Major ion data in ground aquifer (mg/L).
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6373",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Myocardial Infarction",title:"Myocardial Infarction",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is still the most common cause of death among adults. Its prevalence is increasing in developing countries and despite all advances in both diagnostic tools and treatment modalities, it is still very common in the developed world. Obesity, diabetes mellitus, hypercholesterolemia and overuse of dietary salt play a pivotal role in increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality worldwide. Current clinical efforts are mainly focused on the diagnosis and treatment of myocardial infarction. In this book, we provide epidemiological data on myocardial infarction and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, current diagnostic biochemical tests and management strategies. A specific patient group, children, experiencing myocardial infarction are also addressed. Current advances in the management of myocardial infarction have decreased the morbidity and mortality from atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and especially myocardial infarction; however, more can be achieved by the prevention of atherosclerotic processes via focusing on the early stages of the disease.",isbn:"978-1-78984-869-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-868-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-437-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69907",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"myocardial-infarction",numberOfPages:138,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"10bca0bf18d68ec3c1641dbc3a1ae899",bookSignature:"Burak Pamukçu",publishedDate:"January 3rd 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6373.jpg",numberOfDownloads:12768,numberOfWosCitations:23,numberOfCrossrefCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:31,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:70,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 30th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 20th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 29th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 29th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 28th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"70686",title:"Dr.",name:"Burak",middleName:null,surname:"Pamukçu",slug:"burak-pamukcu",fullName:"Burak Pamukçu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/70686/images/system/70686.jpeg",biography:"Burak Pamukçu (M.D.) obtained a doctorate degree in Cardiology from Istanbul University Faculty of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey. Dr. Pamukçu finalized his post doctorate fellowship (European Society of Cardiology Atherothrombosis Research Fellowship) at the University Department of Medicine, Centre for Cardiovascular Sciences, City Hospital, Birmingham, England, UK. He is mainly interested in atherothrombosis, atherosclerotic heart vessel disease, antithrombotic therapy and interventional cardiology. Currently Dr. Pamukçu is working as a Consultant Cardiologist and Associate Professor of Cardiology in Acıbadem Healthcare Group. He has published 99 scientific publications and served as reviewer for thirty different medical journals. He is also serving as associate editor and editorial board member at peer reviewed medical scientific journals.",institutionString:"Acibadem Mehmet Ali Aydinlar University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Istanbul University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"170",title:"Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine",slug:"cardiology-and-cardiovascular-medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"64090",title:"Introductory Chapter: Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81697",slug:"introductory-chapter-atherosclerotic-cardiovascular-disease",totalDownloads:979,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Burak Pamukcu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64090",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64090",authors:[{id:"70686",title:"Dr.",name:"Burak",surname:"Pamukçu",slug:"burak-pamukcu",fullName:"Burak Pamukçu"}],corrections:null},{id:"59778",title:"Epidemiology of Myocardial Infarction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74768",slug:"epidemiology-of-myocardial-infarction",totalDownloads:4514,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:24,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality throughout the world. The most common form of CHD is the myocardial infarction. It is responsible for over 15% of mortality each year, among the vast majority of people suffering from non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) than ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). The prevalence of myocardial infarction (MI) is higher in men in all age-specific groups than women. Although the incidence of MI is decreased in the industrialized nations partly because of improved health systems and implementation of effective public health strategies, nevertheless the rates are surging in the developing countries such as South Asia, parts of Latin America, and Eastern Europe. The modifiable risk factors represent over 90% of the risk for acute MI. The risk factors such as dyslipidemia, smoking, psychosocial stressors, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, obesity, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and a diet low in fruits and vegetables were strongly associated with acute MI.",signatures:"Joshua Chadwick Jayaraj, Karapet Davatyan, S.S. Subramanian and Jemmi Priya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59778",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59778",authors:[{id:"223196",title:"Dr.",name:"Joshua",surname:"Chadwick",slug:"joshua-chadwick",fullName:"Joshua Chadwick"},{id:"231054",title:"Dr.",name:"Karapet",surname:"Davatyan",slug:"karapet-davatyan",fullName:"Karapet Davatyan"},{id:"231055",title:"Ms.",name:"Jemmi",surname:"Priya",slug:"jemmi-priya",fullName:"Jemmi Priya"},{id:"244487",title:"Dr.",name:"S.S.",surname:"Subramanian",slug:"s.s.-subramanian",fullName:"S.S. Subramanian"}],corrections:null},{id:"62951",title:"The Diagnostic Value of Biochemical Cardiac Markers in Acute Myocardial Infarction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76150",slug:"the-diagnostic-value-of-biochemical-cardiac-markers-in-acute-myocardial-infarction",totalDownloads:2060,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death worldwide. The role of cardiac markers in the diagnosis, risk stratification, and treatment of patients with chest pain is vital. Patients with elevated cardiac troponin levels but negative CK-MB who were formerly diagnosed with unstable angina or minor myocardial injury are now reclassified as non–ST-segment elevation MI (NSTEMI) even in the absence of diagnostic ECG changes. CK-MB is both a sensitive and specific marker for myocardial infarction. Cardiac troponin T is a cardio-specific, highly sensitive marker for myocardial damage. Cardiac troponin I is a contractile protein exclusively present in the cardiac muscle. The absolute cardiospecificity of cTnI allows the diagnosis of myocardial infarction distinct from muscle lesions and non-cardiac surgery. In 2000, the European Society of Cardiology and the American College of Cardiology redefined AMI with a particular advocacy on troponin. The 2002/2007 American College of Cardiology (ACC) and the American Heart Association (AHA) Guideline Update for the management of these patients strongly recommend to include cTnI. Specifically, with rare exception, the diagnosis cannot be made in the absence of elevated biomarkers of cardiac injury.",signatures:"Shazia Rashid, Arif Malik, Rukhshan Khurshid, Uzma Faryal and\nSumera Qazi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62951",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62951",authors:[{id:"222194",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Shazia",surname:"Rashid",slug:"shazia-rashid",fullName:"Shazia Rashid"},{id:"222621",title:"Prof.",name:"Arif",surname:"Malik",slug:"arif-malik",fullName:"Arif Malik"},{id:"238058",title:"Dr.",name:"Rakhshan",surname:"Khurshid",slug:"rakhshan-khurshid",fullName:"Rakhshan Khurshid"},{id:"238060",title:"Dr.",name:"Uzma",surname:"Faryal",slug:"uzma-faryal",fullName:"Uzma Faryal"},{id:"238062",title:"Dr.",name:"Sumera",surname:"Qazi",slug:"sumera-qazi",fullName:"Sumera Qazi"}],corrections:null},{id:"60334",title:"Interventional Therapies for Post-Cardiac Arrest Patients Suffering from Coronary Artery Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75045",slug:"interventional-therapies-for-post-cardiac-arrest-patients-suffering-from-coronary-artery-disease",totalDownloads:1078,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Acute myocardial infarction and coronary artery disease (CAD) are the most common causes for the development of malignant arrhythmia often leading to cardiogenic shock and cardiac arrest. Structural heart disease represents the main pathology in older patients, whereas young adults mostly suffer from cardiomyopathies and channelopathies. This book chapter delineates modern interventional therapies for patients with cardiogenic shock or aborted cardiac arrest. Epidemiological data on the incidence of malignant arrhythmia depending causing cardiac arrest depending on the presence or absence of CAD and myocardial infarction are presented. Realistic difficulties within clinical decision-making are counterbalanced for and against an early, aggressive and invasive therapeutic approach including early coronary angiography with percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), targeted temperature management and mechanical cardiac assist devices, depending on the individual clinical presentation and underlying cardiac arrhythmia.",signatures:"Michael Behnes, Philipp Kuche, Ibrahim Akin and Kambis Mashayekhi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60334",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60334",authors:[{id:"189154",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrahim",surname:"Akin",slug:"ibrahim-akin",fullName:"Ibrahim Akin"},{id:"204569",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Behnes",slug:"michael-behnes",fullName:"Michael Behnes"},{id:"213288",title:"Dr.",name:"Kambis",surname:"Mashayekhi",slug:"kambis-mashayekhi",fullName:"Kambis Mashayekhi"},{id:"240764",title:"Dr.",name:"Philipp",surname:"Kuche",slug:"philipp-kuche",fullName:"Philipp Kuche"}],corrections:null},{id:"61346",title:"Non-ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction: Diagnosis and Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76241",slug:"non-st-elevation-myocardial-infarction-diagnosis-and-management",totalDownloads:2503,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cardiovascular disease is expected to be the main cause of death globally due to the rapidly increasing prevalence of obesity, hypertension and diabetes mellitus. Atherosclerotic lesions and plaque rupture are the most common cause of myocardial infarction. Resting 12-lead ECG is the first diagnostic test for patients with chest pain and should be performed and interpreted within the first 10 min of the patient’s admission to the emergency department. Cardiac biomarkers preferably, high-sensitivity cardiac troponin, is mandatory in all patients with suspected NSTEMI for the diagnosis, risk stratification and treatment. Rapid, efficient diagnosis and risk stratification of patients with chest pain will help to administer the appropriate medication and plan for the timing of invasive strategy and the choice of revascularization. This chapter helps to simply but elaborately discuss the diagnosis, risk stratification and the management of patients with non-ST elevation of myocardial infarction.",signatures:"Yaser Al Ahmad and Mohammed T. Ali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61346",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61346",authors:[{id:"218369",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"Ali",slug:"mohammed-ali",fullName:"Mohammed Ali"},{id:"248884",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaser",surname:"Alahamd",slug:"yaser-alahamd",fullName:"Yaser Alahamd"}],corrections:null},{id:"60068",title:"Myocardial Infarction in Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74793",slug:"myocardial-infarction-in-children",totalDownloads:1634,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Myocardial infarction (MI) is a clinical condition that develops associated with a sudden reduction or interruption of the blood flow of the vessels supplying the heart for various reasons. The electrocardiographic, echocardiographic and enzymatic diagnostic criteria of MI have been well defined in adults, in children there are some difficulties. Although seen more often in the presence of congenital heart disease (CHD), MI may also be seen in patients without CHD. Unlike atherosclerotic coronary artery disease in adult patients, ischaemia and infarct in children are often associated with coronary artery anomalies and CHD. In addition, congenital prothrombotic diseases, vasculitis, surgical or interventional procedures may also cause ischaemia and infarct. Subendocardial ischaemia, especially aortic stenosis characterised by hypertrophy in the left ventricle is often seen in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy or hypertensive patients. The most important risk factors in neonates and infants are the presence of CHD, coronary artery anomalies and perinatal asfixia. The most frequently seen causes of pediatric myocardial infarction (PMI) are abnormal left coronary artery originating from the pulmonary artery (ALCAPA) and Kawasaki disease. Another often seen cause of PMI is patients who underwent arterial switch operations.",signatures:"Meki Bilici, Mehmet Ture and Hasan Balik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60068",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60068",authors:[{id:"219534",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Meki",surname:"Bilici",slug:"meki-bilici",fullName:"Meki Bilici"},{id:"239944",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",surname:"Ture",slug:"mehmet-ture",fullName:"Mehmet Ture"},{id:"239945",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",surname:"Balik",slug:"hasan-balik",fullName:"Hasan Balik"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7055",title:"Angiography",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"20638a6ce5e042484cc33b5b510cdca6",slug:"angiography",bookSignature:"Burak Pamukçu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7055.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70686",title:"Dr.",name:"Burak",surname:"Pamukçu",slug:"burak-pamukcu",fullName:"Burak Pamukçu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6209",title:"Endothelial Dysfunction",subtitle:"Old Concepts and New Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6e76bbf7858977527679a6e6ad6a173",slug:"endothelial-dysfunction-old-concepts-and-new-challenges",bookSignature:"Helena Lenasi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6209.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68746",title:"Dr.",name:"Helena",surname:"Lenasi",slug:"helena-lenasi",fullName:"Helena Lenasi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7220",title:"Congenital Heart Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f59bacfffcccc636ec3082869d10a82e",slug:"congenital-heart-disease",bookSignature:"David C. 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There is increasing demand for facial plastic surgery with more awareness and advancements in surgical procedures and their outcomes. Many patients who seek surgery for their nasal aesthetics also have complaints of nasal obstruction and sometimes snoring. Severe gross septal deviations present surgical challenges for the operating surgeon. In functional rhinoplasty, the role of a spreader graft, columellar extension graft, shield graft, only conchal graft, nasal valve suture suspension, and flaring sutures has been advocated by numerous authors. General ENT surgeons, rhinologists, plastic surgeons, maxillofacial surgeons, postgraduates, researchers, trainees, and general practitioners with a special interest in rhinoplasty will find this book useful and interesting.
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From reliability point of view, an element is any component or object that is considered in the investigated case as a whole and is not decomposed into simpler objects. An element can be a lamp bulb, the connecting point of two electric components, a screw, an oil hose, a piston in an engine, and even the complete engine in a diesel locomotive. Also, the individual operations or their groups in a complex manufacturing or building process can be considered as elements.
An example of a simple system is an electric lamp made by a light bulb, socket, switch, wires, plug, and the lamp body. An extremely complex system is an aircraft, containing tens of thousands of mechanical, hydraulic, or electric elements. Each of them can fail. This increases the probability that the whole system fails. The resultant reliability depends on the reliability of the individual elements and their number and mutual arrangement. A suitable arrangement can even increase the reliability of the system. In this chapter, important cases will be shown together with the formulas for the calculation of resultant reliability. Two basic systems are series and parallel, and their combinations are also possible.
From reliability point of view, a series system (Fig. 1a) is such, which fails if any of its elements fails. For example, a motorcycle cannot go if any of the following parts cannot serve: engine, tank with fuel, chain, frame, front or rear wheel, etc., and, of course, the driver. All these elements are thus arranged in series. Elements are also screws and many other things. If failure of any component does not depend on any other component, the reliability of the system is obtained simply as the product of the reliabilities of individual elements,
A practical conclusion is that “the reliability of a series system is always lower than the reliability of any of its components”.
Examples of series system (a) and parallel system (b).
The probability of failure is complementary to reliability, i.e.
The characteristic features of series arrangement will be shown on several examples.
The resultant reliability of two components is
The reliability of a series system with three elements with
The influence of the number of elements (and thus complexity of the system) can be illustrated on several systems where all components have the same probability of failure
Solution: (a)
One can see that the drop of reliability is significant especially for high numbers of components. Although one component has relatively high reliability (98%), a system with 200 such parts is practically unable to work, as it has reliability lower than approximately 2% and probability of failure 98%! Complex large systems must therefore be assembled from very reliable elements.
Until now, we have assumed that the reliability of individual parts does not change with time. If it varies, Equation (1) changes to
the resultant probability of failure is obtained as
The reliability of components is often characterized by failure rate
The distribution of times to failure of such system is again exponential, with the resultant failure rate equal the sum of individual failure rates,
This means that ”the failure rate of a series system is always higher (and the mean time between failures shorter) than that of individual components, and the reliability
The mean time between failures is
The decrease of reliability with time is illustrated in Figure 2 for several systems with different numbers of elements. One can see a very fast drop of reliability in systems with many components. This must be accounted for if guaranteed operation of a complex object during certain time is demanded. This issue will be treated in detail later.
Series system. Time course of reliability for various number of elements
A parallel system (Fig. 1b) is such, which fails only if all its parts fail. An example is a four-cylinder engine. It will fail only if all four cylinders are unable to run. If one, two, or even three cylinders do not work, the fourth one is still able to put the car into motion (though with significantly reduced power).
The probability of a simultaneous occurrence of mutually independent events equals the product of individual probabilities. In parallel systems, the resultant probability of failure is thus calculated as
Reliability is complementary to probability of failure, i.e.
For example, if two components are arranged in parallel, each with reliability
If the reliability of elements is characterized by failure rates, the situation is more complex than in a series system, even if the failure rates of the individual elements are constant. For the simplest case of two components, with
and
The distribution is no more exponential and the failure rate is not constant. The mean time to failure is
For identical components, with
i.e. by 50% longer than the mean time to failure of individual components.
The solution for parallel systems with more elements can be obtained in similar way. However, it is much more complicated. Analytical solutions exist only in very simple cases; more effective is the use of the Monte Carlo simulation method, explained in Chapter 15.
Generally, the reliability of parallel arrangement can be characterized as follows:
“The probability of failure-free operation of a system with several parallel elements is always higher than that of the best element in the system.” The situation is depicted in Figure 3. Also, the mean time to failure of a parallel system is always longer than that of any of its parts. For this reason, parallel arrangement is sometimes used to increase reliability (see further).
Parallel system. Time course of reliability for various number of elements
In some systems, series and parallel arrangements of elements appear together (Fig. 4). The resultant reliability can be found using step-by-step solution and gradual simplification. The group of elements arranged in series is replaced by one element with equivalent reliability parameters. Parallel elements can sometimes also be replaced by an equivalent element, and so on. The situation is easier if the time dependency of reliabilities does not need to be considered. Unfortunately, if reliability is characterized by failure rates, the failure rate for parallel arrangement is not constant and no simple and accurate analytical solutions exist, only approximate. Better results can be obtained using numerical simulation methods.
Combined system.
Reliability can be increased if the same function is done by two or more elements arranged in parallel. This is called redundancy. Two kinds of redundancy can be distinguished: structural and algorithmic.
The second case is algorithmic redundancy. This means the repetition of some operations, for example measurement or check for defects in some kinds of nondestructive control, such as X-ray or ultrasonic revealing of internal defects in castings or fatigue cracks in airframes or wings, as well as the proofreading of a paper for finding errors. Algorithmic redundancy is commonly used in the transmission of signals and information, from the simple addition of parity bits (check digits) to complex systems for safe information coding.
Until now, we determined the resultant reliability of a system composed of more components. In the design of complex systems, an opposite problem appears: what should be the reliabilities of individual parts so that the reliability of the whole system is equal to some demanded value (or better)? Several methods of reliability allocation were proposed. The simplest one for series systems uses
If failure rates are considered, then the failure rate
where
Also other apportionments are possible. Not always has each available component the reliability
A system consists of three parallel components (Fig. 1b) with probabilities of failure (during a certain, unspecified time):
Solution. In parallel systems,
Calculate the mean time to failure and failure rate of a system consisting of four elements in a series (like in Fig. 1a). The individual elements have exponential distribution of the time to failure with failure rates
Solution.
Calculate the resultant probability of failure (
Solution. The system must be solved step-by-step. First, the reliability of elements 2 and 3 in a series is calculated:
The resultant probability of failure is
The failure rate of a system of five components arranged in a series should be
Solution. The resultant failure rate of this series system is
Water inrush is one of severe hazards to coal mines in China. According to statistical material, more than 25 billion tons of coal resources are at the risk of water inrushes in China. From 2000 to 2015, 1162 water inrush accidents were reported, causing 4676 deaths. The number of accidents and deaths took 3.3% and 7.8% of all accidents in coal mines. In spite of the low proportion, major accidents often took place, leading to severe property and live loss.
Northern China district is an important coal base area, reserves of which takes nearly 40% of all country. Therefore, the prevention of water inrush accident is a key issue to the mining safety. The main threats of water inrush to the working face can be grouped into mainly four types, namely surface water, coal roof aquifer water, coal floor aquifer water, and goaf water. The coal roof water is usually relative to coal seam sandstone aquifers, sometime associate with quaternary aquifers. Goaf water formed when the working face closed and ground water filling up this space. The coal floor water is usually relative to limestone aquifers in the Ordovician system and the Taiyuan Formation in the Carboniferous system.
The different types of water inrush threats show various foreshadow, bursting behaviour, and hazard rating, and corresponding treating technology is essential. Therefore, the technique to predict and evaluate the accident potential, forecast the accident occurrence, and identify water inrush sources, is a key step to prevent the accidents or disasters, and protect the working safety and human health and lives.
In this chapter, the main techniques that used to identify water inrush sources and its application, mainly focusing on the Northern China district, are illustrated.
A basic strategy to identify source of water inrush is based on the geochemical characteristics. Some researchers have compared concentrations of major ions, including K+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl−, SO42−, CO32−, HCO3−, and also total dissolved solid, between different aquifers to determine water sources.
In different aquifers, the water composition is a response of its original characteristics and water-rock interaction process. In the Northern China, two main groups of aquifers are coal bearing strata aquifers and limestone aquifers. The geochemists used to find key ions in water, sometimes using geochemical figures, to determine the water sources.
While the geochemical strategy is based on some unique ions and parameters in a lower dimension, another strategy, namely the machine learning (ML) algorithms, is based on multivariate analysis, including some specific methods, and provide more quantitate and reliable results.
The geochemical method is a popular technique in the water inrush identification, for mainly two reasons. First, some coal mines, especially for the large companies, have their own laboratory to test water geochemistry. Therefore, it is easy to obtain data. Second, the experienced technicians are familiar with the water geochemical data, especially for the major ions and important parameters. Researchers usually begin their study from the normal water geochemistry, to investigate water characteristics in every aquifer, set up identification model to distinguish water type from others, and find out the water-rock interaction mechanism for the water composition.
An easy-to-handle method to identify water source is to analyse the major ion characteristics. Cheng et al. [1] analysed water geochemistry in quaternary aquifers, magmatic aquifers, limestone aquifers in the Huaibei coal mine district, Anhui province. The data was grouped into different chemical types, which can be used as database for the water source identification. Chen and Gui [2] discussed water geochemistry in Wanbei coal mine district in Anhui province. Zhang and Cao [3] analysed ground water in Hancheng coal mine district in Shannxi province, founding that the potential water burst point was related with the limestone aquifer. Dai et al. [4] discussed water characteristics in Xiangshan coal mine in Shannxi province. The data was grouped using SPSS to set up a database for further coal mine monitoring and forecasting. The author’s group have collected and analysed more than 30 water samples in the Lu’an coal mine district in Shanxi province, the pattern of water flow underground and water characteristics in every ground aquifer were summarised, some important ions, trace elements, and parameters, were identified and used to distinguish water sources from others.
A geochemical chart, the piper diagram, is usually used to analyse and group water samples into different groups by drawing the data as points in two triangle and a diamond figure. Zhang and Cao [3], Dai et al. [4] have applied this technique to identify the water sources. Author’s group have collected samples in 2019, Table 1 shows part of the data, and Figure 1 shows the water geochemistry in a piper diagram.
No. | K++Na+ | Ca2+ | Mg2+ | Fe3+ | Fe2+ | NH4+ | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 363.95 | 0.84 | 0.23 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.00 | 365.14 |
2 | 17.07 | 138.56 | 38.96 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 194.59 |
3 | 12.86 | 61.84 | 13.63 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 88.33 |
4 | 41.58 | 69.88 | 32.14 | 0 | 0 | 0.07 | 143.67 |
5 | 12.01 | 65.87 | 32.14 | 0 | 0 | 0.2 | 110.22 |
6 | 240.88 | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.15 | 0 | 0.44 | 241.57 |
7 | 315.05 | 12.44 | 4.14 | 0 | 0 | 1.51 | 333.14 |
8 | 88.16 | 356.63 | 38.96 | 0.11 | 0 | 0.38 | 484.24 |
9 | 351.19 | 1.07 | 0.54 | 0.07 | 0 | 0.47 | 353.34 |
10 | 334.4 | 0.21 | 0.21 | 0 | 0 | 0.41 | 335.23 |
Major ion data in ground aquifer (mg/L).
Piper drawing of the ground water (In the figure, the squares stand for surface water, the triangles stand for quaternary water, the circles stand for coal bearing seam water, and the stars stand for limestone aquifer water).
As Figure 1 showing, water in coal bearing seam shows similar characteristics, Na+ and K+ take more than 80% and up to more than 95% of all the cations. TDS of the most water sample were less than 1000 mg. The limestone water shows a spanning pattern. TDS of the limestone aquifer water also showed a much wider range, from less than 500 mg to higher than 3000 mg. In the limestone aquifer, water volume is larger, and water-rock interaction is stronger than that in the coal bearing seam, which maybe the reason to the water characteristics in the limestone aquifers.
The source identification using basic geochemical technique is a qualitative, or semi-quantitative method, which may mainly depend on researchers’ experiences. If distinguished differences between aquifers are observed in low dimensions, the basic geochemical technique is useful and easy to use. However, while the differences reveal in a higher dimension, i.e. the difference of ions’ composition, this method system may lead to a confusing result.
Not only the major ions, but also trace element concentrations and isotope values can be used to distinguish one source from others. Some researchers have used the trace elements to distinguish water samples from others or set up discriminant models. Feng and Han [5] analysed concentration and occurrence of trace elements and modelled its formation using PHREEQC. Chen et al. [6] collected 24 samples from the quaternary aquifers, coal seam sandstone aquifers, and limestone aquifers in Wanbei coal mine district in Anhui province and tested 24 types of trace elements, including Be, B, Sc, V, Cr, etc. The samples and trace elements were clustered. Then eight trace elements, including Be, Zn, Ga, Sr, U, Zr, Cs, Ba, were found to be key parameters to set up discriminant model. The key trace elements were used to train Bayes discriminant analytical model with a good performance.
Isotopes are also used in the water inrush in the coal mines. The most popular isotopes are δD and δ34S of water. In recent years, the studies are applied in Wanbei coal mine district [7, 8, 9], and Fushun coal mine district [10], etc.
In the author’s research in Lu’an coal mine district in Shanxi province, the major ions and trace element were treated together, then SO42−, Ti, Sr, Mg, K + Na, Zn, and Cl− were chosen to be typical ions or elements to train models.
Furthermore, the water form in a scale of whole water unit, therefore the analysis should be carried out in a scale of whole water unit, but not a single point. In the Northern China area, several ground units can be divided, the water-rock interactions among which show similar pattern in different coal mine district. Therefore, the analysis of coal mine district scale and comparison between different coal mine district is an important task to summarise the common mechanism of the water-rock interaction and distinction models.
The geochemical method is effective only if the water samples can be grouped and divided very clearly by one or very few parameters. In most scenario, the ion-distinguishing method is confusing and lack of accuracy. The difference of water samples is embedded in a high dimension, i.e. the combination of major ions, trace elements and other parameters. It is hard to find the dividing mode just by observation or simple drawing. Benefiting from the developing of data science and technology, the environmental and geological issues, including the ground water can be described, and divided by ML methods.
The ML algorithm can be simply divided into supervised, unsupervised, and semi-supervised, depending on how the target variables are labelled. For some environmental and geological problems, the target variables cannot be labelled, then the unsupervised ML algorithm, such as principal components analysis (PCA) are applied. For example, Shan et al. [11] applied the PCA method to analyse the occurrence and leaching mechanism in coal and host rock, Pumure et al. [12] found out successfully of the occurrence of As and Se in coal host rock. Self-Organising Maps (SOM) is a kind of unsupervised artificial neural network (ANN) used in a large data amount scenario [13, 14]. The PCA algorithm is only used for the water inrush if the target variables cannot be labelled [15, 16, 17].
While the researchers carrying out their studies, discriminant models should be trained. The training data is obtained from the samples collected from every aquifer. In this step, the data is usually marked clearly. Therefore, the target variables can be obtained for most research cases, and the supervised ML algorithm can be used, which shows high precise and accuracy than the unsupervised ML algorithm. There are several algorithms are suitable for the model training, such as artificial neural network (ANN), support vector machine (SVM), discriminant analysis (DA), decision tree (DT), random forest (RF), boosting, and regression, etc.
In the Northern China, supervised ML algorithm has been used in several coal mine districts. Table 2 shows part of the research cases in the Northern China area in recent years. It can be concluded from the table that DT criterions are most implemented, some other methods, such as SVM, and ANN, are also used.
Up to present, the DA is a most popular method analysis to identify sources of water inrush in the Northern China district. Two criterions are usually used, namely Fisher criterion and Bayes criterion. In the framework of Fisher-criterion based DA algorithm, high dimensional data is projected to a one-dimension space, then a discriminant criterion is obtained to achieve the maximum variance between two groups and the minimum in-group variance. Because this method is used to handle a two-group problem, many rounds of calculation are needed for a multiple-group problem. The Bayes-criterion base DA method calculate the posterior probabilities of the sample in each group, then the sample can be classified into the group with the highest posterior probability. Comparing with the Fisher criterion, the Bayes criterion is more frequently used.
The DA is a kind of linear algorithm. Along with the development of ML technology, non-linear modelling is widely used in researches, including the geological, environmental, and engineering area. In order to deal with problems of surface water and ground water, the SVM method is applied to predict water quality and water level [23, 24], ANN and DT are used to predict the [NO3−] of ground water [25], set up the water quality monitoring system [26]. Boosting tree is also used to classify distributed water and ground water.
However, the non-linear ML method is relatively less applied to deal with the water inrush problems in coal mines, though higher accuracy maybe achieved compared to the linear algorithm. According to literature research, the ANN [27] and SVM [20] have been implement in this area. The ANN is a very popular technique in many areas, including figure and voice identification, driverless driving, etc. However, the ANN usually needs large amount of data to train model to control its over-fitting problem. On the other hand, the data of the environmental and geological area, including the water inrush analysis are usually structured data, and limited to a small data quantity. As a result, the problem of over-fitting problem is hard to control, which means low accuracy of prediction is prospected while using the ANN model to check using the testing data, though a high accuracy may be obtained while testing the model using the training data. The algorithm of SVM perform better to control the over-fitting problem. Other than SVM, the DT, DT, boosting tree, Bayes network (BN) also have good prospect, in consideration of the characteristics of the coal mine ground water, i.e. structured small data quantity.
The tested data of ground water is material of model training. However, the data preparing is essential to ensure or enhance the model quality. The data preparing work mainly includes data selection and feature engineering.
In a wide sense, the data selection includes data cleaning, which means treatment of unit and missing data. Then the data should be selected to determine those used in the model training step. The data selection is applied in two stages, before model training and after model training. Before the model training, the suitable data for the model training means to make sure all the data is labelled correct. Uncorrected marked data leads to wrong model definitely, regardless of the quality of models. After the model training, the training data should be checked again. The data have to be checked very carefully to find wrong classified data. While it is determined to wrong pre-labelled, then the data should be deleted, and new model need to be trained.
The other important work before the model training is feature engineering. The basic mechanism to process feature engineering is to achieve a best performance of the model. Figure 2 shows the idea of feature engineering. Number of features, or parameters, means the model complexity. More features in the model lead to a higher complexity of the model. As Figure 2 showing, the prediction performance is related to model complexity. A very simple model lead to very bad model performance, that’s why the non-linear models are used. Along with the increasing of model complexity, the prediction error of the training samples becomes lower steadily. On the other hand, the prediction error of the testing samples gets lower at first, then higher again. That suggested over-fitting problem in the ML model. Therefore, the feature has to be processed if a good performing model is acquired.
Correlation of the model complexity and prediction error.
The feature engineering includes feature fusion and feature selection. A common feature fusion method is PCA. The PCA can reduce dimension of data, then the features in a lower space could stand for most data information. As combination of the original features, the new feature cannot reflect the data characteristics directly. While the researchers want to analyse the importance of the parameters in the original data, the feature selection technique should be used.
Popular feature methods include RF, and Lasso regression, etc. The RF based feature selection undergoes the following steps.
The data set X contain N samples, draw samples randomly from the data set X using the bootstrap resampling method. The resampling is carried out k times, to construct k regression tree. In this process, the probability of no drawing of each sample is p = (1–1/N) N. The p tends to 0.37 while the N increasing to infinity. That means that about 37% of the samples in the data set X are not drawn, these data are not used in the DT training, calling out-of-bag (OOB) data. These OOB data is used to test the regression trees.
For k bootstrap samples, k unpruned regression trees are created respectively. In the training process, for each node, m attributes are randomly selected from the total M attributes as internal nodes. Then, an optimal attribute is selected from m attributes as a split variable to make the branches grow, according to the minimum Gini index principle.
The k decision tress comprises a random forest, the model quality could be evaluate using two indices: large mean square error of OOB (MSEOOB) and low coefficients of determination (R2RF).
Where n is the total number of the samples,
The RF regression model provides two methods to determine the importance degree of each variable index: mean decrease in Gini index and mean decrease in accuracy. In a regression model, the mean decrease in Gini is usually used, and the mean decrease in accuracy is more applied for the classification problem. The water inrush source identification is a kind of classification problem, therefore the mean decrease in accuracy is selected.
While carrying out the inrush source identification, the attributes could be used in the model includes major ions, trace elements, important parameters, and isotopes, etc. In which, the data of major ions and important parameters are easier to obtain. On the other hand, adding of trace elements and isotopes into the models may enhance the model performance, for these parameters carries a lot of information of the water samples. In consideration of easy using, only major ions and important parameters is used, while considering for the model accuracy, more parameters could be added. Therefore, it is a balance need to consider while building models.
In our previous study in the Lu’an coal mine district in Shanxi Province, all the prescribed parameters have been tested. In the first step, the feature selection was applied on the major ions and important parameters. Figure 3 shows the calculation result while using the algorithm of RF. As Figure 3 showing, key attributes to the mode are SO42−, C (stands for CO32− and HCO3−), K++Na+, Mg2+, Cl−, and Ca2+, in a descending order. It can be concluded that all the major parameters contribute to the explanation of water source identification.
Feature selection result of major ions and important paraments using RF algorithm.
For the trace elements and isotopes may carry information of the water samples, all the parameters were calculated following the same process of feature selection illustrated in the previous section, which is shown in Figure 4. As the figure showing, the key attributes for the model turned out to be SO42−, Ti, Sr, Mg2+, K++Na+, Zn, and Cl−. Comparing with the first feature select, the major ions still play important role in the water inrush identification, that’s because of the significant water-rock interaction in the ground aquifer. However, some trace elements are also important in the distinguishing water source from others, including Ti, Sr, and Zn. These trace elements show low concentrations in coal bearing seam water, and higher concentrations in limestone aquifer water.
Feature selection result of all data using RF algorithm.
We have also applied the Lasso regression to determine important attributes for the model training. The RF perform better, so only the RF result is illustrated in this chapter.
In the previous description, the data and attributes have been selected to train models, and the model frameworks need to select and evaluate. According to the literature review, the non-linear ML modelling is seldom applied to solve the problem of water inrush in coal mines in the Northern China area. However, by consideration the mechanism of ML algorithm, and relative studies in the environmental and geological area, some non-linear ML method were applied, evaluated and compared.
Li et al. [20] applied the SVM algorithm to determine the source of water inrush. The SVM algorithm project data from a lower dimensional space to a higher dimensional space by applying the kernel functions. Then the data that cannot divided in a lower dimensional space can be separated. Several types of kernel can be evaluated, such as radial basis and poly-nominal functions, etc.
Li et al. [20] compared the performance of geochemical and machine leaning methods on the water inrush issues based on the Lu’an coal mine district. It was found that, the accuracy by using the SVM method has achieved 100%, while only 42% and 48% have obtained while using one (SO42−) or two (SO42− and Ca2+) parameters as the key attributes, respectively. In this research, the radial basis and poly-nominal function were not compared. However, a mixing kernel function was proposed.
The ANN has also used to identify the source of coal mine water inrush [27]. For example, in the research of Li et al. [27], an improved genetic algorithm combining PCA and back propagation ANN were applied. The research had achieved a simple, reasonable, and effective distinguishing result.
In a previous study carried out by the authors’ group, 42 samples were collected from the Lu’an coal mine district, Shanxi province, which belong to six water types, namely sandstone aquifer water, Ordovician limestone water, Taiyuan formation limestone water, goaf water, spring water, and fault-oxidising zone water, respectively. The parameters tested included K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, SO42−, pH, Fe, NO2−, I, Cl− and temperature. The data was normalised before the model training. Some non-linear ML was applied. The research has focused on the following issues: first, the key attributes should be selected by the ML method, which has been described in the previous section, second, the data need to be cleaned and selected, third, a wide scope of parameters should be considered, including major ions, important traditional parameters, trace elements, and isotopes, and the fourth, the ML framework need to be evaluated and compared.
We have applied several algorithms; the identification result is shown in Table 3. Considering the easy using of the model, only major ions, and key parameters are used in the first-round model training. In a traditional process, the data should be divided into two groups with a ratio of 7:3. The first part is used to train models, and the second part is used to evaluate the model performance. Because the amount of data is limit, the models’ test was carried out by using the method of re-calculating the sample data using models. Other than the ridge regression (RR), other algorithm showed better performance. The DA was based on the Bayes criterion, showing an acceptable result. Comparing the two SVM method, poly-nominal kernel got a better result than that of the radial kernel SVM.
Coal mine districts | Years | Algorithm | Sources |
---|---|---|---|
Anhui province | 2014 | Fishes discriminant | [18] |
Henan Province | 2015 | Feature ions- discriminant | [19] |
Shanxi Province | 2015 | Support vector machine | [20] |
Anhui Province | 2016 | Bayes Discriminant | [6, 7, 21] |
Henan province | 2019 | PCA – grey relationship analysis | [22] |
Some implementation of water inrush source identification in the northern China in recent years.
Attribute scope | ML algorithm | Corrected identification |
---|---|---|
Major ions and parameters | RR | 28/31 |
Major ions and parameters | RF | 29/31 |
Major ions and parameters | SVM (radial basis) | 29/31 |
Major ions and parameters | SVM (poly-nominal) | 30/31 |
Major ions and parameters | LR | 29/31 |
Major ions and parameters | DA | 29/31 |
All data | RR | 23/25 |
All data | RF | 25/25 |
All data | SVM (radial basis) | 24/25 |
All data | SVM (poly-nominal) | 25/25 |
All data | LR | 25/25 |
All data | DA | 25/25 |
Identification result of water resource using the non-linear ML algorithm.
The wrong identified data is important to the modelling. Four main reason may lead to the result: First, the water sample was wrong labelled; second, the water is a mix of multi water sources; third, the attributes selected is not suitable; and fourth, the model need to be improved or more suitable model framework is needed.
For the first reason, the data should be analysed very carefully. If not representative, the samples should be deleted. For the second reason, the water mix should be calculated using other method, such as the nonlinear programming. In order to improve the model performance, the scope of the attributes enlarged to include trace elements and isotopes. For the trace elements of some samples was not tested, the overall sample data was less than the first-round training. According to the results, better performance was observed when using the trace elements. It suggested that some trace elements can be used as the key attributes in the water source identification. And the wrong-identified samples were probably because of poorer performance of the first-round modelling, rather than the wrong-labelling of the samples. Comparing the ML framework, the RF, SVM, LR, and the Bayes-based discriminant analysis all showed high accuracy. The accuracy of ridge regression (RR) is less than others. Comparing the two kernels used for the SVM, the poly nominal based SVM showed a better performance.
In this chapter, the main methods to identify water inrush sources in the coal mines, especially in the Northern China area, were reviewed.
The basic idea of the geochemical method is to find characteristic ions, which shows distinct behaviour in one group of water samples from others, by geochemical analysis and drawing.
In the process of non-linear machine learning, four main steps need to apply, they are: data processing, feature selection, model training, and evaluation. According to the studies of literature review and the author’s previous study, some key attributes/ parameters were selected using the ML algorithm, then the ML algorithm was compared. It was found that, most of the major ions, and some trace elements, such as Ti, Sr, and Zn, were important in the model training. Then ML algorithms, RF, SVM, LR perform well in the source identification of coal mine water inrush.
Our study is funded by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (3142014005) and the Colleges and Universities in Hebei Province Science and Technology Research Project (ZD2016204).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
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Tyagi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10236.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeev-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9831",title:"Drug Design",subtitle:"Novel Advances in the Omics Field and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"38a66ca979ccd932cbcfbaea9d57ad2f",slug:"drug-design-novel-advances-in-the-omics-field-and-applications",bookSignature:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9831.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",slug:"arli-aditya-parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7867",title:"Drug Discovery and Development",subtitle:"New Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5dd2483e8a643b7da16c4be006fd61cf",slug:"drug-discovery-and-development-new-advances",bookSignature:"Vishwanath Gaitonde, Partha Karmakar and Ashit Trivedi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7867.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"221897",title:"Dr.",name:"Vishwanath",middleName:null,surname:"Gaitonde",slug:"vishwanath-gaitonde",fullName:"Vishwanath Gaitonde"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8067",title:"Molecular Docking and Molecular Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1d45bbc09e3ad00be279eea0df45abcc",slug:"molecular-docking-and-molecular-dynamics",bookSignature:"Amalia Stefaniu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8067.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"213696",title:"Dr.",name:"Amalia",middleName:null,surname:"Stefaniu",slug:"amalia-stefaniu",fullName:"Amalia Stefaniu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6410",title:"Drug Discovery",subtitle:"Concepts to Market",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7c11a8742cce40078f11cacb0d5a5fee",slug:"drug-discovery-concepts-to-market",bookSignature:"Varaprasad Bobbarala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6410.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"207119",title:"Dr.",name:"Varaprasad",middleName:null,surname:"Bobbarala PhD",slug:"varaprasad-bobbarala-phd",fullName:"Varaprasad Bobbarala PhD"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6636",title:"Molecular Insight of Drug Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6dd106b3bc6a30ae0147ead58f9a8830",slug:"molecular-insight-of-drug-design",bookSignature:"Arli Aditya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6636.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",slug:"arli-aditya-parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"671",title:"Drug Discovery and Development",subtitle:"Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"74072e600a9fb54b8257355a7954399e",slug:"drug-discovery-and-development-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Izet M. Kapetanovic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68650",title:"Dr.",name:"Izet",middleName:null,surname:"Kapetanović",slug:"izet-kapetanovic",fullName:"Izet Kapetanović"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:10,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"67939",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85991",title:"Molecular Docking in Modern Drug Discovery: Principles and Recent Applications",slug:"molecular-docking-in-modern-drug-discovery-principles-and-recent-applications",totalDownloads:3853,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:"The process of hunt of a lead molecule is a long and a tedious process and one is often demoralized by the endless possibilities one has to search through. Fortunately, computational tools have come to the rescue and have undoubtedly played a pivotal role in rationalizing the path to drug discovery. Of all techniques, molecular docking has played a crucial role in computer aided drug design and has swiftly gained ranks to secure a valuable position in the modern scenario of structure-based drug design. In this chapter, the principle, sampling algorithms, scoring functions and diverse available software’s for molecular docking have been summarized. We demonstrate the interplay of docking, classical techniques of structure-based design and X-ray crystallography in the process of drug discovery. In addition, we dwell upon some of the limitations faced in docking studies. Finally, several success stories of molecular docking approaches in drug discovery have been highlighted, concluding with remarks on molecular docking for the future.",book:{id:"7867",slug:"drug-discovery-and-development-new-advances",title:"Drug Discovery and Development",fullTitle:"Drug Discovery and Development - New Advances"},signatures:"Aaftaab Sethi, Khusbhoo Joshi, K. Sasikala and Mallika Alvala",authors:[{id:"252956",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallika",middleName:null,surname:"Alvala",slug:"mallika-alvala",fullName:"Mallika Alvala"},{id:"287101",title:"Mr.",name:"Aaftaab",middleName:null,surname:"Sethi",slug:"aaftaab-sethi",fullName:"Aaftaab Sethi"},{id:"295049",title:"Ms.",name:"Khusbhoo",middleName:null,surname:"Joshi",slug:"khusbhoo-joshi",fullName:"Khusbhoo Joshi"},{id:"295050",title:"Ms.",name:"Sasikala",middleName:null,surname:"K",slug:"sasikala-k",fullName:"Sasikala K"}]},{id:"25227",doi:"10.5772/28132",title:"The Use of In Vitro 3D Cell Models in Drug Development for Respiratory Diseases",slug:"the-use-of-in-vitro-3d-cell-models-in-drug-development-for-respiratory-diseases",totalDownloads:4293,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:null,book:{id:"671",slug:"drug-discovery-and-development-present-and-future",title:"Drug Discovery and Development",fullTitle:"Drug Discovery and Development - Present and Future"},signatures:"Song Huang, Ludovic Wiszniewski and Samuel Constant",authors:[{id:"72832",title:"Dr",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Constant",slug:"samuel-constant",fullName:"Samuel Constant"},{id:"82889",title:"Dr.",name:"Song",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"song-huang",fullName:"Song Huang"},{id:"82890",title:"Dr.",name:"Ludovic",middleName:null,surname:"Wiszniewski",slug:"ludovic-wiszniewski",fullName:"Ludovic Wiszniewski"}]},{id:"25239",doi:"10.5772/27047",title:"Silver Nanoparticles – Universal Multifunctional Nanoparticles for Bio Sensing, Imaging for Diagnostics and Targeted Drug Delivery for Therapeutic Applications",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-universal-multifunctional-nanoparticles-for-bio-sensing-imaging-for-diagnostics",totalDownloads:10446,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:null,book:{id:"671",slug:"drug-discovery-and-development-present-and-future",title:"Drug Discovery and Development",fullTitle:"Drug Discovery and Development - Present and Future"},signatures:"Anitha Sironmani and Kiruba Daniel",authors:[{id:"68670",title:"Prof.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Sironmani",slug:"anitha-sironmani",fullName:"Anitha Sironmani"}]},{id:"66969",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86174",title:"ADME Profiling in Drug Discovery and a New Path Paved on Silica",slug:"adme-profiling-in-drug-discovery-and-a-new-path-paved-on-silica",totalDownloads:1641,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"The drug discovery and development pipeline have more and more relied on in vitro testing and in silico predictions to reduce investments and optimize lead compounds. A comprehensive set of in vitro assays is available to determine key parameters of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, for example, lipophilicity, solubility, and plasma stability. Such test systems aid the evaluation of the pharmacological properties of a compound and serve as surrogates before entering in vivo testing and clinical trials. Nowadays, computer-aided techniques are employed not just in the discovery of new lead compounds but embedded as part of the entire drug development process where the ADME profiling and big data analyses add a new layer of complexity to those systems. Herein, we give a short overview of the history of the drug development pipeline presenting state-of-the-art ADME in vitro assays as established in academia and industry. We will further introduce the underlying good practices and give an example of the compound development pipeline. In the next step, recent advances at in silico techniques will be highlighted with special emphasis on how pharmacogenomics and in silico PK profiling can enhance drug monitoring and individualization of drug therapy.",book:{id:"7867",slug:"drug-discovery-and-development-new-advances",title:"Drug Discovery and Development",fullTitle:"Drug Discovery and Development - New Advances"},signatures:"Arne Krüger, Vinicius Gonçalves Maltarollo, Carsten Wrenger and Thales Kronenberger",authors:[{id:"75830",title:"Prof.",name:"Carsten",middleName:null,surname:"Wrenger",slug:"carsten-wrenger",fullName:"Carsten Wrenger"},{id:"175204",title:"Dr.",name:"Thales",middleName:null,surname:"Kronenberger",slug:"thales-kronenberger",fullName:"Thales Kronenberger"},{id:"278208",title:"MSc.",name:"Arne",middleName:null,surname:"Krüger",slug:"arne-kruger",fullName:"Arne Krüger"},{id:"278209",title:"Prof.",name:"Vinicius Gonçalves",middleName:null,surname:"Maltarollo",slug:"vinicius-goncalves-maltarollo",fullName:"Vinicius Gonçalves Maltarollo"}]},{id:"61972",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76922",title:"Multifunctional Nanoparticles for Successful Targeted Drug Delivery across the Blood-Brain Barrier",slug:"multifunctional-nanoparticles-for-successful-targeted-drug-delivery-across-the-blood-brain-barrier",totalDownloads:1514,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is the major problem for the treatment of brain diseases because we need to be able to deliver drugs from the vascular system into the central nervous system (CNS). There are no drug therapies for a wide range of CNS diseases and these include neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases and cerebral ischemia. Therefore, the focus of this chapter is to discuss how nanoparticles (NPs) can be modified to transport different drug molecules for the treatment of brain diseases. In essence, NPs’ surface can be functionalized with molecules such as peptides, antibodies and RNA aptamers and these macromolecules can be attached to the receptors present at the BBB endothelial cell surface, which allows the NPs cross the barrier and subsequently deliver pharmaceuticals to the brain for the therapeutic and/or imaging of neurological disorders. In fact, part of the difficulty in finding an effective treatment for these CNS disorders is that there is not yet an efficient delivery method for drug delivery across the BBB. However, over the last several years, researches have started to understand some of the design rules to efficiently deliver NPs to the brain.",book:{id:"6636",slug:"molecular-insight-of-drug-design",title:"Molecular Insight of Drug Design",fullTitle:"Molecular Insight of Drug Design"},signatures:"Débora Braga Vieira and Lionel Fernel Gamarra",authors:[{id:"55147",title:"Dr.",name:"Lionel",middleName:null,surname:"Gamarra",slug:"lionel-gamarra",fullName:"Lionel Gamarra"},{id:"234161",title:"Dr.",name:"Debora",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",slug:"debora-vieira",fullName:"Debora Vieira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"67939",title:"Molecular Docking in Modern Drug Discovery: Principles and Recent Applications",slug:"molecular-docking-in-modern-drug-discovery-principles-and-recent-applications",totalDownloads:3853,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:"The process of hunt of a lead molecule is a long and a tedious process and one is often demoralized by the endless possibilities one has to search through. Fortunately, computational tools have come to the rescue and have undoubtedly played a pivotal role in rationalizing the path to drug discovery. Of all techniques, molecular docking has played a crucial role in computer aided drug design and has swiftly gained ranks to secure a valuable position in the modern scenario of structure-based drug design. In this chapter, the principle, sampling algorithms, scoring functions and diverse available software’s for molecular docking have been summarized. We demonstrate the interplay of docking, classical techniques of structure-based design and X-ray crystallography in the process of drug discovery. In addition, we dwell upon some of the limitations faced in docking studies. Finally, several success stories of molecular docking approaches in drug discovery have been highlighted, concluding with remarks on molecular docking for the future.",book:{id:"7867",slug:"drug-discovery-and-development-new-advances",title:"Drug Discovery and Development",fullTitle:"Drug Discovery and Development - New Advances"},signatures:"Aaftaab Sethi, Khusbhoo Joshi, K. Sasikala and Mallika Alvala",authors:[{id:"252956",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallika",middleName:null,surname:"Alvala",slug:"mallika-alvala",fullName:"Mallika Alvala"},{id:"287101",title:"Mr.",name:"Aaftaab",middleName:null,surname:"Sethi",slug:"aaftaab-sethi",fullName:"Aaftaab Sethi"},{id:"295049",title:"Ms.",name:"Khusbhoo",middleName:null,surname:"Joshi",slug:"khusbhoo-joshi",fullName:"Khusbhoo Joshi"},{id:"295050",title:"Ms.",name:"Sasikala",middleName:null,surname:"K",slug:"sasikala-k",fullName:"Sasikala K"}]},{id:"73392",title:"Pharmacogenomics: Overview, Applications, and Recent Developments",slug:"pharmacogenomics-overview-applications-and-recent-developments",totalDownloads:789,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Pharmacogenomics is defined as the study of genes and how an individual response is affected due to drugs. Pharmacogenomics is an emerging new branch with combination of both pharmacology (the branch of science that deals with study of drugs) as well as genomics (the branch of science that deals with study of genes) for development of effective doses and safe medications tailored according an individual patient genetic makeup. Human Genome Project is one of the crucial projects in which researchers are developing and learning relation in genes and its effect on the body’s response to medications. Difference in genetic makeup provides difference in effectiveness of medication and in future to predict effectiveness of medication for an individual and to study existence of adverse drug reactions. Besides advancement in the field of science and technology till date pharmacogenomics hangs in infancy. There is limited use of pharmacogenomics, but still, novel approaches are under clinical trials. In near future, pharmacogenomics will enable development of tailor-made therapeutics for treating widespread health problems like neurodegenerative, cardiovascular disorders, HIV, cancer, asthma, etc.",book:{id:"9831",slug:"drug-design-novel-advances-in-the-omics-field-and-applications",title:"Drug Design",fullTitle:"Drug Design - Novel Advances in the Omics Field and Applications"},signatures:"Rahul Shukla",authors:[{id:"319705",title:"Dr.",name:"Rahul",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"rahul-shukla",fullName:"Rahul Shukla"}]},{id:"64593",title:"Revisiting Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacogenetics of Methadone in Healthy Volunteers",slug:"revisiting-pharmacokinetics-and-pharmacogenetics-of-methadone-in-healthy-volunteers",totalDownloads:1168,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Methadone acts as a μ opioid agonist, a serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, and a noncompetitive N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist. These actions altogether are responsible for its efficacy in the management of chronic pain. It is available as a racemic mixture of (R)- and (S)-methadone, both being stereoisomers responsible for its analgesic effect. Methadone elimination occurs mainly through metabolism in the liver by CYP3A4, CYP2B6, and CY2C19 and to a lesser extent by CYP2D6 and in the intestine by CYP3A4. The relative intestinal content of CYP2B6 and CY2C19 is unknown but it seems that CYP2B6 is not present at the intestine. CYP3A4, CYP2B6, and CYP2C19 convert methadone mainly into 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine(EDDP). CYP2B6 and CYP2C19 are stereoselective to S- and R-enantiomer, respectively. The pharmacokinetic study carried out in healthy volunteers by our research group confirmed that MTD undergoes recirculation via gastric secretion and intestinal reabsorption and revealed that the drug is extensively metabolized in the liver but intestinal metabolism is not only relevant but also stereoselective. Polymorphisms of the CYP2B6 and CYP2C19 isoenzymes and their relationship with the pharmacokinetics of MTD were also assessed.",book:{id:"7867",slug:"drug-discovery-and-development-new-advances",title:"Drug Discovery and Development",fullTitle:"Drug Discovery and Development - New Advances"},signatures:"Natalia Guevara, Marianela Lorier, Marta Vázquez, Pietro Fagiolino, Iris Feria-Romero and Sandra Orozco-Suarez",authors:[{id:"69773",title:"Prof.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Vázquez",slug:"marta-vazquez",fullName:"Marta Vázquez"},{id:"73431",title:"Prof.",name:"Pietro",middleName:null,surname:"Fagiolino",slug:"pietro-fagiolino",fullName:"Pietro Fagiolino"},{id:"109165",title:"Dr.",name:"Iris",middleName:null,surname:"Feria-Romero",slug:"iris-feria-romero",fullName:"Iris Feria-Romero"},{id:"198119",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Orozco-Suarez",slug:"sandra-orozco-suarez",fullName:"Sandra Orozco-Suarez"},{id:"259026",title:"Mrs.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Guevara",slug:"natalia-guevara",fullName:"Natalia Guevara"},{id:"259027",title:"Mrs.",name:"Marianela",middleName:null,surname:"Lorier",slug:"marianela-lorier",fullName:"Marianela Lorier"}]},{id:"61395",title:"Integrated Approach to Nature as Source of New Drug Lead",slug:"integrated-approach-to-nature-as-source-of-new-drug-lead",totalDownloads:1659,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Classically, the development and launching of a new drug is a highly time consuming, tedious and expensive process involving following fundamental steps: (1) Identification of cause of Disease and Search for target site. (2) Search and Optimisation of active compound, that is, the Drug Lead. (3) Testing of Drug in Animals (pre-clinical phase). (4) Clinical Trials. (5) Approval of New Drug by Competent authority and availability of the drug. Drug discovery and development process involves around 10–15 years of investigation period and incredibly high cost and investment. This process also involves participation of experts from various disciplines and fields. Therefore, the new approaches are obligatory to be developed not only to expedite the process but also to ensure the launch of safer and effective drug. Over this background, the importance of experimental wisdom and holistic approach is intensifying to offer good base as an attractive discovery engine. Natural product drug discovery, ethno-pharmacology, traditional and attractive medicines are re-emerging as new strategic options. In the past decade, the number of new chemical entity (NCG) in drug development channel is declining markedly might have led to the rekindling of interest in emergence of natural product as new drug leads. The novel natural products can be optimised on the basis of their biological activities using highly sophisticated combinatorial biosynthetic techniques, microbial genomes and screening process.",book:{id:"6636",slug:"molecular-insight-of-drug-design",title:"Molecular Insight of Drug Design",fullTitle:"Molecular Insight of Drug Design"},signatures:"Seema Kohli",authors:[{id:"232958",title:"Dr.",name:"Seema",middleName:null,surname:"Kohli",slug:"seema-kohli",fullName:"Seema Kohli"}]},{id:"78376",title:"Ivermectin: Potential Repurposing of a Versatile Antiparasitic as a Novel Anticancer",slug:"ivermectin-potential-repurposing-of-a-versatile-antiparasitic-as-a-novel-anticancer",totalDownloads:349,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Drug repositioning is a alternative strategy to discover and develop anticancer drugs based on identification of new mechanisms of actions and indications for existing compounds. Ivermectin belongs to the avermectin group of compounds, a series of 16-membered macrocyclic lactone moieties discovered in 1967 and FDA-approved for human use since 1987. Ivermectin has since been used by millions of people worldwide, and have demonstrated a wide margin of clinical safety. Here we summarize the in vitro and in vivo evidence demonstrating ivermectin\\'s potential as a multitargeting anticancer drug that exerts antitumor effects against different tumor types. Notably, the in vitro and in vivo antitumor activities of ivermectin are achieved at concentrations that can be clinically achieved based on human pharmacokinetic studies done in the clinical studies. Moreover, repurposed ivermectin safety has been well established recently in clinical studies against COVID-19. Consequently, we believe that ivermectin is an excellent potential candidate drug that can be repurposed for cancer and deserves rigorous evaluation against a variety of cancers in well-designed clinical trials.",book:{id:"10881",slug:"drug-repurposing-molecular-aspects-and-therapeutic-applications",title:"Drug Repurposing",fullTitle:"Drug Repurposing - Molecular Aspects and Therapeutic Applications"},signatures:"Alfonso Dueñas-González and Mandy Juárez-Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"421841",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Dueñas-González",slug:"alfonso-duenas-gonzalez",fullName:"Alfonso Dueñas-González"},{id:"421846",title:"Dr.",name:"Mandy",middleName:null,surname:"Juárez-Rodríguez",slug:"mandy-juarez-rodriguez",fullName:"Mandy Juárez-Rodríguez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1195",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. 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Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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