the yield of the progenies and in the inheritance of this character, additive variance is of paramount importance than the nonadditive variance, although many a times the latter also has significant bearing. The choice of the parents besides on their agronomic attributes like yield and its components must also be based on their genetic diversity, phenotypic stability and combining ability. So logically all the would-be parents must be evaluated by their progeny tests across environments and locations before their use in a crossing programme. A progeny test provides genetic composition of the parental plants and helps in selection of superior ones. In self-pollinated crops like mungbean, many minor genes of additive effect control yield and in any breeding programme, the ultimate goal is to accumulate and harness these genes. High yielding varieties from different genetic backgrounds and carrying different genes for yield when crossed and subjected to replicated progeny tests are expected to generate higher frequency of high yielding plants. Yield stability in mungbean is very important owing to significantly variable response of high yielding varieties across locations and years. Work on stability analysis done in mungbean shows that no high yielding varieties are stable across time and space. All the potential parents in a hybridization programme must be evaluated for their mean yield performance and yield stability, F1 performance, F2 mean yield and the variance generated, combining ability and their interaction with the important environmental variables. All these variables give a measure of the comparative potential of different F2 crosses. It is desirable that the progenies of only those parents be advanced beyond F2 generation that show high grain yield, yield stability, a positive general combining ability for grain yield and that are of distant genetic origin. Progenies of parents with low yield and negative general combining ability for yield must not be advanced beyond F2 generation. In an intra-species crossing programme, one parent should be a good agronomic base with higher stability and the other parent a good general combiner for yield and its components. Crosses with this strategic selection of parents are expected to give a wide range of genetic variability. To achieve stability and get a true measure of inherent genetic potential, the parental lines must be tested over a number of locations and get their combining ability estimates.
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10.2 Component breeding
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Fifty years of conventional approach of engineering different yield components in mungbean to build up a new plant type with higher productivity levels has thus far given only modest yield gains over the traditional cultivars. This approach has failed to break the present yield barriers as a whole and bring changes of scale. Based upon correlation analysis of various yield components, selections have been based mainly on number of pods per plant, seeds per pod and 100-seed weight and sometimes also on number of pods per bunch and branches per plant or podding per unit area usually called ‘Pod Index’. Pods per plant is by far the most important yield component and almost all the workers have found it having positive correlation with seed yield. It is the best selection index for seed yield and could be increased by increasing number of branches per plant or number of bunches per plant or by increasing the number of pods per bunch. Most of the work has shown that branch number per plant is negatively correlated with seed yield, but bunches per plant has mostly been found to be positively correlated with seed yield. Ramanujam [75] and others have found that pods per bunch and bunches per plant both are positively correlated with yield. Increasing pods per bunch is physiologically constrained in grain legumes owing to fall of flowers and unripe or partially filled pods. It seems the most feasible path to increase seed yield is through increasing number of bunches per plant. This in essence means a plant with more number of nodes with a shorter internode length, with three to four erect branches emerging from the lower to lower-middle nodes at around 20–30° angle with the main stem, and sympodial bearing of pod inflorescences coming from the upper nodes of the main stern, each carrying around 8–10 pods. Number of seeds per pod has been shown mostly positively correlated with seed yield but many workers show it to be negatively correlated with yield. However, an optimal level of 14–16 seeds per pod should be a breeders objective. Seed weight is generally negatively correlated with seed yield but some results have shown it to be positively correlated. The strength of the newly developed second generation varieties like Pusa Vishal and Pusa Ratna lies in the fact that they have more seeds per pod (12–16) with higher 100-seed weight (5.0–5.5 g) without compromising on the pod number per plant. Many researchers advocated cereal mimics with sympodial bearing and suggested increasing pods per plant through the path of increasing the average number of pods per node and building up a soybean like plant type in mungbean [76]. He found the main stem bearing under the control of a single recessive gene and normal conventional bearing to the incompletely dominant. Plant height has been found positively correlated with seed yield. An optimal upright plant height incorporates more functional nodes and thus more number of pods per plant. After pods per plant, this is the second most important character to be used for selection of seed yield. Owing to their high heritability, 100-seed weight and branch number could be excellent selection criteria but for their unfavorable correlations with yield. Also due to the compensatory mechanisms operating within the plant as a whole, this correlation based selection methodology has not brought the desired productivity levels in mungbean. Alternatively, the best option is direct selection for seed yield on a unit area basis.
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10.3 Conventional breeding methods
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Most of the high yielding varieties of mungbean bred and released so far have been developed through single cross pedigree method of selection. The single plant selections made in the early generations restrict carrying forward the bulk of created variability, which gets lost quickly giving way to homozygosity with each succeeding generation. This method has served the mungbean improvement programme well in the past, but lately no productivity advances are materializing due to the inherent genetic limitation of the method. The intermitting of selected F2 plants and selections in the late generations will help to harness most of the desirable genes.
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10.4 Early generation testing
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The early generation yield trials allow early identification of better performing crosses and F, derived lines within the individual crosses. However, selection emphasis is given in later generations only. The F2 derived family selection is very appropriate in mungbean, which is prone to high GE interactions and low seed increase ratio, which renders pedigree, bulk and single seed decent methods inefficient. The time required is less and emphasis is on grain yield in replicated progeny tests. It was developed in Canada as a modification of bulk method. The F2 derived family selection takes benefits of early generation yield testing to eliminate efficiently all the undesired materials both between and within the hybrid populations. Replicated yield trials are conducted across locations/environments for early generation selections among and within populations. These selections are further evaluated and final selections for high yield are made in only the best of families or populations. Due emphasis must be given to make site specific selections for different agro-climatic and production systems. Also depending upon the demands of the location and system, input responsiveness of the selections under high management conditions may be tested.
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10.5 Mutation breeding
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Both physical and chemical mutagens have been employed in improvement of mungbean crop India. The main drawbacks of this method are that the frequencies of desirable mutants are very less, necessitating evaluation of very large population and the difficulty in identification and scoring of micromutations. Tickoo and Chandra [77] using both physical and chemical mutagens could induce significantly higher variability in mungbean for characters like yield per plant, pods per plant, seed number per pod, seed weight, days to flower and harvest index in M2, generation. Mean values of all the characters had a negative shift in M2 but after selection changed to positive direction in M3 but were still associated with significantly higher interfamily and overall variances than the control populations. Such characters may be incorporated into the cultivated varieties by backcross method. Many a times the selected mutants have been released as new varieties as such for cultivation. Some varieties have been released in India including Pant Mung 2, Co 4, Dhauli, TAP 7, BM 4 and MUM 2 and some in Pakistan including NM 51 and NM 54. The latter two large seeded varieties resistant to MYMV have been developed by hybridization and irradiation of the F1 seeds.
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11. Thrust areas
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Resistance to biotic stresses namely, mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV), powdery mildew (PM), cercospora leaf spot (CLS), root diseases caused by Pythium spp. There is variability in the virulence of MYMV in white fly for incubation of different isolate in mungbean plant for genes governing resistance/tolerance to the virus and tim vector. Gene transfer across species in Vigna group has been found difficult. Biotechnological tools are being presently used to overcome these barriers. In the field, spreader row technique has been found to be most effective in screening the materials. However, parental lines to be used in crossing and promising selections before their release for cultivation may she screened under artificial inoculation.
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12. Conclusions
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Mungbean has the distinct advantage of short crop duration. This fact together with its atmospheric nitrogen fixing ability makes it an indispensable component in various cereal-based cropping systems. Mungbean has tremendous scope for horizontal expansion subject to some committed research inputs to overcome its various productivity bottlenecks. Proper evaluation and utilization of germplasm from secondary and tertiary gene pools by conventional and biotechnological tools immediate priorities. Incorporation of genes from its closely related species tor resistance or tolerance to biotic factors like MYMV, bruchids and abiotic factors like sensitivity to photoperiods, high temperatures, drought, waterlogging, pre-harvest sprouting and nutrient use efficiency’ and response to irrigation must be accomplished. Breeding for efficient fixing of atmospheric nitrogen has to be priority for higher response to the applied nitrogen in recombination breeding. Mungbean is grown in different seasons and different cropping systems necessitating the development of varieties of different maturity span. The varieties for wheat based cropping systems of Indo-Gangetic-Plains should have crop duration of 60 days with average yield of 1.3–2.0 tonnes per ha.
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Acknowledgments
\n
Authors are highly thankful to the Vice chancellor M.G.C.G.V. Satna, Chitrakoot, Madhya Pradesh for providing all the necessary facilities to write this book chapter and also acknowledge to ICAR-IIPR, Kanpur for their support.
\n
Conflict of interest
There is no conflict among the authors.
\n',keywords:"mungbean, genetics, plant breeding, constrain, biotechnological tools",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66478.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66478.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66478",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66478",totalDownloads:40,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 16th 2018",dateReviewed:"March 5th 2019",datePrePublished:"October 23rd 2019",datePublished:"December 11th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) is economically most important crop of Vigna group. It is also known as green gram, golden gram, moong, Chickasaw, Oregon pea, and chop suey bean and this legumes have a strategic position in Southeast Asian countries for nutritional security and sustainable crop production. Being rich in quality protein, minerals and vitamins, they are inseparable ingredients in the diets of a vast majority of Indian population. When supplemented with cereals, they provide a perfect mix of essential amino acids with high biological value. These crops have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen (58–109 kg per ha in kg per ha mungbean) in symbiotic association with Rhizobium bacteria, which enables them to meet their own nitrogen requirement and also benefit the succeeding crops. This crop has also been reported to smother weed flora appreciably (20–45%) when intercropped with tall cereals or pigeonpea and consequently, minimize the cost incurred on weed control. On account of short duration and photo-thermo insensitivity, they are considered excellent crops for crop intensification and diversification. A seed of mungbean is highly nutritious containing 24–28% protein, 1.0–1.5% fat, 3.5–4.5% fibre, 4.5–5.5% ash and 59–65% carbohydrates on dry weight basis and provide 334–344 kcal energy. Mungbean protein is considered to be easily digestible. Mungbean are tropical grain legumes widely grown in the sub-tropical countries of South and Southeast Asia. Nevertheless, these crops are cultivated over a wide range of latitudes in the regions where average diurnal temperatures during the growing season are warmer than about 20°C.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66478",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66478",signatures:"Suhel Mehandi, Syed Mohd. Quatadah, Sudhakar Prasad Mishra, Indra Prakash Singh, Nagmi Praveen and Namrata Dwivedi",book:{id:"7000",title:"Legume Crops",subtitle:"Characterization and Breeding for Improved Food Security",fullTitle:"Legume Crops - Characterization and Breeding for Improved Food Security",slug:"legume-crops-characterization-and-breeding-for-improved-food-security",publishedDate:"December 11th 2019",bookSignature:"Mohamed Ahmed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7000.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",middleName:null,surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"275243",title:"Dr.",name:"Suhel",middleName:null,surname:"Mehandi",fullName:"Suhel Mehandi",slug:"suhel-mehandi",email:"suhelgpb@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"275245",title:"Dr.",name:"Indra Prakash",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",fullName:"Indra Prakash Singh",slug:"indra-prakash-singh",email:"ipsingh1963@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"275246",title:"Prof.",name:"Sudhakar",middleName:null,surname:"Prasad Mishra",fullName:"Sudhakar Prasad Mishra",slug:"sudhakar-prasad-mishra",email:"drsudhakar.mishra@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"290295",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed",middleName:null,surname:"Mohd. Quatadah",fullName:"Syed Mohd. Quatadah",slug:"syed-mohd.-quatadah",email:"squatadah@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"290728",title:"MSc.",name:"Nagmi",middleName:null,surname:"Praveen",fullName:"Nagmi Praveen",slug:"nagmi-praveen",email:"nagmi0802@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"290731",title:"Dr.",name:"Namrata",middleName:null,surname:"Dwivedi",fullName:"Namrata Dwivedi",slug:"namrata-dwivedi",email:"namratadwivedi5@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Origin and domestication",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Ecology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Historical perspective",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Genetics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Production constraints",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Research needs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Molecular diversity analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Mapping of genes/QTLs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Breeding approach",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"10.1 Parental selection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"10.2 Component breeding",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"10.3 Conventional breeding methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"10.4 Early generation testing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"10.5 Mutation breeding",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"11. Thrust areas",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"12. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Ali M. Effect of summer legumes on productivity and nitrogen economy of succeeding rice (Oriza sativa) in sequential cropping. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 1992;62:466-467\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Ali M. Weed suppressing ability and productivity of short duration legumes with pigeonpea under rainfed condition. Tropical Pest Management. 1988;34:384-387\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Tsou CS, I Isu MS, Tan ST, Park HG. 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Genetic divergence, association and performance evaluation of different genotypes of mungbean. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology. 2006;8(6):793-795\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Khattak GSS, Ashraf M, Haq MA, Srinives P. Genetic architecture of seed yield and yield components in mungbean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek]. Tropical Agriculture. 2002;79:260-264\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Pathak H, Singh S. Inheritance studies in green gram. Indian Journal of Genetics & Plant Breeding. 1963;23:215-218\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Pande K, Raghuvanshi SS. Gamma rays induced high yielding dwarf mutant in V. radiata L. Wilczek. Mutation Breeding Newsletter. 1988;32:6-7\n'},{id:"B30",body:'Talukdar T, Talukdar D. Inheritance of growth habbit and leaf shape in mungbean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek]. Indian Journal of Genetica & Plant Breeding. 2003;63:165-166\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Bose RD. Studies in Indian pulses. IX. Contributions to the genetics of mung (Phaseolus radiaus L.). Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 1939;9:575-594\n'},{id:"B32",body:'Sen NK, Ghosh AK. Genetic studies in green gram. Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding. 1959;19:210-227\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Rheenen V. The inheritance of some characters in the mungbean, Phaseolus aureus Roxb. Genetica. 1965;36:412-419\n'},{id:"B34",body:'Mishra RC, Sahu RC, Tripathi D. Inheritance of hypocotyl color in green gram (Phaseolus aureus Roxb). Indian Science Congress Association Proceedings. 1970;57:290\n'},{id:"B35",body:'Apparao S, Jana MK. Inheritance of anthocyanin coloration in Phaseolus mutants. Indian Science Congress Association Proceedings. 1973;60:302\n'},{id:"B36",body:'Mukherjee A, Pradhan K. Genetics of mungbean: Anthocyanin pigment in hypocotyl. Journal of Interacademicia. 2002;6:434-437\n'},{id:"B37",body:'Dwivedi S, Singh DR. Inheritance of narrow trifoliate leaf in mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek). SABRA Journal. 1985;17:177-180\n'},{id:"B38",body:'Dwivedi S, Singh DP. Inheritance of fasciation in mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek). Indian Journal of Genetics & Plant Breeding. 1990;50:81-82\n'},{id:"B39",body:'Chhabra AK. Inheritance of lobed and pentafoliate leaf in mungbean. Indian Journal of Pulses Research. 1990;3:69-72\n'},{id:"B40",body:'Muralidharan V, Rangasamy SR, Chandrababu R, Rathnaswamv R. Pentafoliate leaf and its inheritance in mungbean. Indian Journal of Pulses Research. 1991;4:195\n'},{id:"B41",body:'Bhadra SK. Inheritance of nine-foliate leaf in mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek). SABRAO Journal. 1991;23:71-73\n'},{id:"B42",body:'Santos IS. Induction of mutations in mungbean (Phaseolus aureus Roxb.) and genetic studies of some of the mutants. 1969;8:169-179\n'},{id:"B43",body:'Pokle YS. Spontaneous mutation in mung (Phaseolus aureus Roxb.). Science and Culture. 1972;38:142\n'},{id:"B44",body:'Sareen PK. Further genetic analysis of the trilobate leaf mutants in mungbean (Vigna radiata var. aureus (L.) Wilczek). 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Genetic diversity in the genus Vigna based on morphological traits and isozyme markers. SABRAO Journal. 1990;35:103-112\n'},{id:"B51",body:'Murty BK, Patel GJ. Inheritance of seed coat colour in green gram. Indian Journal of Genetics & Plant Breeding. 1972;32:373-378\n'},{id:"B52",body:'Khadilkar BT. Inheritance of two characters in green gram (Phaseolus aureus Roxb. Piper). Akola Agricultural College Magazine. 1963;3:29-32\n'},{id:"B53",body:'Verma, Krishi. Inheritance of some qualitative characters in green gream (Phaseolus aureus Roxb.). Indian Journal of Heredity. 1969;1:105-106\n'},{id:"B54",body:'Singh P, Singh IB, Singh U, Singh HG. Interspecific hybridization between mung (Phaseolus aureus Roxb.) and urd (Phaseolu smungo L.). Science and Culture. 1975;41:233-234\n'},{id:"B55",body:'Watt EE, Marechal R. The differences between mung and urd beans. Tropical Grain Legume Bulletin. 1977;7:31-33\n'},{id:"B56",body:'Chen HM, Liu XH. Inheritance of seed color and luster in mungbean (Vigna radiata). Hunan Agricultural Science & Technology Newsletter. 2001;2:8-12\n'},{id:"B57",body:'Lambrides CJ. Segregation distortion for seed testa color in mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek). The Journal of Heredity. 2004;95:532-535\n'},{id:"B58",body:'Singh. Inheritance of seed coat colour in Phaseolus aureus L. Indian Science congress Association Proceedings. 1973;60:321-322\n'},{id:"B59",body:'Laurel VB, Ramirez DA. Inheritance of seed coat color in mungbean, Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek. Philippines Journal of Crop Science. 1994;19:3-19\n'},{id:"B60",body:'Mehandi S, Singh IP, Bohra A, Singh CM. (Supplement on Genetics & Plant Breeding) Estimates of genetic variability and heritability for yield and yield component traits in mungbean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek]. The Bioscan. 2013;8(4):00-00\n'},{id:"B61",body:'Thakare et al. Green cotyledons mutant in mungbean [Vigna radiata (L.)Wilczek]. Current Science. 1980;49:945-946\n'},{id:"B62",body:'Lambrides CJ. Breeding for improved seed quality traits in mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) using DNA markers [Ph.D. Thesis]. Australia Lambrides CJ: University of Queensland; 1996\n'},{id:"B63",body:'Humphry ME, Lambrides CJ, Chapman SC, Aitken EAB, Imrie BC, Lawn RL, et al. Relationships between hard seededness and seed weight in mungbean (Vigna radiata) assessed by QTL analysis. Plant Breeding. 2005;124:292-298\n'},{id:"B64",body:'Verma P. Inheritance of photosensetivity in mungbean (Phaseolus aureus Roxb.). Mysore Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 1971;5:477-480\n'},{id:"B65",body:'Sahli AD, Das K. Studies on growth and yield of three mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) cultivars. Indian Journal of Plant Physiology. 1979;22:147-154\n'},{id:"B66",body:'Pawar SE, Bhatia CR. The basis for grain yield differences in mungbean cultivars and identification of yield limiting factors. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 1980;57(1):71-1 75\n'},{id:"B67",body:'Ghat KV, Lakhanpaul S, Chadha S. Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis of genetic diversity in Indian mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek) cultivars. Indian Journal of Biotechnology. 2005;4:56-64\n'},{id:"B68",body:'Betal S, Chowdhury PR, Kundu S, Raychaudhuri SS. Estimation of genetic variability of Vigna radiata cultivar by RAPD analysis. Biologia Plantarum. 2004;48:205-209\n'},{id:"B69",body:'Afzal MA, Hague MM, Shanmugasundaram S. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis of selected mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek) cultivars. Asian Journal of Plant Sciences. 2004;3:20-24\n'},{id:"B70",body:'Sinha RR, Das K, Sen SK. DNA markers in mungbean. India Embryoids from mesophyll protoplast of Vigna mungo (L) Hepper: A seed legume crop plant [Ph.D. Thesis]. Vol. 22. University of Mumbai; Basic Life Sciences. 2003. pp. 209-211\n'},{id:"B71",body:'Saini A, Reddy SK, Jawali N. Evaluation of long primers for AP-PCR analysis of mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek): Genetic relationships and fingerprinting of some genotypes. Indian Journal of Biotechnology. 2004;3:511-518\n'},{id:"B72",body:'Fatokun CA, Menancio-Hautea D, Danesh D, Young ND. Evidence for orthologous seed weight genes in cowpea and mungbean based on RFLP mapping. Genetics. 1992;132:841-846\n'},{id:"B73",body:'Chaitieng B, Kaga A, Han OK, Wang KW, Wongkaew S, Laosuwan P, et al. Mapping a new source of resistance to powdery mildew in mungbean. Plant Breeding. 2002;121:521-525\n'},{id:"B74",body:'McIntyre CL, Humphry ME, Magner T, Aitken EAB, Liu CJ. Identification of a major locus conferring resistance to powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni DC) in mungbean (Vigna radiataL. Wilczek) by QTL analysis. Genome. 2003;46:738-744\n'},{id:"B75",body:'Ramanujam S. Genetic diversity, stability and plant type in pulse crops. In: Proceedings of the First International Mungbean Symposium. Shanhua, Taiwan: Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre. 1975. pp. 167-176\n'},{id:"B76",body:'Satyanarayana A. Pulses in rice fallows. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Varietal Improvement of Chickpea, Pigeonpea and Other Upland Crops in Rice Based and Other Cropping Systems; March 19-22; Kathmandu. 1998. pp. 352-354\n'},{id:"B77",body:'Tickoo, Chandra. Mutagen induced polygenic variability in mungbean [V. radiata (L) Wilczek]. Indian Journal of Genetics & Plant Breeding. 1999;59(2):193-201\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Suhel Mehandi",address:"suhelgpb@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. 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