Examples of coalescence kernels and degrees of homogeneity
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"893",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Soil Fertility Improvement and Integrated Nutrient Management - A Global Perspective",title:"Soil Fertility Improvement and Integrated Nutrient Management",subtitle:"A Global Perspective",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Soil Fertility Improvement and Integrated Nutrient Management: A Global Perspective presents 15 invited chapters written by leading soil fertility experts. The book is organized around three themes. The first theme is Soil Mapping and Soil Fertility Testing, describing spatial heterogeneity in soil nutrients within natural and managed ecosystems, as well as up-to-date soil testing methods and information on how soil fertility indicators respond to agricultural practices. The second theme, Organic and Inorganic Amendments for Soil Fertility Improvement, describes fertilizing materials that provide important amounts of essential nutrients for plants.The third theme, Integrated Nutrient Management Planning: Case Studies From Central Europe, South America, and Africa, highlights the principles of integrated nutrient management. Additionally, it gives case studies explaining how this approach has been implemented successfully across large geographic regions, and at local scales, to improve the productivity of staple crops and forages.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-945-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4943-9",doi:"10.5772/1401",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"soil-fertility-improvement-and-integrated-nutrient-management-a-global-perspective",numberOfPages:320,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"bd5c6e28161b78dd739c3cd2a979092a",bookSignature:"Joann K. Whalen",publishedDate:"February 24th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/893.jpg",numberOfDownloads:55803,numberOfWosCitations:71,numberOfCrossrefCitations:26,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:95,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:192,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 17th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 17th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 22nd 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 21st 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 19th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"69734",title:"Dr.",name:"Joann",middleName:null,surname:"Whalen",slug:"joann-whalen",fullName:"Joann Whalen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69734/images/system/69734.jpg",biography:"Joann K. Whalen is an Associate Professor and William Dawson Scholar at McGill University and an Adjunct Professor with the Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences. She received her PhD from Ohio State University, Ohio, USA, and worked as a research scientist for Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada prior to joining the faculty at McGill. Dr. Whalen is also a professional agronomist (agronome) in Quebec, Canada. Her research focuses on soil fertility and soil ecology in agroecosystems. She has published more than 90 peer-reviewed scientific publications and supervised/co-supervised more than 40 students at the MSc and PhD levels. She teaches courses in soil fertility, organic fertilizer use, nutrient management planning, and soil ecology. Dr Whalen is currently Special Issues Editor for the Canadian Journal of Soil Science, Subject Editor for Soil Biology and Biochemistry, and Associate Editor for Agronomy Journal. 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Granulation, also known as agglomeration, pelletization, or balling, is a “size-enlargement process” of small particles into larger coherent and stable masses (granules), in which the original particles are still identifiable [1]. The aim of the granulation process is to improve the properties of the final product compared to the powder form, such as giving better flow properties for safer and cheaper transport and storage, lowering of caking and lump formation (especially for hygroscopic materials), improving heat transfer features, obtaining a more uniform distribution of the active molecule, lowering powder dispersion in the environment, linked to a reduced inhalation, handling and explosion risks hazard [1, 2]. Granules have, therefore, received a great interest in many industrial fields, from mineral processing to agricultural products, detergents, pharmaceuticals, foodstuffs, nutraceuticals, cosmetics and zootechnical products [3].
In pharmaceutical field, solid dosage forms remain an important part of the overall drug market, despite the success and the development of new pharmaceutical forms. The oral solid dosage forms market was of $571 million in 2011 and projected to reach $870 million at the end of 2018 [4]. In particular, among novel drugs approved by FDA, 46% in 2014 and 32% in 2016 were solid dosage products [5], most of them made of granules. The most important pharmaceutical industries, such as Patheon, Aesica, Rottendorf Pharma GmbH, Catalent Pharma, continually do investments in oral solid manufacturing solutions, including the development of granulation processing methods [6]. Granulated products are also highly used in the fertilizers field: about 90% of fertilizers are applied as solids, less as powder, more in granular form. The global demand for fertilizer nutrients was estimated to be 184.02 million tons in 2015, and it is forecast to reach 201.66 million tons by the end of 2020 [7]. The animal feed additives global market was estimated at 256.8 kilo tons in 2015, and in particular, industries aim to develop new technologies [8], very often based on granulation principles, to provide stabilization and effective protection of the active components in the finished products [9].
In spite of its great importance and over 40 years of research, granulation process is still based on practical experience, i.e., there is a qualitative understanding of both the granule growth mechanisms and the effects of different variables on agglomeration phenomena. This constitutes a great problem for industries exploiting many and frequently changing formulations with widely varying properties (e.g., food, pharmaceuticals and agricultural chemicals). Thus, new formulations always need expensive and lengthy laboratory and pilot-scale testing. Moreover, even when pilot-scale testing is ok, there is still a significant failure rate during scale up to the industrial production [10]. Over the past decade, however, design, scale-up, and operation of granulation processes have been considered as quantitative engineering and significant advances have been made to quantify the granulation processes [3]. Firstly, granulation must be recognized as an example of “powder particle design”: granule final features are controlled by a perfect combination of formulation design, i.e., choice of the feed-material properties, and process design, i.e., choice of equipment type and operating conditions [11, 12]. The granule final properties are also determined by the interaction of phenomena coexisting in the granulation process simultaneously [1]: physical transformations of the powder particles with relevant kinetic mechanisms (wetting and nucleation, consolidation and growth, and breakage and attrition) and aggregation rate are controlled by operating conditions and feeding material properties [3]. Therefore, for the quantitative analysis of the granulation process, both a careful characterization of the feed-material properties and knowledge of operating parameters and phenomenological aspects are needed [3, 13]. Basically, the granulation methods are divided into dry and wet ones. Dry granulation is based on the use of mechanical compression (slugs) or compaction (roller compaction), while the wet granulation exploits a granulation liquid phase called “binder” to agglomerate powder particles by formation of a wet mass by adhesion. This second process involves a final step of granules stabilization by removal of the wetting phase to make the relevant bonds permanent. Among these two techniques, wet granulation is the most widely used [2, 10, 14]. To produce granular structures with tailored features (in terms of size and size distribution, flowability, mechanical and release properties, etc…), a deep understanding of phenomena involved during granule formation is required. This can also lead to optimized processes in terms of production costs and other types of resources involved.
The purpose of this chapter is to emphasize the phenomenological aspects involved in the formation of the granules with respect to the main parameters of the wet granulation process. To this aim, experimental demonstrative campaigns of wet granulation runs were performed by changing several formulations and process parameters to detail the effect of each single parameter both on the granulation stages and on the obtained granular materials features. Mathematical modeling approaches’ description of granulation process was then presented. Usually, in literature, the approach to the granulation process is based on either experimental tests (to study granules properties) or on modeling studies. The novelty of this work is the integrated approach exploiting both experimental studies to understand the involved basic phenomena in powders aggregation, with the aim to optimize the process, and modeling aspects to verify and predict the experimental results.
As briefly introduced, the wet granulation technique allows the formation of granules through the addition of a binding phase to a powder bed. It is usually performed in four steps: (1) homogenization of dry powders, (2) wetting by binder addition, (3) wet massing when liquid feeding system switches off, and (4) drying of the finished product [15]. The most common apparatuses used for granules production are: tumbling granulators, both batch and continuous low and high shear mixers, fluid bed granulators [16]. In tumbling granulators (including discs, drums, pans, and similar equipment), the particles motion is assured by the tumbling action caused by the balance between gravity and centrifugal forces. In particular, the powder feed is fed to the disc, typically at the edge of the rotating granular bed, and the binder is added through a series of nozzles distributed across the face of the bed. Discs and drums generally operate continuously and have large throughputs; thus, they are extensively used in mineral processing and fertilizer granulation [17]. Low and high shear mixers are mechanically agitated containers that promote an efficient mixing, especially of cohesive materials. Such mixers exert intense local shear force actions on the powder, which break the small cohesive aggregates, promoting good dispersion of the liquid and effective consolidation of the product [15]. In fluid bed granulators, the powder bed is first fluidized by a flow of air injected upward through a distributor plate at the base of the granulator, and then the liquid binder is sprayed through a nozzle onto the fluidized bed to agglomerate powder in granules. When binder spraying is stopped, the granules continue to dry in the fluidizing airstream, avoiding the use of a following drying step [18]. This type of granulator is flexible, relatively easy to scale, difficult for cohesive powders, and good for coating applications [16]. Wet granulation has also witnessed various technical and technological innovations such as steam granulation, moist granulation, thermal adhesion granulation, melt granulation, freeze granulation, foamed binder granulation, and reverse wet granulation. For example, steam granulation exploits water steam as binder, providing a more rapid diffusion into the powder and a more favorable thermal balance during the drying step [14].
In general, three fundamental sets of rate processes determine wet granulation behavior: (1) wetting and nucleation, (2) consolidation and growth, (3) breakage and attrition (see schematization in Figure 1). Wetting/nucleation is the initial step where the liquid binder comes in contact with the dry powder bed causing the adhesion among particles to obtain a distribution of small aggregates (nuclei). During the consolidation and growth phase, the particles collide in the granulator and the nuclei begin to grow (particles increase in size and volume) for the deposition of additional material on the nuclei surface. Finally, attrition and breakage phase is characterized by the rupture of granules with relevant formation of small particles, due to both the impacts in the granulator and product handling. These mechanisms coexist in all the wet granulation processes, even if their importance is related to the process type. For example, in the fluid-bed granulation, the wetting phase prevails while in the high-shear granulation, the consolidation step is predominant. To estimate what will be the characteristics of the granules, it is necessary to know that each of the phases presented has a fundamental role that must be predictable. In fact, once these processes have been analyzed, it is possible to predict, at least theoretically, the type of equipment and operating conditions to be used to obtain a good granulation [2].
Mechanisms involved in wet granulation.
Several parameters can play a fundamental role on the basic mechanisms of wet granulation and therefore on the product final properties [19]. In particular, granule features depend on ingredients formulation (binder and powder properties and their interaction and proportion), process, and equipment parameters, these last two depending on the kind of the used apparatus. Thus, both material and operating variables together define the kinetic mechanisms and rate constants of wetting, growth, consolidation, and attrition [16].
Due to the use of a liquid phase as binder, the ratio between the liquid and solid phases would affect the granule final properties [20]. If the liquid/solid ratio increases (due to a high amount of used liquid), nucleation is favored, but at the same time, it is possible that overwetting phenomena may occur, with consequent formation of a mixture and not granules. Moreover, as the quantity of the added liquid increases, the granule saturation, i.e., the ratio between the liquid volume and the interstitial granule volume, changes. However, the addition of too much liquid implies a larger granule size because of a high saturation; in the same way, a low saturation does not allow the granules to growth. The needed amount of liquid must be increased as the size of the powder particles decreases [19, 21, 22, 23].
The addition of the wetting phase can take place in three different ways, i.e., by pouring, by spraying, or by making it melt, and it is closely linked to the nucleation regime, which has in turn a substantial effect on the product final features [24, 25]. A uniform liquid spray with small droplets size will have the greatest coverage throughout the powder bed and will prevent localized overwetting of the granules, which can result in oversized particles [16]. Moreover, both when pouring and when spraying, the particles size distribution (PSD) is initially bimodal and it tends to be unimodal for high granulation times [26]. In melting technique, however, the obtained granules will be less coarse and only for high granulation times a bimodal distribution will develop [19, 27].
Binder viscosity and surface tension are the properties, which more influence the granulation process because the collision energy necessary to agglomerate particles depends on them [28, 29, 30, 31]. In particular, a higher binder solution viscosity could lead to larger granule size and less needed binder amount to start the granule growth in both high-shear [32, 33] and fluid-bed [34] granulation processes. This is due to the fact that a high liquid viscosity requires more energy to break up the liquid droplets (less binder spreadability); hence, larger droplets are formed, which consequently give larger granules. However, at too high viscosity, droplets will be unable to spread throughout the bed causing the reduction in collisions and relevant growth [35]. Surface tension and capillary forces always act to pull particles together, and their magnitudes depend on the liquid bridge formed between the particles [36]. Reducing binder surface tension causes the decrease in the capillary suction pressure and friction resistance, leading therefore to an improved wettability and spreading efficiency [10]. Moreover, also the solvent used for the formulation of the binder solution (only water, alcoholic, or hydroalcoholic solutions are usually used) could significantly change granule properties for its impact on binder wettability and spreadability [28].
Powder particles’ size influences the amount of binder to be used: a larger liquid amount is required to establish liquid bridges between the powders of lower size, thus with a high surface area [37, 38]. Moreover, the high surface area allows the availability of more contact points between colliding particles bringing as final result to stronger granules, which, however, have a more porous structure [10, 29, 30]. Perhaps the larger surface area allows also a higher growth tendency of the smaller particle fraction probably due to a more efficient nucleation and coalescence [39]. Moreover, a larger solubility of the solid excipient in the granulating solvent is able to decrease the solvent amount needed for granule formation, and granules with uniform particle size distribution and a reduced friability will be formed [28].
In general, equipment and process variables impact on mixing, agglomerating, and drying operations. For example, equipment variables in fluid bed granulators are related to the apparatus design with the aim to fluidize, thus granulate and dry the product. Therefore, air distribution plate must be appropriately designed depending on the powder properties. For example, a product with low bulk density will require a low fluidizing velocity, thus a distributor plate having a small open area. Moreover, a blower with appropriate pressure drop will fluidize the process material adequately. A proper use and cleaning of filters to retain entrained particles also must be carried out in fluidized bed [16]. However, for both mixers and fluid beds, the bowl geometry is also considered a factor with large impact on the agglomeration process. Moreover, for low and high shear mixers, the impeller and chopper design affects the flow patterns and powder flow dynamics in the bowl, by varying the volume of powder mixture swept out by the impeller itself: a high-swept volume provokes high densification of the agglomerates and narrow granule size distributions [40].
Process variables in fluid bed granulators agglomeration is highly dependent on: process inlet air temperature, atomization air pressure, fluidization air velocity and volume, liquid spray rate, nozzle position and number of spray heads, and product and exhaust air temperature [41]. Inlet-process air temperature depends on both the binder type and the heat sensitivity of powder bed. For example, higher temperatures will cause binder faster evaporation with the relevant production of smaller and friable granules [42]. Process variables in high/low-shear mixers are essentially related to the impeller and chopper relative speed, granulating solution addition rate, both global granulation and wet-massing time [43]. In general, we can conclude that for all types of apparatuses, both equipment and process parameters define the two most important operating conditions in wet granulation process, i.e., mixing performance and residence time.
The impact that the aforementioned process parameters have on final granule properties is continuously studied to predict the final product quality. A possible approach to study the wet granulation process was that of a recent study conducted by [44], devoted to first planning experiments by the design of experiments (DoEs) and then to use the results to give correlations between product properties and process parameters. In particular, the central composite design (CCD) statistical protocol was applied for planning the experimental campaign about the production of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC 20, Pentachem Srl, San Clemente RN-Italy) granules with distilled water as the binder phase and using a bench scale low-shear granulator apparatus. In brief, a given amount of HPMC 20 powder was placed in the low-shear granulator, and then the addition of the binder phase was carried out by spraying it by an ultrasonic device. The produced granulates were stabilized by dynamic drying, using hot air (65°C) for 1 h, collected, and then separated by a manual sieving with cut-off sizes as follows: 2 mm, 0.45 mm, and a metal collection pan. Three particles fractions were obtained: a fraction of “big scrap,” i.e., particles with size larger than 2 mm, a fraction of “small scrap,” i.e., particles with size smaller than 0.45 mm, and a fraction of “useful,” i.e., particles with size between 0.45–2 mm. The range size 0.45–2 mm was considered as the fraction of interest being a size typical range of commercial granulated food, pharmaceutical, and zootechnical products. Finally, only the fraction of useful was subjected to characterization protocols carried out by adopting the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards.
Firstly, screening experiments were performed in order to determine the independent variables and their interactions playing a significant role on the dependent variables, i.e., on the final features of granulated product, such as granulation yield (defined as mass percentage of dry granules with size between 0.45 and 2 mm) and flowability properties (Carr Index, Hausner Ratio and Angle of Repose). The screening work showed that some parameters can be fixed, such as the powder mass (50 g) and the process time of 20 min (by observing that longer times caused granule-breaking phenomena). Instead, the impeller rotation speed, the binder volume at constant mass, and the binder flow rate were the parameters (factors) with larger influence on the final granule properties. The factors have a values limited range: high binder volume (greater than 100 ml) or high binder flow rate (greater than 58 ml/min) involved overwetting phenomena, low amounts of liquid (lesser than 50 ml) did not form granules, high impeller rotation speed (greater than 112 rpm) generated solid particulate breaking. At this point, for each factor, three intensities (levels) were used, i.e., the minimum, medium, and maximum values, and combined by the CCD method. The performed runs have underlined that there are process operating conditions, which combined together can produce granules with size smaller than the requested one, i.e., failure of the aggregation phenomena (Figure 2A).
Granules obtained with different combination of factors and levels: (A) particles with size smaller than 0.45 mm, (B) particles with size between 0.45 and 2 mm, that is the size range required, and (C) particles with size larger than 2 mm.
Others, instead, can achieve clusters of powder and binder, i.e., overwetting phenomena, that is a condition to avoid (Figure 2C). The best conditions of granulation, able to produce granules with a defined size (0.45–2 mm) and good flowability together with a high granulation process yield, were obtained by working with a high impeller rotation speed, i.e., 112 rpm, a high binder volume, i.e., 100 ml, and a low binder flow rate, i.e., 17 ml/min (Figure 2B). Then, semiempirical correlations between granule properties and process parameters were developed by describing the experimental data with several model equations. Akaike information criterion and R-square calculations showed that the best comparison between experimental data and model predicted values was attained by using the second-order polynomial equation. The proposed correlations were then validated by new granulation tests, not included in the work plan, underlining their ability to predict the granule final properties in terms of flowability and granulation yield. It is important to note that several studies in the literature describe the correlations between process parameters and granule properties; however, they use different apparatuses and final products (tablets). It was the first time that, for such similar granulation systems, semiempirical correlations were able to give the combined effect of impeller rotation speed, binder volume, and binder flow rate on granulation yield and flowability [44].
The found combination of process parameters (for granules better final properties) is thus used in the production of loaded granules, with the aim to evaluate the effect of two formulation variables, molecule solubility and binder type, on their physical, mechanical, and release properties. First of all, the best loading method for a hydrophilic molecule, vitamin B12, in HPMC granules was investigated. Vitamin B12 was incorporated in the HPMC granules by two different loading methods: according to the method 1, it was dissolved in the liquid binder phase (here, the binder was a solution of water and vitamin B12); according to the method 2, the vitamin B12 was premixed with HPMC powders at an impeller rotation rate of 78 rpm for 10 min. It was observed that the loading method did not have significant effects on either the granules flowability or the yield, but a better dispersion of vitamin B12 inside the HPMC polymer matrix was achieved by the method 1, perhaps thanks to the high solubility of this vitamin in the binder and the relevant uniform spray by the ultrasonic atomization device [45]. Thus, by exploiting the most successful method 1, three different payloads of B12 (1, 2.3, and 5% w/w) were tested. It was observed that a high vitamin load (5%) reduced the granulation yield and brought to the formation of more rigid granules if compared to unloaded ones and those loaded at 1 and 2.3% of B12. Vitamin release kinetics was slower when it was added with a 1% load, thus suggesting a better incorporation. Moreover, by comparing kinetics of fresh and 1 month-aged granules, they showed similar trends, thus no effect of the storage on release properties of loaded granules was observed [45].
Moreover, the effect of the incorporation of a lipophilic vitamin was also tested by using the loading method 1. Due to its lipophilic properties, a binder composed of a solution made by distilled water and ethanol was used. Results showed that the use of ethanol gave a reduced granulation yield and granules with less defined shape, smaller dimensions, more friable structure, worse flowability, and slightly faster polymer erosion. It was demonstrated that the molecule solubility did not affect either granules’ physical or mechanical properties, but it had effect on the molecule release mechanism (diffusion for the hydrophilic molecule and erosion for the lipophilic one) [46].
A deep understanding of the phenomena involved during the wet granulation process can lead to optimized processes that obtain the maximum benefits without increasing the production costs. In light of that, studies on the evolution of particle size distribution (PSD) during the granulation process were performed by using an ad hoc dynamic image analysis (DIA) device, based on the free falling particle scheme of particles per unit of volume. It resulted evident that nucleation, agglomeration, and breakage phenomena occur simultaneously during all the process time [47], phenomena that therefore must be taken into account in the modeling approach.
Mathematical modeling of the granulation process can play a dual role: can help to understand and to underline the observed physical phenomena and to predict properties (size and size distribution) of granular materials. It is important to note that the predictive ability is a powerful way to define suitable process conditions, which can minimize costs and optimize process yields, avoiding onerous experimental tests.
Modeling approaches mainly consist in three types:
Empirical models: they are obtained from the regression of large set of experimental data, most of the time derived from the design of experiments statistic technique [44, 48, 49]. Empirical models have the advantages of being very simple (often polynomial equations), easy to obtain (regression of data), quite reliable within the investigated range. The drawback of this approach is that it is a black box approach: it provides very little (or none) information on the underlying mechanisms.
Discrete element method (DEM) models: this is the most detailed type of mathematical model for particulate systems [50]. Thanks to mass and momentum balances on each particle of the powder bulk, DEM models aim to describe the evolution of the analyzed system. The advantage is that the description is very detailed (at a single particle level), but it is so computational power demanding that rarely it is applied to systems of more than hundreds of thousand particles. They are often used to obtain parameters useful for higher scale models [51].
Population balance equation (PBE)-based models: the powder bulk is described as a population with a distribution of certain characteristics (internal coordinates i.e., size, binder content) that can vary in space (external coordinates) and time [52]. Therefore, the PBE-based models describe the evolution of the number of particles of a given characteristic in time and space [53]. The advantages of such an approach, with respect to DEM models, are enormous in terms of computational power requirement, despite the complexity of the involved equations (integro-differential). Nowadays, this is still the most used approach in modeling granulation processes and several numerical methods have been developed to “easily” solve the PBEs. Among them, the discretization of the PBEs (DPBEs) in classes (multiclass method) is the most used to describe the evolution of the distribution of the internal variables (i.e., size: particle size distribution) [54, 55, 56, 57, 58]. Less computational demanding methods, like the method of moment (which focus only on the moments of distributions), are preferred when the PBE has to be combined with computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models to describe the multiphase flow (i.e., the movements inside the granulator) [59].
In the following, a modeling approach based on the one-dimensional (one internal coordinate: particle size) discretized PBEs (DPBEs) will be shown. Such kind of models turns to be the best choice when dealing with granulation processes, being very descriptive, since the evolution of the entire size distribution is considered, including all the phenomena that cause variation of the particle size distribution, and computational efficient (with the modern computational power), which allows to integrate them in flow sheet models of entire processes.
Considering the entire granulator as control volume, the PBEs do not depend on spatial variables (external coordinates), and it can be written as [60]:
where
The nucleation, agglomeration, and the breakage phenomena are described by the equations:
where
To solve Eq. (2), a numerical method has to be used: the class methods of zero order [61],
where
The most used discretized form of the agglomeration phenomena is the one proposed by Hounslow et al. [55] (
where
The coalescence kernel is the most important parameter when describing granulation processes. A body of literature is present on this kernel, proposing several expressions ranging from purely empirical, semiempirical, and model-based kernels. In general, the coalescence kernel is split into two parts:
where the first is the “aggregation rate” term and the latter describes the dependence of the coalescence kernel on the dimensions of the granules. In the first term, various system parameters are incorporated (i.e., granulator geometry, operating conditions, formulation properties, etc.).
Kernel | Equation | |
---|---|---|
Constant kernel | 0 | |
Sum kernel | 1 | |
Product kernel | 2 | |
Coagulation kernel | 2/3 | |
Equikinetic energy kernel | 1/6 |
Examples of coalescence kernels and degrees of homogeneity
Equikinetic energy coalescence kernel.
The discretized form of the breakage phenomena can be obtained by substituting continuous with discrete functions and by using Eq. (8):
However, as suggested in Vanni [63], to satisfy the mass conservation (valid for both agglomeration an breakage), for all the possible discretizations (i.e., for a geometric progression of the type
where
with
Several functions can be chosen for the selection function and breakage function (continuous or discrete), usually of semiempirical nature: the breakage theory is not well developed as the agglomeration theory [63].
An example of selection function can be the power law form:
A flexible form of the breakage function is the parabolic form:
that, depending on
Nucleation phenomenon occurs because small particles lower than the considered minimum size class can suddenly form granules (i.e., due to the action of binder droplets) within the considered size range. In light of this, it is clear that nucleation is not a mass conservative mechanism. It can be modeled as:
where
The resulting DPBE is a system of ordinary differential equations:
which can be solved numerically with the well-known discretization techniques (i.e., explicit Runge-Kutta). The results give the evolution of
Time evolution of the PSD in terms of number of particle per unit volume
The agglomeration process leads to the lowering and translation toward higher dimension of the PSD, because the particles diminish in number increasing their size. On the contrary, breakage phenomena lead to an increase of the number of particles per unit volume, with a translation toward lower dimensions of the PSD. Finally, nucleation locally increases the number of particles per unit volume.
Granular materials represent a relevant form of commercial products on the worldwide market. A rational organization of manufacturing, based on phenomenological knowledge rather than practical trials, can allow high granulation performance in terms of yields, product features, and manufacturing costs.
In this chapter, wet granulation process is described presenting the role of several factors, such as apparatus features, formulation, and operative parameters on granules final features.
Experimental campaigns of wet granulation runs, performed by using a low-shear granulator, changing several formulation and process parameters, have been performed to detail each single parameter effect both on the granulation stages and on the obtained granular materials features.
Mathematical modeling approaches of the granulation process have been thus introduced with the aim both to understand and underline the observed physical phenomena, and to propose predictive tools able to forecast granulation results in terms of size and size distribution of obtained granular materials. The predictive ability is a powerful way to define suitable process conditions, which can minimize costs and optimize process yields, avoiding onerous experimental tests. In this work, particular attention was given to models based on population balance equations (PBEs), for which appropriate mathematical descriptive functions have been presented.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.
ASTM | American society for testing and materials |
CCD | central composite design |
CFD | computational fluid dynamics |
DEM | discrete element method |
DIA | dynamic image analysis |
DoE | design of experiments |
DPBE | discretized population balance equation |
EKE | equikinetic energy |
HPMC | hydroxypropyl methylcellulose |
ODE | ordinary differential equation |
PBE | population balance equation |
PSD | particle size distribution |
Symbols | |
β | coalescence kernel |
A | attrition |
b | breakage function |
BAgg | birth by agglomeration phenomena of particle of size v |
BNuc | birth by nucleation phenomena |
BBr | birth by breakage phenomena of particle of size v |
DBr | death by breakage phenomena of particle of size v |
DAgg | death by agglomeration phenomena of particle of size v |
G | growth as layering |
K | constant that multiply a function of the internal coordinate v |
n | probability density function |
Ni | number of particles for class “i” per unit of volume of solid |
q | integer ≥ 1 |
Qiṅ | flow rate of the inlet currents |
Qouṫ | flow rate of the outlet currents |
S | selection function |
v | internal coordinate (particle volume or particle diameter) |
V | volume or mass in the granulator |
The high-density planting allows an increase in fruit yield per area in the initial years of production and a reduction in the payback period despite the higher cost of implementing the orchards. Therefore, it has been a trend to enhance the production system [1, 2]. Moreover, high-density planting improves orchard harvesting since there is no need for ladders [3, 4], and also reduces loss by diseases such as
In Southeast Brazil, citrus orchards have shown an increase in planting densities, from an average of 337 trees per hectare in the 1980s to over 600 trees per hectare since 2013. Since 2014, a stabilization in planting densities of around 650 trees per hectare is noted [6].
Two main classifications of citrus plants size are proposed. To Castle and Phillips [7], a classification was recommended according to the height or volume of scions into four categories regarding a standard plant: dwarf, semi-dwarf, semi-standard, and standard. Dwarf and semi-dwarf occur when the plant is 40% and 40–60% of the standard size, respectively. Semi-standard arises to plant with a size of 60–80% of the standard. Standard, on the other hand, is used for plants having 80–100% of the standard size. In this classification, the standard used was plants grafted onto a rough lemon (
Many factors affect citrus plants\' size such as rootstock, variety, soil and climate conditions, cultural treatments, and phytosanitary conditions [3]. The effective control of the citrus growth plants can be achieved by means of several strategies: (a) use of scions with restricted growth potential; (b) pruning; (c) biological agents, usually viroids and viruses; (d) restriction of the root system growth; (e) use of dwarfing, semi-dwarfing and intergrafted rootstocks; (f) sloping planting of seedlings, and (g) use of plant growth regulators [3, 9]. Among them, probably the most effective is the use of dwarfing rootstocks [7] because few scion varieties have significantly reduced growth by themselves. In mandarin trees, some cultivars of the Satsuma group (
This chapter presents the most important rootstocks for citrus high-density orchards in addition to the most recent alternatives. The main characteristics and horticultural performance of rootstocks were approached.
A dwarfing rootstock is the one that in combination with any canopy genotype, generates a mature tree with a height of no more than 2.5 m, independent of environmental and/or viral influences [11]. Currently, several materials from directed hybridization are classified as dwarfing. Nevertheless, few of them seem to provide an increment in the trees yield efficiency. Diversely, Flying Dragon [
In Brazil, densified citrus orchards have densities between 600 and 1250 plants ha−1, with distances of 4–6 m between rows and 2–3 m between plants [2, 5]. Differently, ultra-dense orchards are those where planting densities vary from 1500 to 2000 plants ha−1. Theoretically, these ultra-dense-orchards reach up to tens of thousands of trees per hectare, within the concept of "meadow orchard" [9]. In recent work in India with Nagpur mandarin onto Rangpur lime, a high-density was considered as the one bearing between 555 and 625 plants ha−1 and an ultra-high density planting the one varying from 1250 and 2500 plants ha−1 [18]. In Japan, long-term experiments were accomplished in \'Wase\' satsuma mandarin (
Densification is a common practice in mandarin orchards in Southern Brazil. There is a spacing recommendation for
In Iran, three planting spacings/densities were evaluated on ‘Unshiu’, ‘Clementina’, ‘Page’ and ‘Ponkan’ mandarin grafted onto Flying Dragon (4 m × 4 m, 625 plants ha−1; 4 m × 3 m, 833 plants ha−1; and 4 m × 2 m, 1250 plants ha−1). There was no effect of planting density on yield per plant. Nevertheless, yield per area increased significantly at the highest planting density. ‘Ponkan’ mandarins showed a better yield performance, while ‘Page’ mandarins had the worst yield performance and the lowest growth in the first five productive years of the orchard [22]. In later studies, the mandarin tree ‘Span Americana’, an early variety from the same group as ‘Ponkan’, performed well over Flying Dragon. Then, it has shown potential for densely planted orchards [23]. Furthermore, reports indicate a better performance of densified systems in citrus plants having columnar canopies.
Biological agents are also explored in citrus high-density planting toward the re-engineering of citrus seedlings. As recently shown, the use of Citrus dwarfing viroid (CDVd) into trifoliate orange rootstock \'Rich 16-6\' (
The most important and well-established citrus dwarfing rootstock is the Flying Dragon trifoliate orange, also known as Hiryu or Japanese Hiryo [26, 27, 28]. The Flying Dragon [
A large number of studies over Flying Dragon rootstock in several environments and with many citrus scions are reported [4, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, 23, 26, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37]. Due to the several advantages, it is an interesting alternative for densification of citrus orchards [28], mainly for ‘Tahiti’ lime [35] and mandarins [22].
The trees grafted onto Flying Dragon rootstock are small or dwarf sized, with a maximum height between 2.5 and 3.0 m [26, 28]. Flying Dragon features curved thorns and tortuous trunk, unlike common trifoliate orange (Figure 1). These two characteristics are morphological markers of the dwarfing effect, due to gene linkage or pleiotropy [29]. The tortuosity inheritance seems to be linked to three nuclear genes (Cr1, Cr2 and Cr3), in which the Flying Dragon genotype is entirely heterozygous (Cr1cr1Cr2cr2Cr3cr3), with seedlings of tortuous phenotypes showing low canopy growth, while the phenotypes with straight structures showed a great variability [27].
Fruit and branches of trifoliate oranges. (A) common trifoliate orange (
As there is a great genetic proximity between Flying Dragon and the trifoliate orange, they have many similar characteristics [10]; excellent fruit quality of the scion variety [38], late maturation, tolerance to cachexia, and sudden death. They are also resistant to the nematode
Furthermore, incompatibilities between
In Brazil, there are five cultivars registered as
Flying Dragon has some disadvantages, like the low nucellar polyembryony, requiring a very strict selection of seedlings to be grafted [46, 47, 48]. Besides that, this rootstock has seed germination and seedling uniformity between 80 and 90% [39]. It requires a longer period for commercial seedling formation than other rootstocks, mainly in low-temperature climates [49]. It is also a drought-sensitive dwarf rootstock [13], requesting a regular rainfall distribution. If the region has a well-defined dry period, irrigation is needed [50]. Nevertheless, under non-irrigated conditions and in soil without chemical restrictions, Tahiti lime grafted onto Flying Dragon (1157 plants ha−1) and grown in a no-till system intercropped with
The use of trifoliate oranges as rootstock demands specific soil fertility conditions, because of its high demand for nutrients [52]. These rootstocks have restrictions on the presence of toxic aluminum in the soil solution, and consequently, a restriction to acidic soils not corrected with liming [53]. With regard to Flying Dragon, there is poor performance in basic pH soils [39] due to the high requirement for iron [52]. Unlike plants of Citrus genus which have few or no root hairs under field conditions, trifoliate oranges can develop root hairs when grown in sand culture [54].
Flying Dragon is employed to Satsumas mandarins culture (
In New Caledonia [28], the economic performance of \'Tahiti\' orchards over 13 years under two installation conditions were compared: a high-density planting where trees were grafted onto Flying Dragon and a conventional orchard, where trees were grafted onto \'Volkamer\' lemon. For high-density planting, the density was set at a rate of 1000 trees ha−1 while for the conventional orchard the density was 208 plants ha−1. The installation cost of the densified orchard was 2.6-folds higher than the conventional orchard because of the higher seedling cost and the planting labor. However, the recovery of invested capital occurred in 4 years for the densified orchard and in seven years for the conventional orchard. Furthermore, the cost of production was US$ 0.30 and US$ 0.57 per kg of fruit produced in the high-density plantation and conventional plantation, respectively. Therefore, the high-density orchard generated over 13 years a gross revenue 3.3-folds higher than a conventional orchard. In contrast, densified conditions with mechanical pruning seem to be inappropriate for ‘Valencia’ orange, ‘Hamlin’ orange, and ‘Murcott’ tangor (2020 plants ha−1) due to the small yields obtained [31].
Another option for Flying Dragon use is as an interlock to modulate vegetative growth. Nevertheless, there is a strong interaction with the rootstock and scion varieties employed. When intergrafted between rootstocks such as ‘Swingle’ citrumelo or sour orange, or scions as ‘Star Ruby’ grapefruit (
Orange “Navelina” and lemon ‘Kütdiken’ plants intergrafted on Flying Dragon using sour orange as rootstock had 41.1% and 22.5% of growth reduction compared to non-intergrafted plants, respectively. In parallel, during winter and spring, the presence of the intergraft increased net CO2 assimilation for both canopies. To Navelina orange trees, an increase in transpiration was also observed [57]. In \'Mexican\' lime trees onto Alemow (
As regards to dwarfing mechanism, the canopies grafted on the Flying Dragon trifoliate tree had a reduced sap flux compared to plants grafted on common trifoliate orange [38]. In comparison to common trifoliate trees, the Flying Dragon reduced the hydraulic conductivity of rootstock and of graft union regions. Further, a restriction of carbohydrate flow to the roots through the grafting region was described [59]. Besides, Flying Dragon had stem and roots xylem vessels larger as well as a lower phloem percentage than the vigorous rootstock Rough lemon (
Phytohormones have different behaviors on dwarfing and vigorous rootstocks. The highest indolacetic acid (IAA) level was found in ‘Eureka’ lemon new shoots on ‘Swingle’ citrumelo and the lowest was found on Flying Dragon. Opposite effects were seen to abscisic acid (ABA). Higher content of ABA was seen in ‘Eureka’ lemon new shoots on Flying Dragon while lower ABA content was observed on ‘Swingle’ citrumelo. An assumption is that higher ABA levels account for plant growth reduction [61]. Likewise, the exogenous use of gibberellic acid and inhibitors of its synthesis are involved in the control of vegetative growth in citrus [62, 63].
Recently,
Several rootstocks are classified as dwarfing: \'Cunningham\' and \'Yuma\' citranges, \'Cuban\' pummelo,
In Spain, two dwarfing rootstocks developed by IVIA (The Valencian Institute of Agrarian Research) highlighted: Forner-Alcaide (FA) 418 and FA 517. The rootstock FA 418 is a citrangedarin, a hybrid of Troyer citrange (
In USA, rootstock US-897 citrandarin was released by the US Department of Agriculture with the goal of reducing the size of plants in high-density orchards. His rootstock is used on 7% of the citrus orchards in Florida to high-density plantings in field and in protected structures. US-897 rootstock is a cross of Cleopatra mandarin (
Farther, new rootstocks have been produced by the University of Florida breeding program. Many of them are tetraploids, somatic hybrids, or sexual hybrids of two somatic hybrids. Among them, citrandarin UFR-6 (
Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of rootstocks discussed so far: Trifoliate orange, Flying Dragon, FA 148, FA 517, US 897, and UFR 06. In this table, aspects related to horticultural performance and biotic and abiotic stresses are compiled.
Features | Trifoliate orange | Flying Dragon | FA 148 | FA 517 | US 897 | UFR 06 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yield per tree | L-I | L-I | I | H | L | H |
Yield efficiency | I-H | H | H | H | H | H |
Earl bearing | I | I | I | H | ||
Fruit size | Sm-I/L* | Sm-I/L* | Lg | I-Lg | Sm-I | Sm-I |
Fruit quality | H | H | H | H | H | H |
Maturity | I | I | ||||
Drought stress | P | P | ||||
Salinity | P | P | G | I-G | [I] | |
Flooding | I | I | ||||
Freeze | G | G | [I] | G | ||
Soil high-pH | P | P | G | G | [I] | |
Soil low-pH | P | [P] | ||||
Tristeza | T | T | T | R | T | T |
Phytophthora | T | T | S | T | T | T |
Nematode | T | T | S | R |
Main features of dwarfing citrus rootstocks and common trifoliate orange (a semi-dwarfing rootstock) [39, 52, 68]a.
Sm–small; L–low; I–intermediate; Lg–large; H–high; P–poor; G–good; R–resistant; S–susceptible; T–tolerant. [ ] - Any symbol in brackets indicates a probable or expected behavior.
Conflicting data in the literature.
In Brazil, the citrus breeding program of EMBRAPA (Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation) has developed rootstocks by hybridization. Among the genotypes tested for the ‘Valencia’ orange, four are important with respect to dwarfing effect along with relatively high fruit yield, high yield efficiency, and good fruit quality. These rootstocks are three citrandarins (TSKC × TRFD-003, TSKC × TRFD-006, TSKC × TRFD-007) and one citrumelandarin (TSKC × CTSW-058), hybrids of Common Sunki mandarin [
In other experiments with \'Valencia\' orange in southeast Brazil, tetraploid Swingle citrumelo had a dwarfing performance which reduced canopy volume by 77% compared to the vigorous standard. In this same experiment, citrandarins offspring of Flying Dragon had no dwarfing behavior [74]. In \'Tahiti\' lime, TS × PT 14 citrandarin had a dwarfing behavior and potential tolerance to HLB [75].
Other dwarfing rootstocks are also approached. In hot arid climate in India, Fremont mandarin had dwarfing behavior when grafted on
There are several potentially dwarfing rootstocks that have emerged in recent decades from worldwide breeding programs. Nevertheless, the confirmation of these potentials needs further investigations. In those investigations, it is required the evaluation of these materials under different scions and at different environments for a minimum period of time, to generalize this information [78].
Citrus dwarfing rootstocks are the main options to enable the development of designed orchards in high and ultra-high density planting systems allowing easy mechanical harvesting and cultivation under protected structures. Further, it is paramount to perform a regional studies of different dwarf rootstocks genotypes and their interaction with the different scions as well as economic feasibility. With a well-conducted and designed studies, it is possible to establish recommendations and guide the correct management of dense citrus orchards in different environments. Therefore, the reduction of plant growth provided by rootstocks can be a management strategy to improve the orchard horticultural performance.
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\n\nWe have adopted the Protocol to increase the number of readers of our publications. All our Works are more widely accessible, with resulting benefits for scholars, researchers, students, libraries, universities and other academic institutions. Through this method of exposing metadata, IntechOpen enables citation indexes, scientific search engines, scholarly databases, and scientific literature collections to gather metadata from our repository and make our publications available to a broader academic audience.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Presently, SEMDP is focused on drought and heavy precipitation monitoring over Southeast Asia and the Pacific. Space-based data and derived products form critical part of meteorological services’ operations for weather monitoring; however, satellite products are still not fully utilized for climate applications. Using SEMDP satellite-derived precipitation products, it would be possible to monitor extreme precipitation events with uniform spatial coverage and over various time periods – pentad, weekly, 10 days, monthly and longer time-scales. In this chapter, SEMDP satellite-derived precipitation products over the Asia-Pacific region produced by the Earth Observation Research Center/Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (EORC/JAXA) and the Climate Prediction Center/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (CPC/NOAA) are introduced. Case studies for monitoring (i) drought in Australia in July-October 2007 and September 2018 and (ii) heavy precipitation over Australia in December 2010 and Thailand and the Peninsular Malaysia in November-December 2014 which caused widespread flooding are also presented. Satellite observations are compared with in situ data to demonstrate value of satellite-derived estimates of precipitation for drought and heavy rainfall monitoring.",book:{id:"7767",slug:"rainfall-extremes-distribution-and-properties",title:"Rainfall",fullTitle:"Rainfall - Extremes, Distribution and Properties"},signatures:"Yuriy Kuleshov, Toshiyuki Kurino, Takuji Kubota, Tomoko Tashima and Pingping Xie",authors:[{id:"102903",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuriy",middleName:null,surname:"Kuleshov",slug:"yuriy-kuleshov",fullName:"Yuriy Kuleshov"}]},{id:"51411",doi:"10.5772/63960",title:"Coastal Tsunami Warning with Deployed HF Radar Systems",slug:"coastal-tsunami-warning-with-deployed-hf-radar-systems",totalDownloads:1723,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"We describe the evolution of coastal HF radar observations of tsunamis, first proposed in 1979 and developed after the 2004 Indonesia and 2011 Japan tsunamis to allow routine monitoring to detect an approaching tsunami. Oceanographic tsunami theory is summarized, both for the fundamental equations of motion and in the ray optics and Green's Law approximations; the latter can be applied when water depths are slowly varying. Observations of the current velocities caused by the 2011 Japan tsunami off the Japanese, the US West, and Chilean coasts are described and examples are shown. These observations led to the development of an empirical tsunami detection method, which is outlined. Examples of offline tsunami detections are given and detection times are compared with arrival times at neighboring tide gauges. We describe the observation and offline detection of the June 2013 meteotsunami off the New Jersey coast using coastal radar systems and tide gauges. Methods to model and simulate tsunami velocities are described and videos of the resulting velocity/height maps are given. We describe preliminary methods for evaluating the suitability of radar sites for tsunami detection using simulated tsunami velocities. Factors affecting tsunami detectability are discussed and methods are described for the alleviation of false alarms.",book:{id:"5316",slug:"tsunami",title:"Tsunami",fullTitle:"Tsunami"},signatures:"Belinda Lipa, Donald Barrick and James Isaacson",authors:[{id:"184807",title:"Dr.",name:"Belinda",middleName:null,surname:"LIpa",slug:"belinda-lipa",fullName:"Belinda LIpa"}]},{id:"51183",doi:"10.5772/63956",title:"Tsunamis in Sweden: Occurrence and Characteristics",slug:"tsunamis-in-sweden-occurrence-and-characteristics",totalDownloads:1717,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"In the last 13,000 years, there are 17 tsunami events recorded in Sweden. This chapter highlights the characteristics of two high-magnitude events from the deglacial period and three events from Late Holocene age.",book:{id:"5316",slug:"tsunami",title:"Tsunami",fullTitle:"Tsunami"},signatures:"Nils-Axel Mörner",authors:[{id:"15619",title:"Dr.",name:"Nils-Axel",middleName:null,surname:"Morner",slug:"nils-axel-morner",fullName:"Nils-Axel Morner"}]},{id:"51690",doi:"10.5772/64530",title:"Tsunami Generation Due to a Landslide or a Submarine Eruption",slug:"tsunami-generation-due-to-a-landslide-or-a-submarine-eruption",totalDownloads:4981,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Tsunamis can be triggered by not only submarine earthquakes, but also by landslides, and submarine volcanic eruptions. First, several characteristics of tsunami generation due to a landslide, or a sector collapse, are studied, with the tsunamis simulated numerically, to represent their generation through an interaction between falling bodies, and seawater, in two vertical dimensions. The falling body is assumed to be a fluid, or a rigid body, which moves down a slope with a constant gradient. Second, the mechanism of tsunami generation caused by a submarine volcanic eruption, is discussed, focusing on a phreatomagmatic explosion, where after exposure to high temperature magma, seawater evaporates instantly, with an explosive increase in its volume. An index for submarine volcanic explosive force, concerning tsunami generation, has been developed, by assuming the relationship between a phreatomagmatic explosion, and the resultant initial tsunami waveform. A numerical simulation was also generated, with a specific value for this index, for the propagation of tsunamis due to a submarine volcanic eruption in Kagoshima Bay, where a submarine explosion, leading to tsunami generation, has been observed.",book:{id:"5316",slug:"tsunami",title:"Tsunami",fullTitle:"Tsunami"},signatures:"Taro Kakinuma",authors:[{id:"183830",title:"Dr.",name:"Taro",middleName:null,surname:"Kakinuma",slug:"taro-kakinuma",fullName:"Taro Kakinuma"}]},{id:"64194",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80037",title:"Geo-Statistical Assessment of the Intensity, Duration, Frequency and Trend of Drought over Gangetic West Bengal, Eastern India",slug:"geo-statistical-assessment-of-the-intensity-duration-frequency-and-trend-of-drought-over-gangetic-we",totalDownloads:1543,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"This chapter presents spatio-temporal (1901–2002) appraisal of the intensity, duration, frequency and trend of drought over Gangetic West Bengal (GWB), Eastern India using standardized precipitation index (SPI). The study reveals that, after 1950s the magnitude of deficit precipitation has increased substantially. Stepping up of the mean intensity of most intense drought events; average drought duration; severe and extreme drought frequency in this agricultural tract at the latter half of the twentieth century are also some alarming events. The western degraded plateau is more sensitive to extreme droughts but, the impact is expected to be rigorous over the adjacent areas. In an nutshell this work provides the evidences demonstrating the intensification of aridity in the northern Rarh plain and moribund delta which may corresponds to degradation and lowering of water resources especially ground water which may also lead to increase of socio-economic vulnerability to drought. Such altered hydrolo-meteorological system hence calls for review of the agricultural practices and water use in this counterpart.",book:{id:"7484",slug:"topics-in-hydrometerology",title:"Topics in Hydrometerology",fullTitle:"Topics in Hydrometerology"},signatures:"Krishna Gopal Ghosh",authors:[{id:"257980",title:"Dr.",name:"Krishna Gopal",middleName:null,surname:"Ghosh",slug:"krishna-gopal-ghosh",fullName:"Krishna Gopal Ghosh"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"75865",title:"The Role of Statistical Methods and Tools for Weather Forecasting and Modeling",slug:"the-role-of-statistical-methods-and-tools-for-weather-forecasting-and-modeling",totalDownloads:371,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The need to understand the role of statistical methods for the forecasting of climatological parameters cannot be trivialized. This study gives an in depth review on the different variations of the Mann-Kendall (M-K) trend test and how they can be applied, regression techniques (Simple and Multiple), the Angstrom-Prescott model for solar radiation, etc. The study then goes ahead to apply some of them with data obtained from the Nigerian Meteorological Agency (NiMet), and applying tools like the python programming language and Wolfram Mathematica. Results show that the maximum ambient temperature for Calabar is increasing (Z = 2.52) significantly after the calculated p-value <0.05 (significant level). The seasonal M-K test was also applied for the dry and wet seasons and both were found to be increasing (Z = 3.23 and Z = 4.04 respectively) after their calculated p-values <0.05. The relationship between refractivity and other meteorological parameters relating to it was discerned using partial differential equations giving the gradient of each with refractivity; this was compared with results from the correlation matrix to show that the water vapor contents of the atmosphere contributes significantly to the variation of refractivity. Multiple linear regression has also been adopted to give an accurate model for the prediction of refractivity in the region after the residual error between the calculated refractivity and predicted refractivity was minimal.",book:{id:"8485",slug:"weather-forecasting",title:"Weather Forecasting",fullTitle:"Weather Forecasting"},signatures:"Emmanuel P. Agbo",authors:[{id:"337554",title:"Mr.",name:"Emmanuel P.",middleName:"Paul",surname:"Agbo",slug:"emmanuel-p.-agbo",fullName:"Emmanuel P. Agbo"}]},{id:"70625",title:"Response of the Coastal Ocean to Tropical Cyclones",slug:"response-of-the-coastal-ocean-to-tropical-cyclones",totalDownloads:684,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The Northwest Pacific and the South China Sea region are the birthplaces of most monsoon disturbances and tropical cyclones and are an important channel for the generation and transmission of water vapor. The Northwest Pacific plays a major role in regulating interdecadal and long-term changes in climate. China experiences the largest number of typhoon landfalls and the most destructive power affected by typhoons in the world. The hidden dangers of typhoon disasters are accelerating with the acceleration of urbanization, the rapid development of economic construction and global warming. The coastal cities are the most dynamic and affluent areas of China’s economic development. They are the strong magnetic field that attracts international capital in China, and are also the most densely populated areas and important port groups in China. Although these regions are highly developed, they are vulnerable to disasters. When typhoons hit, the economic losses and casualties caused by gale, heavy rain and storm surges were particularly serious. This chapter reviews the response of coastal ocean to tropical cyclones, included sea surface temperature, sea surface salinity, storm surge simulation and extreme rainfall under the influence of tropical cyclones.",book:{id:"8974",slug:"current-topics-in-tropical-cyclone-research",title:"Current Topics in Tropical Cyclone Research",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Tropical Cyclone Research"},signatures:"Zhiyuan Wu and Mack Conde",authors:null},{id:"51562",title:"About the Concept of the Environment Recycling—Energy (ERE) in the Romanian Steel Industry",slug:"about-the-concept-of-the-environment-recycling-energy-ere-in-the-romanian-steel-industry",totalDownloads:1778,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This paper takes as its starting point an analysis of the ecological functioning of the electric arc furnace (EAF). Thus, we present a classification of emissions generated by EAF, including limits of variation in chemical composition of “dust” issued by EAF in various countries and limit values for permissible concentrations of these emissions.The paper presents and analyzes various abstraction and treatment-related emissions for hipo-polluting operation of EAF. In this chapter, the correlations between macro system represented by metallurgical environment and interacting systems: System-Energy-Recycling Environment (ERE), Ecological system (ECO), and Recycling, Reclamation System (REC-REV) are presented. These correlations are presented in the spirit of sustainable development concepts (DC) and total quality (TQ).",book:{id:"5219",slug:"greenhouse-gases-selected-case-studies",title:"Greenhouse Gases",fullTitle:"Greenhouse Gases - Selected Case Studies"},signatures:"Adrian Ioana and Augustin Semenescu",authors:[{id:"177153",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Ioana",slug:"adrian-ioana",fullName:"Adrian Ioana"},{id:"193573",title:"Prof.",name:"Augustin",middleName:null,surname:"Semenescu",slug:"augustin-semenescu",fullName:"Augustin Semenescu"}]},{id:"51481",title:"Effect of Dopants on the Properties of Zirconia‐Supported Iron Catalysts for Ethylbenzene Dehydrogenation with Carbon Dioxide",slug:"effect-of-dopants-on-the-properties-of-zirconia-supported-iron-catalysts-for-ethylbenzene-dehydrogen",totalDownloads:1512,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Due to the harmful effects of carbon dioxide to the environment, a lot of work has been carried out aiming to find new applications, which can decrease the emissions or to capture and use it. An attractive application for carbon dioxide is the synthesis of chemicals, especially for producing styrene by ethylbenzene dehydrogenation, in which it increases the catalyst activity and selectivity. In order to find efficient catalysts for the reaction, the effect of cerium, chromium, aluminum, and lanthanum on the properties of zirconia‐supported iron oxides was studied in this work. The modified supports were prepared by precipitation and impregnated with iron nitrate. The obtained catalysts were characterized by thermogravimetry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X‐ray diffraction, specific surface area measurement, and temperature‐programmed reduction. The catalysts showed different textural and catalytic properties, which were associated to the different phases in the solids, such as monoclinic or tetragonal zirconia, hematite, maghemite, cubic ceria, monoclinic or hexagonal lantana, and rhombohedral chromia, the active phases in ethylbenzene dehydrogenation. The most promising dopant was cerium, which produces the most active catalyst at the lowest temperature, probably due to its ability of providing lattice oxygen, which activates carbon dioxide and increases the reaction rate.",book:{id:"5219",slug:"greenhouse-gases-selected-case-studies",title:"Greenhouse Gases",fullTitle:"Greenhouse Gases - Selected Case Studies"},signatures:"Maria do Carmo Rangel, Sirlene B. Lima, Sarah Maria Santana\nBorges and Ivoneide Santana Sobral",authors:[{id:"94651",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Do Carmo Rangel",slug:"maria-do-carmo-rangel",fullName:"Maria Do Carmo Rangel"}]},{id:"66825",title:"WMO Space-Based Weather and Climate Extremes Monitoring Demonstration Project (SEMDP): First Outcomes of Regional Cooperation on Drought and Heavy Precipitation Monitoring for Australia and Southeast Asia",slug:"wmo-space-based-weather-and-climate-extremes-monitoring-demonstration-project-semdp-first-outcomes-o",totalDownloads:971,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"To improve monitoring of extreme weather and climate events from space, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) initiated the space-based weather and climate extremes monitoring demonstration project (SEMDP). Presently, SEMDP is focused on drought and heavy precipitation monitoring over Southeast Asia and the Pacific. Space-based data and derived products form critical part of meteorological services’ operations for weather monitoring; however, satellite products are still not fully utilized for climate applications. Using SEMDP satellite-derived precipitation products, it would be possible to monitor extreme precipitation events with uniform spatial coverage and over various time periods – pentad, weekly, 10 days, monthly and longer time-scales. In this chapter, SEMDP satellite-derived precipitation products over the Asia-Pacific region produced by the Earth Observation Research Center/Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (EORC/JAXA) and the Climate Prediction Center/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (CPC/NOAA) are introduced. Case studies for monitoring (i) drought in Australia in July-October 2007 and September 2018 and (ii) heavy precipitation over Australia in December 2010 and Thailand and the Peninsular Malaysia in November-December 2014 which caused widespread flooding are also presented. Satellite observations are compared with in situ data to demonstrate value of satellite-derived estimates of precipitation for drought and heavy rainfall monitoring.",book:{id:"7767",slug:"rainfall-extremes-distribution-and-properties",title:"Rainfall",fullTitle:"Rainfall - Extremes, Distribution and Properties"},signatures:"Yuriy Kuleshov, Toshiyuki Kurino, Takuji Kubota, Tomoko Tashima and Pingping Xie",authors:[{id:"102903",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuriy",middleName:null,surname:"Kuleshov",slug:"yuriy-kuleshov",fullName:"Yuriy Kuleshov"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"838",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:315,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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