\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7819",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Education Systems Around the World",title:"Education Systems Around the World",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'This book, "Education Systems Around the World", is a collection of reviewed and relevant research chapters that offer a comprehensive overview of recent developments in the field of social sciences and humanities. The book comprises single chapters authored by various researchers and edited by an expert active in the field of social studies and humanities. All chapters are unique but are united under a common research study topic. This publication aims to provide a thorough overview of the latest research efforts by international authors on social studies and humanities, and open new possible research paths for further novel developments.',isbn:"978-1-78984-392-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-391-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-081-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77636",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"education-systems-around-the-world",numberOfPages:184,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c3d5598e631502952f75b2181873f6ea",bookSignature:"Gilson Porto Jr.",publishedDate:"April 8th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7819.jpg",numberOfDownloads:11089,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:16,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 17th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 7th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 6th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 27th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 26th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"279817",title:"Dr.",name:"Gilson",middleName:null,surname:"Porto",slug:"gilson-porto",fullName:"Gilson Porto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279817/images/system/279817.jpg",biography:"Gilson Porto Jr. holds a Ph.D. in Contemporary Communication and Culture from the Communication Faculty of the Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), a Master\\'s degree in Education from the Faculty of Education (UnB) and a degree in Social Communication/Journalism, Pedagogy and History. He has carried out post-doctoral studies in Education and Technologies at the University of Cadiz (UCA, Spain), in Journalism and Society through the Graduate Program in Communication (FAC-UnB) and in Applied Social Sciences at the Paulista State University Júlio de Mesquita Filho (UNESP).",institutionString:"Universidade Federal do Tocantins",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal do Tocantins",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"265",title:"Education",slug:"social-sciences-education"}],chapters:[{id:"67969",title:"Introductory Chapter: Communication, Education, and Internationalization - Paths and Possibilities of the Systems in the European Union",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87106",slug:"introductory-chapter-communication-education-and-internationalization-paths-and-possibilities-of-the",totalDownloads:630,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Francisco Gilson Rebouças Porto Junior",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67969",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67969",authors:[{id:"279817",title:"Dr.",name:"Gilson",surname:"Porto",slug:"gilson-porto",fullName:"Gilson Porto"}],corrections:null},{id:"65932",title:"Evaluation of Human Capital as a Contribution to the Performance of the José Eduardo dos Santos University—Republic of Angola",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84844",slug:"evaluation-of-human-capital-as-a-contribution-to-the-performance-of-the-jos-eduardo-dos-santos-unive",totalDownloads:744,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"For institutions of higher learning such as universities, the performance evaluation teaching staff is profoundly significant in the realization of the institution’s goals and objectives. It is also the social responsibility of these universities to ensure that the quality of education offered at their facilities is contextual and relevant to the graduates careers and the professions, which they undertake upon successful completion of these studies. As a nation committed to human capacity development, Angola recognizes and is continuously seek means to uphold exceptionally high standards of teacher performance as well as the general quality of services offered by the Angolan public universities. This chapter offers a summary of a comprehensive investigation dealing with 360° and competency evaluation for teaching staff at universities. The objective of this study was to develop and implement a system of evaluation of the teacher and lecturer performance at the José Eduardo dos Santos University of the Republic of Angola. The methodology used for evaluation the strengths and weaknesses of 122 teachers, the strengths and weaknesses in their individual performance; it also presents an improvement plan based on their competences to enhance individual teacher performance.",signatures:"Domingos João Fernandes and María Sotolongo Sánchez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65932",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65932",authors:[{id:"262655",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Domingos João",surname:"Fernandes",slug:"domingos-joao-fernandes",fullName:"Domingos João Fernandes"},{id:"289047",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Sotolongo Sánchez",slug:"maria-sotolongo-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Sotolongo Sánchez"}],corrections:null},{id:"65885",title:"Education Systems in Eurasia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84812",slug:"education-systems-in-eurasia",totalDownloads:706,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is dedicated to national-level systems of education in Eurasian states and their unification within a framework of international regional organizations, where these states participate. The Eurasian states participate not only in CIS but also in other international regional organizations, but researchers do not always consider this fact. The subjects of this research are (a) the elements of the education system and links between them, (b) state bodies and other state entities which regulate the educational relations, and (c) innovation politics in education in every state: network universities and digital technologies. The last one is more relevant due to differences of the intended role of network universities, and the use of digital technologies varies from one legal system to others. The methods of implementation and use of digital technologies are also significantly different.",signatures:"Rashad Kurbanov, Ramin Gurbanov and Asiya Belyalova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65885",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65885",authors:[{id:"281281",title:"Prof.",name:"Rashad",surname:"Kurbanov",slug:"rashad-kurbanov",fullName:"Rashad Kurbanov"},{id:"290786",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramin",surname:"Gurbanov",slug:"ramin-gurbanov",fullName:"Ramin Gurbanov"},{id:"290787",title:"MSc.",name:"Asiya",surname:"Belyalova",slug:"asiya-belyalova",fullName:"Asiya Belyalova"}],corrections:null},{id:"65824",title:"Full Funnel International Enrollment Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84755",slug:"full-funnel-international-enrollment-management",totalDownloads:725,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The article presents the full funnel recruitment model as an alternative to simplistic recruitment models founded only on widening international prospect intake as a means of increasing the recruitment of new students. While increased prospect intake will often increase enrollment outflow, constriction at any point in the funnel holds the potential to negate efforts to increase the number of new international students. The full funnel enrollment management model highlights the importance of maintaining all portions of the intake funnel to ensure the smooth transition of international prospects from initial contact to successful matriculation. Five strategies compose the heart of full funnel enrollment management: (1) outreach, (2) application, (3) advisement, (4) registration and (5) engagement. Each component of the full funnel enrollment management model is examined in detail.",signatures:"Lee Waller and Sharon Waller",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65824",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65824",authors:[{id:"263301",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee",surname:"Waller",slug:"lee-waller",fullName:"Lee Waller"},{id:"263302",title:"Dr.",name:"Sharon",surname:"Waller",slug:"sharon-waller",fullName:"Sharon Waller"}],corrections:null},{id:"70622",title:"Lessons from the History of Pedagogical Methods for Culturally Responsive Teaching and Learning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90695",slug:"lessons-from-the-history-of-pedagogical-methods-for-culturally-responsive-teaching-and-learning",totalDownloads:795,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter discusses educational practices drawing on examples from the history of pedagogical methods across classic to postmodern realities. It aims at deriving lessons through the exploration of global social contexts of teaching and learning to address diversity and multiculturalism in contemporary education. Accentuating the history of educational practices, pedagogical methods are presented as socially constructed phenomena, while teachers and learners are viewed as possessing socialised knowledge. The chapter concludes with reflections on the pursuit of educational aims as referred to culturally responsive teaching and learning and multiculturalism in contemporary education. It shows that the present world has created diverse forms of pedagogical methods and education is no longer the prerogative of formal education. The teachers and learners are freer from social and physical boundaries. They are more likely to reflect on what they teach and learn. On the other hand, this reflection is hard to achieve in an increasingly entertaining surrounding of new technologies and self-representation. This is one important barrier that teachers and learners have to overcome in order to assure culturally responsive education in the contemporary world. However, they can be more reflexive towards the past in doing so.",signatures:"Sona Balasanyan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70622",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70622",authors:[{id:"312736",title:"Dr.",name:"Sona",surname:"Balasanyan",slug:"sona-balasanyan",fullName:"Sona Balasanyan"}],corrections:null},{id:"64601",title:"Students and Institutional Preparedness for Educational Encounters: Views of the Margin",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82148",slug:"students-and-institutional-preparedness-for-educational-encounters-views-of-the-margin",totalDownloads:873,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Higher education in South Africa has been plagued by a number of challenges, which different universities have been struggling to handle for the past two decades. Primarily amongst these challenges are student and institutional preparedness for education encounters. The level of preparedness by both the student and the institution determines the kind of educational encounters they have. This chapter explores this phenomenon within a university in South Africa to understand the level of student and institutional preparedness and articulate a pathway for better educational encounters. Designed as a qualitative case study, data was generated using semi-structured interviews and open-ended questionnaires. The data generated was coded and categorised into themes. These themes were social and cultural capital, cognitive skills, educational architecture and institutional culture. These themes revealed that students lack sufficient social and cultural capital needed for knowledge construction in teaching and learning. They also lacked basic cognitive skills required to decipher the knowledge codes within the disciplines which they belong. The findings also reveal that universities lacked a functional institutional culture, which makes for better educational encounters. The educational architecture was also seen as dysfunctional and disenabling as many students found it difficult to navigate their way through it.",signatures:"Kehdinga George Fomunyam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64601",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64601",authors:[{id:"267912",title:"Dr.",name:"Kehdinga George",surname:"Fomunyam",slug:"kehdinga-george-fomunyam",fullName:"Kehdinga George Fomunyam"}],corrections:null},{id:"65989",title:"Educational Reform in Oman: System and Structural Changes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84913",slug:"educational-reform-in-oman-system-and-structural-changes",totalDownloads:1416,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter gives a historical perspective of the Sultanate of Oman educational developments: system and structural wide changes. The significant and structural changes were on the basis of creating a basic and post-basic education. Structural changes within the Ministry included the establishment of the directories throughout the different states. System wide changes included a complete overhaul of the curriculum leading to a more practice-based and attuned to the work place and pedagogical approaches. The Ministry gave each state in Oman a level of autonomy to its directories. The greatest challenges facing the Ministry of Education and it’s reform is bringing the educational outcomes to a level that are benchmarked to international standards and Omani students able to draw on the twenty-first century and technological skills to operate in a globally connected world. The chapter finally concludes on the most pressing challenges to face them and increase student outcomes.",signatures:"Ramzi Nasser",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65989",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65989",authors:[{id:"284775",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramzi",surname:"Nasser",slug:"ramzi-nasser",fullName:"Ramzi Nasser"}],corrections:null},{id:"65980",title:"Analysis of Academic Achievement in Higher-Middle Education in Mexico through Data Clustering Methods",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84744",slug:"analysis-of-academic-achievement-in-higher-middle-education-in-mexico-through-data-clustering-method",totalDownloads:737,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent years, there is a natural need to look for new ways to analyze and process data from different sources. One of these ways is through data analysis methods. Thus, given the importance of making academic diagnoses, this paper presents the academic achievement analysis, in Language and Communication and Mathematics, of students from autonomous, public and private schools of Higher-Middle Education in Mexico through data analysis methods. Data analyzed were registers of the National Plan for the Evaluation of Learning, which puts into operation the National Institute for the Evaluation of Education in coordination with the Secretariat of Public Education, Mexico. A variety of academic achievements was observed, highlighting Insufficient and Elementary in the evaluated population, while a small number reached acceptable achievements, that is, Satisfactory and Outstanding. This contrasts a notable difference between the levels reached by students, which leads them to delay or stop their university studies because they obtain a completion certificate of studies without having the necessary knowledge to pass the entrance examination in the universities.",signatures:"Guillermo Molero-Castillo, Everardo Bárcenas, Alejandro Velázquez-Mena and Yaimara Céspedes-González",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65980",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65980",authors:[{id:"284031",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",surname:"Molero-Castillo",slug:"guillermo-molero-castillo",fullName:"Guillermo Molero-Castillo"},{id:"290801",title:"Dr.",name:"Everardo",surname:"Bárcenas",slug:"everardo-barcenas",fullName:"Everardo Bárcenas"},{id:"290802",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro",surname:"Velázquez-Mena",slug:"alejandro-velazquez-mena",fullName:"Alejandro Velázquez-Mena"},{id:"290803",title:"MSc.",name:"Yaimara",surname:"Céspedes-González",slug:"yaimara-cespedes-gonzalez",fullName:"Yaimara Céspedes-González"}],corrections:null},{id:"67997",title:"Discrete Choice Model: An Application to the Educational Decision of Ivorian Households",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87433",slug:"discrete-choice-model-an-application-to-the-educational-decision-of-ivorian-households",totalDownloads:598,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Faced with unlimited needs, the scarcity of resources forces economic agents to make choices. The analysis using discrete choice models aims to identify the bases of these decisions. The aim here is to highlight the explanatory factors of the demand for education by Ivorian households for their children. To do this, the simple logit model is applied to explain the decision of schooling children. Then the multinomial logit model is used to explain the continuation of education. Household living standard survey data of 1998 and 2008 are used. It shows that age, household composition, and the provision of primary and secondary education services have a positive influence on the education of children. Income influences only high school education. The effects of sociodemographic factors vary by region. Security and accessibility of administrative services encourage the education of children.",signatures:"N’da Koffi Christan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67997",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67997",authors:[{id:"275013",title:"Dr.",name:"N’da Koffi",surname:"Christan",slug:"n'da-koffi-christan",fullName:"N’da Koffi Christan"}],corrections:null},{id:"67007",title:"Mathematics Education System in South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85325",slug:"mathematics-education-system-in-south-africa",totalDownloads:2085,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The teaching of mathematics in South African schools has been pronounced to be among the worst in the world. Unacknowledged poor teaching of mathematics in a majority of public schools deprive many learners access to both higher education and modern, knowledge-intensive work skills. The chapter resumes by outlining mathematics curriculum redress and changes in the post-apartheid era, the exploration of mathematics education, democracy and development, together with the introduction of Mathematical Literacy as an alternative compulsory subject to learners incompetent to do mathematics. The chapter further interrogates how mathematics education, in terms of mathematical knowledge, skills, values and attitudes, is distributed in society and thereby shapes educational possibilities together with the research trends and their effect on mathematics education in South Africa. Mathematics teacher training and empowerment are discussed together with shortcomings in the system that leads to learners’ poor performance in Mathematics. How South Africa compares in performance with other countries is also examined in this chapter. The closing remarks of the chapter suggest some improvements that the mathematics education system in South Africa can embark on.",signatures:"Zingiswa Jojo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67007",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67007",authors:[{id:"281296",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Zingiswa",surname:"Jojo",slug:"zingiswa-jojo",fullName:"Zingiswa Jojo"}],corrections:null},{id:"66749",title:"An Epistemological Critique of the African University Education System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85879",slug:"an-epistemological-critique-of-the-african-university-education-system",totalDownloads:1114,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is a theoretical exposition of the African university education system that is characterized by domination of the Eurocentric epistemological paradigm owing to factors such as colonialism, imperialism, and globalization. I argue that such domination contradicts knowledge democracy and it ought to be challenged. Secondly, I argue that African universities should make the African epistemological paradigm central in their education system. Thirdly, I argue that South-South cooperation should be adopted by African universities to challenge Eurocentric domination since a collective effort, rather than individual attempts, is likely to dislodge foreign epistemological domination.",signatures:"Ephraim Taurai Gwaravanda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66749",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66749",authors:[{id:"284050",title:"Dr.",name:"Ephraim Taurai",surname:"Gwaravanda",slug:"ephraim-taurai-gwaravanda",fullName:"Ephraim Taurai Gwaravanda"}],corrections:null},{id:"71355",title:"Pedagogist as Social Professional: Sozialpädagogik and Professional Pedagogy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91335",slug:"pedagogist-as-social-professional-sozialp-dagogik-and-professional-pedagogy",totalDownloads:666,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The profound changes that have occurred over the last few decades to the social, cultural and relational reality have added a new emphasis on pedagogy even though the emerging need for the profession of “pedagogist,” a new intellectual and social profession in common consideration, but which boasts over 2500 years of history and tradition as its reference science. This profession is at the top of pedagogical and education professions. Its conceptual and operational framework, its methodologies and procedures, its technical vocabulary and everything constituting an advanced professional knowledge were born and developed in the ancient times, beginning with its origins in classical Greece. The recent re-foundations can be found in the Sozialpädagogik, in the same Mittleuropean cultural environment where other social professions of recent birth have their ground. Re-founders of this science and profession were Mager, Diesterweg, Natorp and Durkheim Pedagogist. In this paper, we summarized the essential features of this profession, its methodology, its principles, its practical procedures, with special attention to the problems of couple and family, and those belonging to its initial education and its recognition by law which in Italy have been solved only at the end of the year 2017. 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The city logistics has become an important development in urban freight development. With the numbers of trucks keep on increasing, the congestions become much worst and the environment also become deteriorate. City logistics enable to achieve the efficiency of delivery system in the city center. One of the main focus of city logistics is sustainability. Green logistics and reverse logistics are the main focus of the concept. City logistics need to serve varieties of customers which stays in different kind of environments. Other types of facilities available in the cities also need to serve. The complexity of city environment has made the logistics services much more complicated and difficult to arrange [1]. Delivering perishables item to the city center would require the delivery being done in a short period of time. Frequent and adequate delivery services must be made available to ensure that the citizen can be served properly. Logistics delivery in the cities need to adhere to the restriction of truck movement during a specified time. Even though such regulation may restrict the delivery process, but it needs to take into considerations for the logistics delivery to be much more efficient and effective. City logistics have to plan strategically in order to achieve the economic gain in sustaining the environmental aspects of the cities.
In 2020, the urban world populations are 56%. More than half of the world populations is residing in the city area. Almost 68% of the upper middle-income group is staying in the urban area. European Union enjoy among the highest population in the urban area with 81% of its populations. However, in developing countries, the populations that lives in the urban areas is around 35–45% of the populations are residing in the urban areas. The world bank data shown that many people are preferring to stay in the urban area hence the city logistics has become important to fulfill the needs of its residents [2]. The rapid growth of cities in the world has contributed towards the increase challenges in logistics operations. It was argued the big cities population has made the logistics operations much more difficult than other cities [3].
Actors involve in city logistics can be categorized as follows: (a) shippers, (b) freight carriers, (c) receivers (d) residents, (e) other road users and (f) administrators [4]. The actors can be further divided into private and public sector. The public sector usually is the government administrators either the national or local government. The shippers, freight carries and residents can be considered as the private group [5]. Each of these actors has their own interest and responsibilities. There are differences between these actors and it need to be considered in planning for the city logistics activities. Shippers can be categorized as retailers, wholesalers and manufacturers. Shippers would require a high frequency of deliveries in order to meet the objectives of the company. In order to meet the objectives, shippers would require a quality service from the freight carriers. Shippers would inform the required delivery time however the service providers would determine the timing and routing for the delivery. The service providers need to consider many factors especially the delivery windows set by the receivers and also to adhere any restrictions imposed in the city center. It is a complex task for the service providers since they have to fulfill the needs of both suppliers and also the receivers [6]. The service provider would focus on reducing the operating costs while making any delivering and collecting of cargo in the city center. Even though obtaining a high profit might be the main objectives of services providers, they would not compromise with the service quality provided to their customers. The citizen who stays in the cities would definitely would like to experience less trucks operations in the city thus would be able to reduce the congestions and also the pollution in the cities. The citizen would love to control the externalities for a sustainable city. The receivers would set an agreement with the service providers in determining the time for delivery to their premises. The main determination of the receivers is to receive the goods on time, with reliable, cheap safe and door to door service. The government need to establish policies that not only acceptable to the citizen but also to the shippers and also service providers. The government have to consider all the actors before implementing those policies since it would have impact to the actors. On the hand, the actors and the government involve have to work together to ensure that the city logistics operations would be at the acceptable level of service and costs, so that it would remain competitive and also sustainable for the cities. Addressing the environmental impact such as congestions and pollution need to be the main concern of the actors in ensuring a sustainable city logistics operation.
The main focus for every actor in relation to the city logistics are totally different form one and another since every approach taken have contribute to the logistics activities [7]. The public sector main focus would to reduce the pollution, congestions and also to improve the road safety in the city centre since many freight vehicles moves in the city [8]. The shippers would focus on service efficiency and reliability [9]. As for the receivers in the city center mainly would like to have a comfortable and sustainable living environment with less hassle in moving in the city. The freight carriers need to reduce the cost of the deliveries and at the same time developing new distribution network for more efficient operations [10].
With the different stakeholders in the city logistics operations, it is important to discuss the objectives while planning for city logistics operations. The objectives can be divided into (a) public objectives and (b) private objectives [11]. The public objectives are concerned in ensuring the public needs are being taken care and the city logistics operations would affects their quality of life. The public objectives also looking into the economics sustainability. The private objectives which usually covers the need of the shipplers and service providers would be focusing on the operations efficiency and also ensuring the they would be albe to increase their profits. The different objectives have made it difficult to developed a policy which would fulfill the interests of all stakeholders [12]. To develop the right strategies, all the stakeholders have to work together in finding and implementing strategies that would benefits all stakeholders. They must be involved in every stage of strategies development so that whatever understanding and concern they have can be embedded in the strategies. By working together, the public and private objectives can be comprehended to ensure the urban mobility environmental sustainability and economic sustainability can be achieved. The stakeholders have an effect towards each other. Hence it is critical to ensure the balance between the different requirement of each actor.
The development of e-commerce has changed the supply chain than logistics design in the city. Before e-commerce, the turnover of inventory is longer and can easily be predicted. E-commerce has changed the expectation of the receivers in the city center. E-commerce has changed the way for the traditional retail business to increase their profit [13]. It has also urged the retail company to sought for a new and more dynamic business models in order to their business to be more sustainable. UNCTAD estimated e commerce sales at $25.6 trillion in 2018, increased by 8% compare to the year 2017. The development of digital business and solutions contributed towards these figures. The biggest countries with the highest sales in e commerce business are the United States of America, China and United Kingdom. From that figure the e commerce value for B2C e commerce sales was $4.4 trillion which representing 17% of the total e commerce sales. Compared to $1.9 trillion in 2014. It was estimated more than 1.4 billion people shopped online and it comes from all parts of the world [14]. With these numbers, it has become very much more critical for the citizen to be more involve in determining the city logistics concept in their respective cities. Price, quality of service time and other quality aspects need to be focus especially for the last mile delivery in the city center [15]. With the current trends, it is expected the last mile delivery to consumes residents will become very much more important comparing to the delivery process to the retail outlet in the city center. Small parcel delivery will be more significant with the need to have small trucks, van or motorcycle for deliveries and more frequent delivery would be the new trends in last mile deliveries.
Quick and fast delivery has become critical and the service providers need to adapt to the changes of the supply chain, Many service providers need to offer 1 day delivery service in order to fulfill the customer requirements. Operational excellence has become important in supporting the ecommerce development. The logistics services need to be closer to citizen population. The traditional logistics services need to change to be more dynamic to service the citizen [16]. The traditional supply chain would deal with a longer inventory replenishment. With the younger generation dominating the cities, more online shopping has occurred and they really needed the quick and fact delivery from the service providers. With many cities has increase the speed of its internet connection, the online shopping also has increased gradually [15]. The last mile delivery is made either to the home of office of the receivers. This has made the service providers need to delivered the goods to different buildings and environments which has required them to change some of the traditional delivery methods.
The development of technology and apps has made sharing economy become an important element in city logistics development. A shared economy model allows consumers to share creation, production, distribution, trade, and consumption of goods and services [17]. The main element in economic sharing is mutual cooperation. With the development of digital approaches especially with the introduction of apps, it has allowed everyone to be connected which enable them to share either service or products. E-hailing and p-hailing (parcel hailing) services are the examples of economic sharing model which has so successful for the past 5 years. The users use the platform to orders a service from a supplier or food provider and a third party perform the delivery which being chosen from the app’s platform itself. In some occasion, the services can be share between different users for split the cost of using the services [16].
Two important differences in performing the sharing economy model are collaborative consumption and collaborative business [15]. Collaborative consumptions is a process where people share the access to products or services without having to own the product or services. This can be done by using the platform provided by the internet. In other perspective Collaborative consumption can be defined as the peer-to-peer-based activity of getting, providing, or sharing the accessibility to goods and services, through a coordinated community-based online services [18]. As for collaborative business, it focusing on sharing the same infrastructure and services with its competitors. Again, with the usage of technology, the logistics providers are able to share any available assets and capacities among the competitors in order to give more options to the customers [19]. Sharing of resources would need a greater requirement for consolidation of goods and this will enhance the percentage of capacity utilization. This sharing concept can reduce the number of cargo movements, number of fleets required and also to reduce the empty leg journey between the participating logistics providers. The new economic concept would base to the on-demand concept and efficient usage of internet will allow to match the demand and supplier in more effective manner. The concept of making the service to be available instantly can be achieved [20].
The firm involving with the total supply chain have to alert with the new trends that might be available in the near future. Since the Covid 19 pandemic in the beginning of 2020, many new trends have taken place. Pharmaceutical product such as self-test kit for detecting Covid 19 has become a critical product in many cities and countries. To ensure the sustainability of the city logistics operations, aggressive information collection on the new activities that has an impact towards the customer buying behavior have to be identified. The new buying behavior would be the new trend to ensure the sustainability of city logistics services. Failure to understand the new trend in purchasing power of the customers, would delay the improvement that city logistics operators need to implement. Hence it would affect the sustainability of the city logistics operations itself.
Cities all around the world needs to protect the sustainability of its cities. The logistics regulations and polices implemented usually would be looking into solving these challenges which are environmental sustainability, social sustainability and economical sustainability [6]. The environmental sustainability is on air pollution, social sustainability are the fatalities, noise road safety and economical sustainability is about unreliable services and delivery delays. Improving the efficiency for the goods movements has been the main focus of city logistics. City logistics has an affect towards the citizen living in the cities such as accidents and pollutions, the service providers which reducing their revenue because of the restrictions of movements and the world, based on the contribution of transport to global warming [21]. Restrictions on trucks in the city center has been one of the most effectives ways to reduce the challenges in the city. The restrictions are seen as the best way to reducing number of trucks during the peak period hence would help in alleviating the pollution. It has also avoided the trucks to compete with other modes in using the limited space available. However, this restriction has also impeded the trucks operations which would jeopardize the service level of the service providers hence would affect the delivery time to the citizen.
The last delivery to the receivers is known as the last mile delivery. Apart from the sustainable challenges, city logistics also need to deal with the last mile problems. The receivers might receive many deliveries per day. This would create a difficult delivery process. The receivers may receive its goods from several vendors, if consolidation between vendors can be done, it would reduce the number of deliveries to the respective receivers. Restrictions on deliveries has also created many challenges in city logistics operations. Many receivers would not approve if the deliveries to be made at night, thus this would increase the number of congestions during peak period during the day [22]. If the receivers are at home, the delivery might be inefficient since the delivery involve small parcels. However, with the development of ecommerce, small parcel deliveries have become very much critical.
The most crucial challenges in city logistics are the restrictions that have to be obeyed by the logistics service providers. The focus is to ensure the effective movement for the last and first mile delivery [23]. A lot of rules, regulations and restrictions need to be adhered by any service providers. Failure to fulfill these set of regulations will affect the city logistics deliveries. The regulations would different from one city to another [24]. However, the comments challenges are the window for making the deliveries, green zone area, predestination or active transport zone areas and much ore. This would make some destinations not accessible for the service providers. To ensure the last mile deliveries can be performed efficiently, the service providers need to consider the diversity of the receivers in the city centre. Different types of houses, office locations and industrial areas has enhanced the complexity of deliveries [11]. The last deliveries to the inner cities have become very much difficult due to the restrictions and it requires small parcels to be delivered more frequently in order to fulfill the demand.
The main challenges in providing city logistics deliveries are to ensure that the unsustainable impact can be minimize. However, transport and logistics has always been known has a negative impact on sustainability aspects. The negative impacts usually go the environmental issues. The environmental issues lie on people, profit and planet [11]. With many actors involves in the city logistics activities, many conflicting decisions on its operations may arises. Traffic congestions, pollutions and noise might have a severe effect on people in the cities. The restrictions on regulations for the deliveries will have an impact towards the efficiency of deliveries which will reduce the profitability of the service providers and the planet will be affected through the global warming and pollutions [25]. The diversity of actors in city logistics operations has indicated the differences on the needs of each actor in making the cities more sustainable. The administrators’ main objective is to develop and maintain a livable city. Reducing the traffic congestions, reducing the air pollutions and reducing the noise level are the main target of the administrators. So, the regulations and restrictions implemented is to achieve the objectives. As for the carriers and logistics providers, their main objective to ensure the delivery of products can be done as efficiently as possible. They need to plan the deliveries according the regulations and restriction imposed by the administrators of the cities. With different regulations in different cities, the utilization of the capacity of the vehicles used may have an impact towards planning the delivery operations. Hence, the cost of delivery also may increase [26, 27]. The shippers would definitely need their product to be delivered on time since this will enhance the image of the shippers. The receivers of the city logistics service would require a reliable and efficient logistics service providers to delivery their products but with a minimum disruption to the environment. The other residents need to have a city with less pollutions and acceptable noise level from the transport that make the deliveries.
Another main challenge in city logistics is to understand the changes in consumer behavior. It is critical to understand consumer behavior since it consists of how the consumers choose and set priority on the products or services they consume. With the e-commerce has become an important trend in city logistics, it has increased the globalizations aspects of products that reach in any cities. Technology and the internet have changed the consumer behavior. Ordering process can be done at any time and any place [28]. The deliveries are expected to be done as quickly as possible. Thus, this has made the increase of demand which requires a flexibility in supply of the product. The e-commerce has demanded a new distribution channel and the last mile distribution has become very much complex and need to handle in effective manner. The number of parcel delivery logistics companies has been increasing since the rapid development of the usage of internet. This has also changed the type of product being delivery through this company. Food and groceries have been included in the last mile deliveries of city logistics which previously more focus on books, clothing and appliances.
With these challenges, the city logistics need to ensure that the policy that supports the operations of the trends need to be available. The administrator of the cities needs to carefully plan the type of policy that have to be updated. In certain situation, some new policies might need to be introduced to ensure that the city could support the new trend development. For the city to be sustainable, new logistics operations approaches have to be in place since the new trends might require a fresh type of logistics handling. The sustainability aspects are not only for the city logistics operators but also for the receivers benefits since the operations of city logistics would depends on the continuous buying from the receivers in the city center. The policy and regulations need to benefit not only the city logistics operators but also to the receivers. If the receivers are not satisfied with the services provided, repeat purchase might now happened and it would affect the sustainability of the city logistics operations.
Logistics facilities can be categorized as any buildings that is used for storage and warehousing activities. These facilities need to have a good accessibility infrastructure, in order words the buildings need to close to transport infrastructure. As for city logistics, it needs to be close with road network [29]. With the rapid development in city logistics operations, the density city of the warehouse is varying. It could be a huge building to a small office just to cater for a specific area for deliveries. The huge warehouse facilities usually located at the outskirt of the urban areas. This would enable the sorting and consolidating activities to be conducted. Then the service providers would establish a smaller office for the delivery of the specific locations. The hub for these areas has been developed in order to have a more effective delivery system [30]. The hub and spoke concept have been one of the concepts for the delivery process. Figure 1 illustrate the hub and spoke concept for the delivery in the city center.
Hub and spoke concept for city delivery.
The main different these hubs facilities are the size of the hub. Since city logistics would require delivery to houses and offices, the last mile deliveries usually would focus on van or motorcycles. The deliveries from the hub and the city hub would be done by trucks. The city hubs would be located at the outskirt of the cities. It would help the hub to determine the right city hub to be delivered to [1]. Parcel hub need to be located as close as possible to the receivers. Since it is located in the city itself, the parcel hub usually would small in size due to the cost of land or owning the building.
Smaller local distribution centers like the parcel hub can ensure the receivers to get their cargo faster and efficiently. Based on the Figure 1, the last mile delivery from the parcel hub to the receivers would be the important link to complete the supply chain. The last mile delivery has become more varieties nowadays. The last deliveries are no longer to house of office premises, but there are also box facilities which can be located strategically. The box facilities or also known as parcel lockers could basically a short-term solution for the delivery to be made to places where the receivers are not available at a particular time The box facilities can be located at strategic places such as petrol stations or supermarket nearby by to the residents’ houses. This would definitely reduce the problems in the last mile deliveries [31]. These boxes would enhance the contactless deliveries especially during the COVID 19 pandemic since its outbreak in end of 2019. However, the use the boxes facilities, the logistics service providers need to informed the receivers. The main communication tools would be through the mobile phones which and application (apps) can be developed for the communications between the relevant parties. Self-pickup points from e-commerce purchases have also become very much common nowadays. Even though it not a new trend in delivering products, this would reduce the number of products not being delivered. The self-pickup point also should be located near to residents’ populations [32]. With the growing numbers of self-pickup points, the logistics service providers need to ensure that the mobility and accessibility of the self-pickup points so that the delivery can be done efficiently. In countries such as Germany and France, almost 20% of parcel deliveries, 91% of the populations have the access to the self-pickup points within 10 minutes of their houses [28].
The city logistics efficiency would highly be depending on the efficiency of the last mile delivery. The receivers in the city need to have quick, easy services and the service providers have to fulfill these requirements to remain competitive in the industry. The usage of the latest technology has been seen as one of the tools for the service providers to have competitive advantage in the business. The technology enables the service provider to obtain as much relevant data as possible and analyze the data in order to make improvements in their services. The big data concept has help service providers to understand the requirements of the customer much better. Technology would enable receivers to enjoy real time tracking information, monitoring the movements of cargo, can receive information if delay occurs and other relevant information which would make the receivers feels that the cargo is always with them all the time [16]. New services can be introduced by using technology for examples crowdsourcing from drivers can be done and this would assist small companies to compete with huge organization.
As the main objectives of city logistics is to remain the sustainability of the city, a few strategies can be implemented to help to sustain the environment. Introducing a specific requirement on type of trucks that can operate in the city center can be one of the approaches [21]. Trucks which fulfill the requirements will be given some identification so that they can operates in the city center. Apart from that developed specific regulations to manage urban freight movements should be in place. By managing the urban logistics, freight deliveries can be effectively rather than implementing strict restrictions for the deliveries. New zoning system can be incorporated to manage the freight deliveries. Locating the right locations for urban distribution center and also parking area can assists the effectiveness of the last mile deliveries. By having pick up and drop off boxes in strategic area, can reduce the number deliveries to houses and also office premises. This means the need of consolidating the cargo need to done and the concept of parcel hub before the last mile delivery process can be done successfully. Another difficult task to perform but will provide good result is encouraging deliveries during off peak period. This means the services providers need to change its operations time. However, this need to be agreed between the service providers and also the receivers. This approach can be effective if the government provide incentives not only to the service providers but also to the receivers as well.
The new strategies in the city logistics, could be more effective and efficient with the introduction of the new technologies to support the changes. The development of IR4.0 has made city logistics very much vulnerable to changes. City logistics need to embrace digital changes for the operations to be very much efficient. It is well known that big data, automation and digital connectivity has become the new crucial way in performing excellent city logistics operations [16]. The acceleration of cargo volume, velocity, the differences in real-time data which continuing very high important information has become the main focus. With this acceleration, the need to change all the data in meaningful decision making has become a reality and a critical technological enhancement to improve city logistics [33].
City logistics requires innovation in delivering and receiving of cargo if the new strategies implementation to be successful. A synchronous movement of cargo by separating the delivery time from the time cargo receive by customers. With development of IR4.0, automated and autonomous delivery system in the city logistics operations has been developed rapidly. The delivery by using drones, droids and automatic vehicles has been connected with automation efforts. Drones has been one of the latest approaches in making delivery in the city environments. It has been proven that drones are able to reduce the C02 emission in the city center [34]. However, to make drones delivery very much more practical, and integrated movement between road vehicles such as van and small trucks would enhance the efficiency of city logistics delivery since drones can be used for the definite last mile delivery. Even though drones can be seen as an interesting way of performing the very last mile delivery, there a few challenges that the drone’s operators need to overcome. One of the problems, drones could be efficient for a very small package delivery. Ina research study, a number of 16 drones are needed to make a delivery for a van operation. Apart from that, a minimum space for landing and take-off must be available at the receivers’ locations. If the receivers live in high rise apartment, this space might not be available. Other issues also need to adhere such as the security aspects, noise pollution, changing the current air space regulation and difficult to operation during bad weather could jeopardize the efficient operations of drones [35].
Apart from drones for the last mile delivery, many firms have the initiates to introduce road base autonomous vehicle deliveries or AVs. Many studies have been conducted to deliver different kind of product from pizza, grocery and medical supplies. Many types of AVs have been develop [36, 37]. These new delivery systems are estimated to reduce the delivery costs by 50% also and reduce congestions by 4% since the AVs are able to provide with better driving attitude with a good navigation system [38]. The usage of robot has also been another new technology alternatives in making deliveries. Is has also reduce the number of environmental issues, Congestions and also the delivery cost.
All the new digital technology implemented for making last mile delivery has shown that it will help to make the city center more sustainable. Air pollution, noise pollution, congestions and also cost of operations has been indicated can be reduced by using these new technologies. However, the initial cost of capital needs to plan so that the cost is not too expensive for the operators and firm to invest since it would attract more company to invest on the new digital system if the initial cost is not too high. This would be crucial for cities that are located in developing countries since capital investment will be one of the important criteria to make the investment decision, even though the system will benefit the firm operations in the long run. For the automation to successfully implemented in the city logistics operations, the development of internet of Things need to in place. IoT would enable cloud computing, artificial intelligent and data collection to assists the city logistics operations. These new technologies would ensure the real time information analysis can be further used in city logistics operations [39].
A new concept in introducing Interconnected City Logistics has the aim to improve economic, environmental and societal efficiency. The concept of Interconnected city logistics is supported by the physical internet. Physical Internet is aspired by the internet itself where information and communication technology help data to travel as quickly as possible. Physical internet is developed by redesigning the logistics activities which suites the efficiency and sustainability challenges [40]. Interconnected City logistics is focusing on nine core concepts. These concepts need to synthesize with the digitalization to make is more successful. The core concept is [41]:
cities as nodes of the world’s logistics web
cities by system standardization
the multi-faceted activities of city logistics
city logistics networks in a city web architecture
the multiplicity of urban logistics centre
city logistics stakeholders into an open system
goods through modular logistics containers
people mobility and freight logistics in the city
city logistics with urban planning
One of the tools to ensure this concept is successful implemented is the usage of internet of things. Digital platforms need to be available to ensure that the connectivity is efficient which would assist in making better decision regarding city logistics delivery in the digitalization era.
Sustainable city logistics has become a global challenge. A good operations and management of city logistics has been a great important in many cities. Rapid growth of the population, increasing online business and more complex logistics demand had contributed to the enhancement of city logistics challenges. The development in social, environmental and economic has also contribute towards the city logistics activities. The new trend and challenges have challenged the capabilities of the city logistics providers to meet the new demand from the customers in the city center. Last mile delivery has undergone new changes and local parcel hub has become more desirable for deliveries since the receivers are not at home especially during weekdays delivery. The need to cater for the new demand has made the logistics operators to be more agile in making the last mile delivery.
With the new developments, new infrastructure and better utilization of space in the city center need to be upgraded. If this focus not been addressed, it would affect the efficiency of the logistics activities such as the, loading g and unloading activities for the last mile deliveries. The implemented of smart technology could assists in enhancing the efficiency of the city logistics operations. Internet of things (IoT) artificial intelligent, drone deliveries and other relevant technologies need to be the important investment for the logistics operators to operate efficiently in the city center. Apart from technology, the collaboration between the actors in the city logistics operators also be the main factors from the success of city logistics.
Heavy metals (HM) represent a group of metallic elements and metalloids characterized by a relatively density higher than 5 g/cm3, an atomic number greater than 20 and with properties like conductance of heat, current and luster surface [1, 2, 3].
Pollution or contamination of the environment with heavy metals is a major concern, due to their capacity to bioaccumulate and persistence in the environment, non-biodegradable nature, contaminate the food chains and their toxicity on the environment and living organisms (humans, animals and plants) [1, 2, 3]. Heavy metal toxicity is a concern of ecological, nutritional, evolutionary and environmental reasons [1].
Heavy metals are among the most investigated pollutants and received a higher attention by researchers, because of their toxicity [2, 4]. These elements are naturally present in the environment, but on which modern industrialization and urbanization, anthropogenic activities and use of fertilizers, led to increased levels of these metals in the environment and implicitly to a high exposure of living things to them [2, 5]. Among the heavy metals and the most toxic metalloids are chromium, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, lead, nickel, copper, zinc, but the most common heavy metals in the environment are chromium, manganese, nickel, lead, cadmium, copper and zinc [2].
Regarding their functions in biological systems, heavy metals can be essential and nonessential. The nonessential heavy metals do not possess biological functions in living organisms, being non-essential to metabolic system, both for plants and animals. Their category includes lead, cadmium, mercury, aluminum and arsenic [2, 6, 7], being able to exert toxic effects even at low concentrations [8]. The essential heavy metals are elements, which are indispensable for plant and animals, which play a vital role in biological processes and entire metabolism and may be required in living organism in different concentrations [2, 8]. These heavy metals are considered as trace elements because of their presence in trace concentrations (less than 10 ppm) in different environmental matrices [9]. The essentiality and toxicity of the trace metals depending on the dose of exposure [10]. This category includes 19 elements, among which the most important are manganese, iron, copper, zinc, nickel and chromium [2].
Trace elements or trace minerals are minerals necessary for the body, but in amounts between 1 and 100 mg/day for adults and represents less than 0.01–0.02% of the total body weight [10, 11, 12]. When they exceed these threshold concentrations, they become dangerous to the health of living organisms [1].
According to WHO classification, trace elements can be divided into three groups, such as essential elements (zinc, iodine, molybdenum, copper, selenium, chromium), probably essential elements (manganese, silicon, boron, vanadium, nickel) and potentially toxic elements (lead, cadmium, fluorine, mercury, aluminum, arsenic, barium, lithium, tin [13, 14].
Another classification of the trace elements was made by Frieden in 1981, based on their levels in biological tissues, being divided into 3 groups, namely essential trace elements (boron, cobalt, copper, iodine, manganese, molybdenum, zinc), probably essential trace elements (chromium, fluorine, nickel, selenium, vanadium) and physically promotive trace elements (bromine, lithium, silicone, tin) [13, 15].
The present chapter presents the characteristics of heavy metals, the main sources of heavy metal contamination of the environment, as well as human exposure sources. The impact of their toxicity on various environmental segments, such as water, air, soil, as well as on living organisms, animals, but especially humans, has also been described.
Heavy metals contamination of environment can come both from natural sources and from anthropogenic processes. Natural emissions of heavy metals include volcanic eruptions, rock weathering, sea-salt sprays, forest fires, biogenic sources, wind-borne soil particles and can be found in the nature as oxides, hydroxides, silicates, sulphates, sulphides, phosphates, organic compounds [4].
Anthropogenic processes which can release heavy metals in different environmental compartments, are industries, agriculture (insecticides, pesticides which can release As), fossil fuels combustion (Ni, V, Hg, Se, Sn), wastewater, mining, smelting (As, Cu, Zn), corrosion, metallurgical processes, residual organic matter, transportation (Pb) [4, 7, 16].
Heavy metals can produce side effects on soil, on water, on air, but also on plants, animals and humans [3, 4, 17]. In soil, high levels of heavy metals can produce alteration of soil quality through modification of pH, color, porosity and natural composition [4, 18], but also low crop production, loss of many types of normal flora and habitat [19]. Their accumulation into the water imposes serious problems on humans and ecosystems [4], due to decreasing of drinking water quality and purity, decreasing water supplies for all living organisms [19]. High levels of heavy metals in air can lead to harmful health problems, including respiratory infections, cardiovascular disease, premature mortality, eyes and skin irritation, but also can cause infrastructure deterioration, acid rain increasing, corrosion, eutrophication and haze [4], low yields of the crop, not enough oxygen [19]. In plants, they can produce damage of roots or leaves, interfere in important biochemical process, such as photosynthesis, alteration of minerals absorption, damage of chlorophyll, reduce the growth and development of the roots, which leading to reduction pf overall growth of the plant [3, 20, 21].
The toxicity of heavy metals in animal is manifested through decreased body weight, kidney damage, liver affections, shortened life span, increased oxidative stress, modifications of cells composition, DNA damage [17]. In humans they can produce kidney damage, liver affections, pulmonary effects, several types of cancer [3].
Heavy metals became toxic when are not metabolized by the body and accumulates in organs and soft tissues [4]. They reach the human body by ingesting contaminated water or food, inhalation of absorption through the skin. Among the pathways, ingestion in the common route that helps the heavy metals to enter to the animal bodies [3, 4]. The effect of this metals can be inhibitory, stimulatory and toxic for some biochemical processes [3], being able to produce various health problems on nervous system (Alzheimer, Parkinsoma, depression, dementia), on bone system (bone mineralization) an on reproductive system. Also, can produce DNA damage, RNA affection, or cancer of lungs, skin, bladder, due to production of ROS [3]. Their toxicity depends the dose of exposure, time of exposure, pollutant concentration, organism which are exposed to it, nature and oxidation state of the metal [3, 4].
Lead is the most important toxic heavy metal in the environment because can cause serious environmental contamination and health problems [1, 10]. The main sources of environmental contamination including industrial processes, such as fossil fuel burning, mining, smelting, manufacturing, recycling activities. It is also used for leaded pipes, lead-glazed or lead-soldered containers, leaded paint, leaded gasoline, leaded aviation fuel [10, 22].
The inorganic lead can enter into the human body by inhalation (pulmonary absorption) of contaminated air or by smoking (15%), or by ingestion (gastrointestinal absorption) of food (65%) and water (20%) [1, 3, 22, 23]. Although organic compounds are absorbed through skin, inorganic compounds cannot be absorbed [10].
According to the WHO guidelines, the international level of concern of poisoning with lead is 25 μg/dl of blood for adults and for children, it must be less than 5 μg/dl of blood [23]. Their absorption is influenced by the age and physiological status of the exposed person [22].
However, the nervous system is most affected by exposure to high concentrations of lead, in both children and adults. Because children absorb 4–5 times more ingested lead, it can cause impaired neurobehavioral development, learning disabilities, speech and language handicaps, poor attention span, lower IQ, diminished intelligence, anti-social behavior [10, 22]. At high concentration, lead can produce coma, convulsions and even death on children and may be left with mental retardation and behavioral disorders [10]. In adults it can be manifested headache, poor attention, irritability, loss of memory, dullness [9, 22]. Increased absorption rate was observed when other nutrients such as calcium or iron are lacking. Even at lower concentrations, known as safe levels, children face learning or behavioral problems, decreased intelligence in children [10]. Although it mainly affects the nervous system, the largest amount of lead is found in the kidneys [9, 22].
Research has shown that this heavy metal can cross the placental barrier in pregnant women who have high levels of it in the blood, causing fetal abnormalities such as low IQ level, encephalopathy, neurological disorders, disruption of calcium levels in nerve cells [3]. Pregnant women exposed to lead, can manifest miscarriage, premature birth, reduced birth weight, stillbirth [10, 22].
After absorption, 99% of lead is bound to the hemoglobin, being circulated through the vascular system to soft tissues, bones, liver, kidneys (organs of lead excretion), hair [3, 10, 19], being stored especially in teeth and bones (where in incorporated into the mineral in place of calcium) [10, 22]. The stored Pb can be reintroduced into the bloodstream, especially during pregnancy, exposing the fetus [10].
Lead can produce lungs disorders, reduced pulmonary function, anemia, liver damage, cardiovascular dysfunction, renal impairment, immunotoxicity, disturbance of the balance free radicals-antioxidant system, cognitive impairments [1, 5, 10, 17]. Anemia occurs as a result of the interaction that this metal has with the important enzymes involved in the synthesis of hemoglobin, enzymes that are responsible and transport oxygen. Thus, by retardation of these enzymes, the hemoglobin concentration is reduced [3]. At high concentration, it can produce high risk of hypertension, gastrointestinal disorders, Alzheimer’s disease, kidneys damage, interfere in vitamin D metabolism and thyrotoxicity, by affecting the normal function of thyroid gland, [3, 19, 22].
In people with high levels of lead in the blood, there was an impairment of sexual function, manifested by decreased libido, decreased sperm count and their mobility, changes in sperm composition [3, 22].
Also, this metal can cause changes at cellular level, such as decreased cell viability, cell distortion, reduced cohesion, lipid peroxidation, damage of protein folding, stop structural protein synthesis, intra- and inter-cellular signaling, apoptosis, ionic transportation, especially of calcium, cell adhesion, release of neurotransmitters, inhibiting enzymes activity, inhibits mineral absorption, affecting the activities of mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum, decreases level of glutathione, generation of reactive oxygen species or reducing antioxidants [1, 3, 17, 22]. Lead has ability to inhibit or mimic the activity of calcium and perturbs their intracellular cycling, may interfere with proteins, can be bound to biological molecules and interfering with their function by various mechanisms [22].
Studies demonstrated that lead can produce genetic damage by mechanisms which include inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair, oxidative damage, being considered by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a probable human carcinogen [22].
Studies performed on animal models have shown altered homeostasis, induced kidney damage, decreases of antioxidant levels, decreased body weight, shortened life span, increases of total protein, albumin, histamine, creatinine, decreased red blood cells count [5, 17].
Cadmium is an industrial compound, used in plastic industry, for obtaining plastic stabilizer, but also for production of color pigments, alloys (being a by-product of zinc production), glass production, electroplating industries, welders, rechargeable batteries (about three-fourths of cadmium production). Others important sources include emissions from industrial activities, such as mining or smelting [1, 5, 9, 19, 22, 24].
Exposure to cadmium is achieved by ingestion of food or water, inhalation of contaminated dust, especially for employers which work in primary metal industries or in cadmium-contaminated places, or by smoking cigarettes [3, 5, 10, 19, 22]. Because this metal could not penetrate the skin barrier, dermal exposure not represent a health concern [10].
The main way of exposure for smokers is the smoking, while, for non-smokers, the primary source of exposure is food, such as peanuts, crustaceans and mollusks, leafy vegetables, sunflower seeds, cocoa powder, rice, grains, soybeans, mushrooms, potatoes [3, 10, 22, 25]. Biomonitoring studies have shown that in the case of cigarette smokers, blood and urine levels were generally high, moderate in former smokers and in non-smokers they were reduced [22]. This is related the capacity of this metal to accumulate in high concentrations in tabaco leaves [5, 26]. Their toxicity depends both, the dose of exposure and the exposure time [3]. The percentage of cadmium, absorbed after ingestion is 5–10%, but in diets with a low intake of iron, calcium or protein, the percentage absorbed is higher [10].
In case of occupational workers, in industries which uses this metal, inhalation is the primary way of exposure, so that a percentage of 5–35% of inhaled cadmium is absorbed into the blood, depending the form, particle size, or site of deposition. If this metal reaches the level of the alveoli, its absorption into the blood could be 100% [10]. Their chronic exposure has been associated with changes in pulmonary function, emphysema, decreases in olfactory function [22].
The most toxic form is divalent cadmium ion (Cd2+), which is the most common form and may disturb the basic cellular functions and can cause various side effects [3, 22]. This element can cause side effects even at low concentrations, due to its low excretion rate [17, 27].
Also, it has the capability to replace iron and copper in different cytoplasmic and membrane proteins, and these unbounded substituted metals participate in oxidative stress processes, due to their increased levels [17].
When it binds to cysteine-rich proteins, its concentration inside the body increases 3000 times, forming compounds, such as metallothionein, which can produce hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity [1, 3]. If attached to compounds such as histidine, glutamate or cysteine, it can cause iron deficiencies. As a result of exposure, the immune system and endocrine system is affected, even at a young age [3].
Studies have shown that women have higher levels of cadmium than men, and pregnant women have more levels than non-pregnant women. Cadmium does not cross the placental barrier, and remains trapped in it, preventing it from affecting the prenatal exposure of the fetus [3].
The target organs for cadmium are the liver, bones, vascular system, nerve tissues, but especially the kidneys, leading to their damage or malfunction [3, 17, 19, 28]. As their concentration inside the kidneys increases, the rate of calcium excretion from the body is high, which means an increased risk of kidney stones [3, 17, 29]. Also, its renal excretion causes damage to the renal tubules and tubular disfunction by promoting oxidative stress in proximal tubular cells [3, 17].
In case of acute ingestion, symptoms such as vomiting, vertigo, abdominal pain, burning sensation, muscle cramps, shock, loss of consciousness, nausea, convulsions appear in 15–30 min. Because this heavy metal is a severe pulmonary and gastrointestinal irritant, erosion of the intestinal tract, diseases of pulmonary, hepatic or renal or coma could appear, depending the route of poisoning [22].
The exposure to low levels, may affect the prostatic lipid metabolism and the increasing of the fatty acids used to synthesis of phospholipids, with effects on the composition and functions of the plasma membrane [3].
High levels of cadmium in the blood cause a decrease in bone density, especially in pregnant women. Also, it can produce Itai-itai bone disease, which is characterized by painful degenerative bone disease (such as osteomalacia and osteoporosis), renal tubular abnormalities, calcium and phosphate excretion, lung cancer [5, 10, 30].
Chronic exposure can cause effects such as anemia, emphysema, osteoporosis, renal disorders, anosmia, chronic rhinitis, but also have a depressant effect, by changing the levels of serotonin, norepinephrine or acetylcholine [3, 22].
By accumulating in the pancreas and blood, the both exocrine and endocrine function of the pancreas is affected, resulting in a reduction in serum insulin. It may also affect the pancreas to resisting the secretion of insulin, and producing diabetes type 2. Research has shown that it can affect adipose tissue and can lead to obesity. Research has shown that exposure to this element can alter the balance of pituitary hormones. On reproductive system, Cd can affect the synthesis of testosterone and progesterone, spontaneous abortion, low birth weight, changes and apoptosis of germ cells, reducing of semen quality, damage of DNA of sperm cells, apoptosis of Sertoli cells [3].
Long term exposure to cell, it could transform normal cell into malignant cells. Because it contributes to the development of certain types of cancer, such as lung, prostate, pancreatic or kidney cancer, especially in case of occupational exposure, it has been classified as no. 1 human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer USA [3, 5, 17, 22, 31]. Rodent studies have demonstrated the capacity of this metal to causes pulmonary adenocarcinomas or prostatic proliferative lesions, leading to adenocarcinomas [22].
At the cellular level, Cd disrupts the respiratory chain of the mitochondria, involved in transport across cell membranes and cell damage through production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), blocking calcium channels, hinders sulfhydryl enzymes, interacts with some cell ligands, promote lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation. It also affects oxidative phosphorylation pathways, mitochondrial genes involved in cell apoptosis, reducing the ATP level and the energy production. This heavy metal affects the activity of some antioxidant enzymes, such as glutathione reductase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase. Also, cadmium could interact with DNA and may reduce its binding capacity or repair, DNA damage or disruption of synthesis of nucleic acid or proteins [3, 17, 22, 24].
Animal studies have shown that it can produce disorders in the metabolism of zinc, copper and calcium, being able to decrease their absorption and resulting in low dietary intake [5, 32, 33]. The hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity of Cd was also observed, after administration of certain doses of cadmium [5, 33]. At cellular level, changes in cell-cell adhesion, autophagic response, changes in cellular signaling pathways, cell death [5], mitochondrial swelling, decrease in antioxidant levels, increases in urinary proteins, more vacuoles and lysosomes in proximal tubule cells were observed [17].
Arsenic is one of the most important heavy metals, with property of a semi metallic, is found in nature in the form of metalloid (As0) inorganic and organic form, and arsine (AsH3) [1, 17, 22, 34]. The main inorganic forms include the trivalent form, arsenite (As3+), and the pentavalent form, arsenate (As5+). Among the organic compounds of arsenic are the methylated metabolites, such as monomethylarsonic acid (MMA), dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) and trimethylarsine oxide [9, 22]. Inorganic arsenic compounds, found in water is more toxic than organic compounds, found in seafood, which is less harmful [1, 10, 17, 23, 35]. Studies demonstrated thar trivalent arsenite is 2–10 times more toxic than pentavalent arsenate [22]. The order of increasing toxicity of arsenic compounds is the following, organic arsenicals < metalloid (As0) < inorganic forms (As5+ < As3+) < arsine [5, 36, 37].
Arsenite, which is prevalent and more mobile, has the capability to bind to thiol or sulfhydryl groups of proteins and inactivate more than 200 enzymes, with effects on different organ systems, but also to inhibits the uptake of glucose into cells, fatty acid oxidation, production of acetyl coenzyme A, gluconeogenesis, synthesis of glutathione reductase and thioredoxin reductase. Arsenate can replace phosphate, involved in biological processes, including the transport system [3, 17, 22, 23, 38]. Environmental pollution with this heavy metal, occur as a result of volcanic eruptions, soil erosion or some anthropogenic activities [9, 22]. It is used to obtain industrially products, such as, insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, algicides, smelting, mining, sheep dips, ceramics and glass making, wood preservatives, refining of metallic ores, paints, dye stuffs or for some medicinal treatments for syphilis, yaws, amoebic dysentery, trypanosomiasis [1, 22].
The exposure to elevated levels of inorganic arsenic occurs through ingestion (oral route) of food and water contaminated, inhalation of smoking tobacco, dust or burning smoke from arsenic-treated wood, working in a place where this metal is made or used, dermal contact and parenteral route [5, 10, 22]. Diet, and especially water, is the most important source of exposure, with an intake of about 12–50 μg/day, but the dietary requirement has been suggested to be between 12 and 25 12–50 μg/day [22, 23, 39]. Food sources of arsenic are seafood, poultry, grains (especially rice), bread, cereal products, mushrooms, dairy products [23, 40].
Exposure from air and soil is much smaller, but in areas with a high contamination, the intake through these ways may become significant [22]. Inorganic and organic compounds leave the body through renal excretion. Most of inorganic compounds are eliminated within several days, but some will remain stored for several months or even longer. Organic compounds are eliminated by the body much faster than inorganic arsenic, so most of them will leave the body in a few days [10]. After the absorption in the body, the target organs are lungs, spleen, kidneys, liver, but also, hair, skin and nails, but the last three for long-term accumulation [5].
Researcher showed a strong association between arsenic exposure and increased risks of carcinogenic and systemic health effects, including cardiovascular, dermatologic, nervous, hepatobiliary, renal, gastrointestinal and respiratory diseases [3, 9, 22]. So, in the case of poisoning, the symptoms manifested are abdominal pain, hemolysis, keratosis and hyperkeratosis, edema, gangrene and finally skin cancer [3, 23, 35]. The severity of symptoms varies depending upon the oxidation state and chemical species of arsenic, the solubility, frequency and exposure time, exposure dose, individual susceptibilities, age, gender, genetic and nutritional factors of exposed person [3, 9, 22].
It has been observed that in the case of persons exposed to high concentrations, symptoms such as developmental abnormalities, diabetes, cardiovascular and peripheral vascular disease, pulmonary disease, hearing loss, liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, melanosis, hematologic disorders (anemia, leukopenia, eosinophilia), neurologic and neurobehavioral disorders and different carcinoma have occurred [1, 9, 17, 22, 41, 42].
Long term exposure influences the promotion of carcinogenesis in various tissues or organs, so in areas with higher pollution, was observed a higher mortality rate for different types of cancers, such as kidney, skin, liver, lungs and bladder [3, 9, 10, 22]. For this reason, arsenic and arsenic compounds has been classified as carcinogenic to humans by International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) [3, 10]. Also, symptoms like, pigmentation changes, skin lesions, hyperkeratosis, was observed, which may be a precursor to skin cancer. Even at low concentration for a long time, it could change the color of the skin [1, 10]. Chronic arsenic toxicity is termed arsenicosis [1].
At lower concentration, for shorter exposure, arsenic and its compounds may cause nausea and vomiting, reduced production of erythrocytes and leukocytes, abnormal heart beat, damage of blood vessels [1].
This heavy metal could cross the placenta, particularly during early gestation, and affect the fetus, leading to adverse pregnancy outcomes, such as spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, preterm birth, low birth weight), higher infant mortality [5, 10, 43]. Numerous studies demonstrated that in utero or in childhood exposure to this metal, can lead to increases mortality in young adults due to multiple cancers, cardiovascular diseases, kidney failure, lung damage [10, 44], but also negative impact on cognitive developments, intelligence and memory [10, 45].
Their genotoxicity was demonstrated through its capacity to inhibit DNA repair, induce some chromosomal anomalies and DNA damage, sister-chromatid exchanges, arrest cells in mitosis, induce expression of some genes and gene amplification, interfere with formation of micronuclei in different cells, promote oxidative stress, altered growth factors, interfere with cell signaling pathways, inhibition of cell proliferation, promote apoptotic mechanism in various cell (monocytes, T-cells, cancer cells, melanocytes, dermal cells, keratinocytes), mitochondrial disfunctions [5, 17, 22, 46].
In addition to the ability to bind certain structures or to replace some compounds, at cellular level, arsenic compounds could inhibit the mitochondrial enzymes involved in cellular respiration, inactivate some enzymes, such as thiolase and dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase and affects the oxidative phosphorylation [22].
Animal studies released that arsenic could produce deficits of growth, altered liver and breast milk triglyceride levels [17, 47], decrease of cell viability, induced apoptosis in some cells, increased oxidative stress, increased phosphorylation [17, 48], lower levels of corticosterone receptor, reduced learning and memory [17, 49].
Mercury or hydrargyrum is a heavy metal which belong to the transition elements series of periodic table [9, 22] and exist in the nature in three chemical forms, such as elemental or metallic or elementary mercury (Hg0), inorganic mercurous (Hg+1) and mercuric (Hg+2) and organic mercury compound, methylmercury (MeHg or CH3-Hg) and ethylmercury (EtHg or CH3CH2-Hg), the last two being obtained through methylation of inorganic mercuric form by microorganisms found in water and soil [5, 9, 17, 22, 50, 51]. Each chemical form has its own toxicity and chemical properties [9, 22]. Organic Hg compounds are more harmful than inorganic Hg, the order of increasing toxicity being following: metallic mercury (Hg0) < inorganic mercuric (Hg2+) < inorganic mercurous (Hg1+) < organic compounds [5]. At room temperature, elementary mercury is a liquid with high vapor pressure and released into nature as Hg vapor, which are more hazardous than liquid form [5, 9, 23].
It is used in numerous industrial processes, including mining (for extraction of gold), electrical industry (switches, thermostats, batteries), in lamp production factories (for fluorescent light bulbs), caustic soda production, measurement instruments (thermometers, manometers, barometers, mercury switches), nuclear reactors, paint industries, antifungal agents for wood processing, fungicides in agriculture (methylmercury and ethylmercury), soaps and some skin lightening creams (as mercury chloride) [1, 5, 22, 23, 52].
This metal can reach into the body through inhalation and ingestion of food contamination, especially of fish and seafood, but also by dental amalgams (which contain over 50% elemental mercury), preventive medical practices, industrial and agricultural operations, occupational operations [17, 22].
The most absorbed chemical species are elementary and methyl mercury (Me-Hg) [5, 22]. Metallic mercury, which is highly lipophilic, is absorbed by lungs (80%) and tissues lining the mouth and then passed into the cell through cell membranes when in oxidized and became inorganic mercuric (Hg2+), highly reactive. The elementary mercury has the capacity to cross the blood-brain barrier and the placental barrier [5, 22], having a higher neurotoxicity compared to inorganic mercury, which passes the cell membrane in a slower rate, but cannot cross the blood brain barrier and placenta [5]. Metallic mercury is slightly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, the toxicity in this case being reduced [5].
Methyl mercury is easily absorbed in gastrointestinal tract (95%) and circulated in the body, where bound to thiol groups, such as cysteine, with which it can form compounds able to pass the blood brain barrier [5, 17, 53]. Toxicokinetic of ethylmercury is similar with that of methylmercury [5, 53].
Methyl mercury entered in organism through the consumption of fish [5, 54], is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract and due to its lipophilicity can pass the blood-brain barrier and placental barrier [22]. Cooking of fish does not diminish or eliminate mercury content [5]. Exposure to methyl mercury can produce mental retardation, cerebral palsy, deafness, blindness, dysarthria (especially at children exposed in utero) [17]. Instead, at higher concentration for short time, this could produce lung damage, nausea, vomiting, skin rashes, increased heart rate and blood pressure. Symptoms of organic mercury poisoning are depression, fatigue, memory problems, headache, tremors, hair loss [1].
Mercury and its compounds excretion rate depends on its oxidation state [10]. Elemental and inorganic mercury is eliminated by the kidney (urine) and minimally through gastrointestinal tract (feces), having a half-life of 30–60 days [10, 55, 56]. Organic compounds are excreted by feces, but are recirculated enterohepatic, in this case the half-life being 70 days.
Major of absorbed mercury accumulates into kidneys (where produce adverse effects on proximal tubules), hair, neurological tissues and liver [5, 22]. Because it accumulates in hair, it represents an index of exposure to methylmercury [5].
Elemental mercury exposure is associated with cough, dyspnea, fever, tremors, polyneuropathy of axonal sensor motor, malaise, gingivitis, delusions, hallucinations, mercurial erythrism, while exposure to inorganic mercury produce insomnia, renal tubular damage, wight loss, erythema, pruritus, hypersalivation, excessive perspiration [17].
Chronic mercury exposure produces neurological disorders, such as ataxia, shyness, tremors, numb limbs, memory problems, inability to speak, irritability, chewing, swallowing, muscle weakness, but also renal system disorders [1, 5, 23, 57]. Patients exposed to higher levels of methylmercury present increased tendon reflex [5, 57]. Low dose mercury can produce effects on neuronal systems, both on developing fetus and adolescent stage [17, 58], but also cell cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, which are associated with neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer and Parkinson [17, 51, 59]. At low concentration, it can affect the human endocrine system, through reduced production of thyroid gland hormone, affecting physiological functions of endocrine glands, reduced binding capacity of hormone to receptor, the most affected hormones being adrenaline, estrogen, testosterone and insulin [3].
On reproductive system, studied demonstrated their capacity to produce infertility in both, men and women. In male the spermatogenesis is affected, while in women could affect the levels of progesterone and estrogens, which produce disfunctions in ovaries, irregular menstruation and sloped uterus [5].
Because mercury can pass the placenta during pregnancy, it can affect fetus and can cause various abnormalities of the baby, such as developmental disabilities, dysplasia of the cerebral and cerebral cortexes and neuronal ectopia, especially after exposure to methylmercury [3, 5, 17, 57].
Into the cell, inorganic compounds and methylmercury interact with cysteine residues of proteins, product oxidative stress through generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can produce enzymes, nucleic acid and lipids damage and may proceed to cell death [17]. They can affect the calcium homeostasis, by increasing intracellular calcium through acceleration the influx from extracellular medium and mobilizing intracellular stores [22]. Methylmercury also interact with sulfhydryl (–SH) and selenohydryl (–SeH) groups of the proteins and could produce damage of nucleophilic groups involved in catalytic, binding and transport functions [17]. Inorganic mercury also produces reactive oxygen species (ROS) through affecting oxidative phosphorylation and electron transport [22].
A number of compounds, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium, melatonin and enzymes, including, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase, catalase, superoxide dismutase, can have a protective effect on the body through antioxidant mechanisms to reduce or avoid the formation of reactive oxygen species. Mercury genotoxicity was associated with DNA damage, conformational changes in proteins responsible for DNA repair, genetic mutations, mitotic spindle, chromosomal segregation, action on nucleic acids [22].
Aluminum, the third most common metal of the earth crust, exist in the environment in only one oxidation state (Al3+). It is naturally present in food, but also in the environment, as silicates, oxides and hydroxides. Aluminum and its compounds are poorly absorbed through ingestion and inhalation, but the rates of absorption are not yet known [1, 10].
The ways in which this metal can reach the body are ingestion, inhalation, dermal contact or drugs [3, 10, 60]. Human exposure takes place through the consumption of drinking water, food and beverages that are high in aluminum content, working in environment with high levels of this metal, hemodialysis, long term intravenous nutrition, cosmetic products, utensils and medicines which contains it, dusty environments [1, 3, 10]. Patients with kidney dialysis are more exposed to this metal, through contaminated dialysates and phosphate binders [1]. The bioavailability of aluminum from diet is influenced by its form, as well as the presence of other food constituents which help him to form complexes [10].
The primary way of excretion is through urine. Due to the its natural presence and intake from food, all people have some levels in the body, and also in the urine [10]. People suffering from kidney disease has a low rate of elimination from the body, which involves its accumulation in the body, affecting the bones and brain [1, 3]. Also, their accumulation in the body, leading to changes in proximal tubules, such as increases in number and size of lysosomes, damage of mitochondria [3].
After entry to body, aluminum accumulates in soft tissues where interact with proteins and lipids and may produce changes in their structure [3].
In case of poisoning, the principal symptoms are nausea, ulcer of mouth and skin, skin rashes pain, vomiting, diarrhea and arthritic pain [1, 3].
On nervous system, aluminum may produce loss of memory and coordination, problems with balance, neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer, dementia, Parkinson, sclerosis. The studies demonstrated that higher concentration of aluminum found in different parts of brain could initiate the development of Alzheimer disease in humans [1, 3]. This metal could form a complex with adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from neuronal cells, which can affect their signaling and cause excitotoxicity [3].
Dialysis patients treated with dialysis fluids which contain aluminum, showed neurotoxic effects, while humans exposed to high aluminum dust in the workplace, manifested aluminosis [10, 61].
Humans exposed to higher levels could manifest changes of secondary hyperparathyroidism, adynamic bone disease, osteomalacia, the last two being characterized by low bone remodeling. Their toxicity is associated with lung disorders, anemia, nervous system problems, impaired iron absorption [1]. The accumulation of aluminum in bones impaired the bone formation process, known as osteodystrophy and put antiproliferative effects on osteoblasts [3]. Workers chronically exposed to aluminum, developed contact dermatitis and irritant dermatitis [1].
At cellular level, studies conducted demonstrated that it can disturbs the homeostasis of magnesium, calcium and iron, lower cholinergic elevations, apoptotic death of neuronal cells, inhibition of enzymes involved in DNA repair, inhibition of activity of antioxidant enzymes, cross linking of DNA, affecting cell viability, plasma membrane, microvilli and cell function in cells kidney [3, 62]. This increases the peroxidation of lipids from plasma membrane, by enhancement of lipid hydroperoxides, which can reduce the molecular arrangement of lipoprotein at the surface of membrane, but, also physical and chemical properties change in high density lipid (HDL). Also, aluminum is involved in high production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which may obstruct normal process of mitochondria, initiation of inflammatory events and accumulation of iron, which induces genotoxicity in neuronal cells and death cells, affects the gene expression through interaction between aluminum and nucleic acid and monophosphate nucleotides [3].
Chromium exists in environment in oxidation states and from Cr+2 to Cr+6 [1, 3, 5, 22, 63]. It does not exist in elementary state (Cr0) [3, 22]. Trivalent oxidation state of Cr is considered more stable, followed by Cr+4. The most commonly forms are Cr+3 and Cr+6, both oxidation states being toxic to animals, humans and plants [5, 63]. Cr+3 is immobile and insoluble in water, while Cr+6 is mobile and highly soluble in water [1, 13]. The solubility of chromium depends on its pH, Cr+3 is soluble only in acidic pH, while in neutral and alkaline pH, Cr+3 gets precipitated [23].
Environmental contamination with it, occurs by oil burning, catalyst, pigments production, chromium steel, tannery facilities, but also fertilizers and sewage, because is extensively used in several industries, like metallurgy, refractory, tannins, production of paints and pigments, pulp and paper production, wood preservation [1, 9, 22]. Chromium released by the anthropogenic activities in the environment occurs mainly in the hexavalent form [22].
Human exposure occurs through ingestion of food and water which contain, inhalation, especially in case of occupational workers or by dermal contact [5, 64]. Through their bioaccumulation in the body, a variety of affections can appear, such as, dermal, renal, neurological and gastrointestinal diseases, but also development of several types of cancer, on lung, larynx, kidney, testicles, bones, bladder, thyroid [5, 65]. Chromium can affect the reproductive function in men, due to sperm count decline [19]. Ingestion of drinking water containing high level of chromium may cause tumor in stomach [3]. The target organs are lungs, but significant chromium exposure can take place through skin [3, 22].
Occupational exposure to chromium increases the risk of cancer of lung, liver, gastrointestinal tract and central nervous system, while in female workers cause abortion [3, 13, 38]. Excess of chromium can produce thyroid cancer through reduction of requirement level of thyroid hormone in the body, disrupting hormones synthesis and secretion, interfering in its metabolism or interaction with their receptors [3, 66].
Some humans are sensitive to Cr3+ and after exposure allergic reactions, including redness and swelling of the skin, can appear. This oxidation state is poorly absorbed by any way, the toxicity being attributable to Cr+6 oxidation form [22].
Ingestion of Cr+4 can cause irritation and ulcer of stomach and small intestine, anemia, disfunctions of male reproductive system and at high dose produces sever problems on nervous, respiratory and cardiovascular systems, digestive organs, excretory function [3]. Researcher studies demonstrated that high levels in water were associated with cancers of liver, lung and genitourinary system [5, 67].
Cr+6 can produce adverse effects on excretory system, reproductive system, asthma, allergy, irritation and ulcers in the stomach and small intestine, anemia, increased mortality due the development of cancer of lung, larynx, kidney, testicular, thyroid, bones [3, 5, 22, 68], and in case of excess inhalation appear irritation and ulcer of nose [3, 22]. Also, it can reduce the DNA replication, damage DNA transcription, chromosome aberrations and affection of RNA [3, 5, 69]. Inside the cell, Cr+6 is converted into Cr+5, as intermediate, and then in Cr+3, which can form complexes with proteins and DNA [1, 3]. Cr+5 and other intermediate compounds, including reactive species of carbon and oxygen, that form during the reduction of Cr+6 to Cr+3, can react with DNA [3]. When hexavalent cation reacts with cellular reductants, Cr+4 and Cr+3 can also be obtained. Cr+6 was classified as group I occupational carcinogen [5, 70].
In cell, mechanism of chromium toxicity generates reactive oxygen species (ROS), which bring cell apoptosis, damage of DNA, genomic instability [3, 5, 71], suppression of DNA synthesis and genes expression [3], but also induces hyperexpression of some antioxidant enzymes, such as, peroxidase, catalase, superoxide dismutase [23].
Their carcinogenicity and toxicity depend of concentration, time of exposure, tissue and cell type [5, 72], route of exposure (ingestion, inhalation or dermal) [10], generation of free radicals [5, 73], oxidation state and its reactivity [5, 10, 22],
Copper is a trace element, component of many enzymes, including ceruloplasmin and cytochrome C oxidase, tyrosinase and dopamine beta-hydrolase, zinc-copper superoxide dismutase (antioxidant defense) and others, having function in transport functions, detoxification, antioxidant defense, immune function, pigmentation and melanin production [10, 74]. When it is present in high levels in the body, it may become toxic [3].
Human exposure take place through its release from water carrying pipes, fungicides, cooking utensils, birth control tablets, food. Copper has the highest redox activity, which lead to production of reactive oxygen species. Also, it binds to thiol groups of proteins and cause changes in liver enzymes involved in biotransformation processes [3].
At cell level, it can change the activity of natrium (Na+)/potassium (K+) ATP-ase and change of plasma membrane permeability, due the affection of the natrium/potassium pumps and increases of level of natrium in cytoplasm [3]. Large amounts of copper are stored in the liver [74], while the target organs are nervous system organs, including ganglia, neurons, cerebellum and hippocampus [3].
Excess of copper in the body or hypercupremia, occurs naturally during pregnancy, but also by chronic exposure to it, being associated with a number of diseases including Wilson’s disease, hepatic disorders (cirrhosis, hepatitis, gastroenteritis), neurodisorders, hyperceruplasmin [3, 10, 74]. Neurodisorders produced by chronic exposure to copper include neurodegenerative disorders, like Alzheimer and Parkinson, but also Huntington disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis [3], cognitive impairment, personality and behavioral changes [74].
Cells studies demonstrated that copper is accumulated in some cancer cell, such as colon cancer cell, ovarian cancer cells, breast cancer cell, more than in normal cells. Also, at cellular level, it can cause oxidative damage of DNA, their reduction can be made by use of Cu specific chelating agents [3].
Hypocupremia or copper deficiency are represented by serum level less than normal value of 0.64–1.56 μg/mL. Extreme hypocupremia could produce Menkes disease, known as Menkes kinky hair syndrome, a genetic disorder, characterized by steely hair, due to a mutation of the transport protein mediating the copper uptake from the intestine, but also by progressive neurological deterioration and early childhood death [10].
Another trace element, zinc, is involved in over 200 enzymes, with action in immune system, catalytic and structural structures, but also, in processes like synthesis and degradation of some components, including lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, transcription and translation of polynucleotide, genetic expression, cell proliferation and differentiation, normal growth and development during pregnancy, childhood, adolescence, reduced growth rate and impaired resistance to infection [10].
Exposure to zinc of human is made by inhalation of zinc vapors and ingestion of a large overdose of zinc supplements, which contain zinc sulfate, overusing denture cream, but also by consumption of contaminated food and water [75, 76].
Zinc poisoning, at intakes higher than 100 mg/day, has been associated with abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, nausea.
Long term exposure can cause malabsorption of copper and in case of diabetics, it can affect immune function associated with diabetes mellitus [10]. Severe toxicity present symptoms like kidney injury, pancreatic function damage, liver failure, dehydration and acute gastrointestinal bleed, septic shock, lethargy, sideroblastic anemia and dizziness [74, 76]. Zinc inhalation could produce dyspnea, airway inflammation and acute respiratory distress symptom, especially in case of occupational exposure [76].
Because this metal could interfere in copper absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, leading to copper deficiency [10], chronic exposure can cause polyneuropathy and can affect bone marrow [76].
Nickel is an essential trace element for plant, animals and human, but also a chemical pollutant which exist in several oxidation states, but most common is Ni2+. In the body, it is involved in activation of some enzymes, in protein structure and function, in prolactin production [3, 10].
Environmental contamination with nickel comes from natural sources, like volcanic emissions, weathering of soils, but also from industry, being used in catalysts for automobile, electroplating, electroforming, jewelry production, medical prostheses, production of nickel-cadmium batteries, cast coins [19].
This metal can reach the body through ingestion of contaminated water and food, inhalation of dust or smoking cigarettes and dermal contact, leading to increases level of Ni in blood, urine and body tissues. However, less than 10% of ingested nickel is absorbed by gastrointestinal tract [3, 10].
It can pass through plasma membrane through diffusion, calcium transport channels and phagocytosis, is circulated to various tissues, where bind with albumin, histidine and macroglobulin. In case of nickel, the target organs are kidneys, bons, lungs, liver, brain and glands of endocrine system, but it is not accumulated in those, being excreted outside [3].
Nickel exposure can produce disorders of liver, kidney, spleen, brain and tissues, but also vesicular eczema, nasal and lung cancer. Also, it interferes in iron resorption, which lead to anemia, disturb the incorporation of calcium into skeleton, causing parakeratosis damage [10]. On reproductive system, this metal affects the quality of semen and cause abnormalities in it, including the tail of sperms [3].
Occupational exposure can cause allergic dermatitis, known as “nickel allergy”. In case of dermal contact, skin rash or allergic dermatitis appear, due to wearing of nickel-plated jewelry. Women are more sensible to nickel than men, especially in pregnant women which work in metallurgic industry and their babies hence structure abnormalities [3, 10].
At cellular level, it can produce breaking of DNA strands, cross linking of DNA protection, DNA oxidation, nucleotides removal, genes mutations, modifications of chromatids, binding to enzymes involved in DNA repair and degradation of protein, generation of ROS, enhances lipid peroxidation, affecting calcium and sulfhydryl homeostasis, degradation of glutathione [3].
Heavy metal pollution is global treat and increasing day by day, due to many natural and anthropogenic activities, which disturb natural composition of soil, water and air, but also of living organisms [3, 23].
These metals can enter the body from sources of contamination by ingestion, inhalation or dermal contact, where they are absorbed, then bioaccumulated in various organs or target tissues, for different periods of time [5, 22]. The most important is the occupational exposure for those working in industries where these metals are produced or used, which can be reduced by various engineering solutions [1].
Heavy metals can affect organs and their functions, causing adverse effects in humans like, cardiovascular, neurologic, gastrointestinal, immunologic, endocrine, reproductively disorders, but also various types of cancer, including lungs, bladder, skin. But, the severity of those side effects depends on chemical state, time and dose of exposure, solubility [22].
In order to prevent exposure to these metals, as well as the occurrence of health problems, it is important to establish safety limits for different matrices [19].
This work was achieved through Core Program, with the support of the Ministry of Research, Innovation and Digitization, contract 22 N/2019, project PN 19 02 03 02 and CNCS/CCCDI—UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P3-3.6-H2020-2020-0011/Ctr. 1/2020.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
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Deficient or incorrect family planning methods, wrong attitudes and behaviors toward the methods and consequent unplanned pregnancies, increased maternal and infant mortality rates are the main health problems in most countries. Individuals’ learning modern family planning methods and having positive attitude for these methods may increase the usage of these methods and contributes the formation of healthy communities. It is considered important to examine the current attitudes and determinants in order to spread the choice of effective method.",book:{id:"6142",slug:"family-planning",title:"Family Planning",fullTitle:"Family Planning"},signatures:"Nazli Sensoy, Yasemin Korkut, Selcuk Akturan, Mehmet Yilmaz,\nCanan Tuz and Bilge Tuncel",authors:[{id:"216377",title:"Prof.",name:"Nazli",middleName:null,surname:"Sensoy",slug:"nazli-sensoy",fullName:"Nazli Sensoy"},{id:"216589",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",middleName:null,surname:"Korkut",slug:"yasemin-korkut",fullName:"Yasemin Korkut"},{id:"216595",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcuk",middleName:null,surname:"Akturan",slug:"selcuk-akturan",fullName:"Selcuk Akturan"},{id:"216596",title:"Dr.",name:"Canan",middleName:null,surname:"Tuz",slug:"canan-tuz",fullName:"Canan Tuz"},{id:"216598",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilge",middleName:null,surname:"Tuncel",slug:"bilge-tuncel",fullName:"Bilge Tuncel"},{id:"216599",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"mehmet-yilmaz",fullName:"Mehmet Yilmaz"}]},{id:"69631",title:"Cultural Practices and Health Consequences: Health or Habits, the Choice Is Ours",slug:"cultural-practices-and-health-consequences-health-or-habits-the-choice-is-ours",totalDownloads:902,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Human beings are social animals with an innate desire to conform to socially accepted norms and values. Over periods of time, some of these norms become standards that all members of the community are expected to adhere to. Deviance from these standards is seen as absurd, wrong, or frankly abnormal. However, many of these cultural mores have no scientific basis and, some of them actually promote behaviors with negative health consequences. This chapter examines the cultural practices of some communities in Africa and their health consequences and, explores ways to address the challenges.",book:{id:"9138",slug:"public-health-in-developing-countries-challenges-and-opportunities",title:"Public Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"Public Health in Developing Countries - Challenges and Opportunities"},signatures:"Radiance Ogundipe",authors:[{id:"302308",title:"Dr.",name:"Radiance",middleName:null,surname:"Ogundipe",slug:"radiance-ogundipe",fullName:"Radiance Ogundipe"}]},{id:"55808",title:"The Role of Legumes in Human Nutrition",slug:"the-role-of-legumes-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5433,totalCrossrefCites:63,totalDimensionsCites:109,abstract:"Legumes are valued worldwide as a sustainable and inexpensive meat alternative and are considered the second most important food source after cereals. Legumes are nutritionally valuable, providing proteins (20–45%) with essential amino acids, complex carbohydrates (±60%) and dietary fibre (5–37%). Legumes also have no cholesterol and are generally low in fat, with ±5% energy from fat, with the exception of peanuts (±45%), chickpeas (±15%) and soybeans (±47%) and provide essential minerals and vitamins. In addition to their nutritional superiority, legumes have also been ascribed economical, cultural, physiological and medicinal roles owing to their possession of beneficial bioactive compounds. Research has shown that most of the bioactive compounds in legumes possess antioxidant properties, which play a role in the prevention of some cancers, heart diseases, osteoporosis and other degenerative diseases. Because of their composition, legumes are attractive to health conscious consumers, celiac and diabetic patients as well as consumers concerned with weight management. The incorporation of legumes in diets, especially in developing countries, could play a major role in eradicating protein-energy malnutrition especially in developing Afro-Asian countries. Legumes could be a base for the development of many functional foods to promote human health.",book:{id:"5963",slug:"functional-food-improve-health-through-adequate-food",title:"Functional Food",fullTitle:"Functional Food - Improve Health through Adequate Food"},signatures:"Yvonne Maphosa and Victoria A. Jideani",authors:[{id:"201151",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Yvonne",middleName:null,surname:"Maphosa",slug:"yvonne-maphosa",fullName:"Yvonne Maphosa"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"200",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82616",title:"The Quantum Theory of Reproduction – How Unique is an Individual?",slug:"the-quantum-theory-of-reproduction-how-unique-is-an-individual",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105769",abstract:"Our understanding of nature’s way is founded on quantum mechanics. In its existence of over 80 years, quantum theory has been describing the physical world. The attraction of studying quantum mechanics is the perception of the conceptual structure of nature. This is aided by the mathematical structure that exposes the internal logic of the subject by inventing a notation that embeds the philosophy of the question. To describe how unique each individual is. A calculation method was applied. The uniqueness of an individual is one in two nonillion, octillion, septillion, sextillion, quintillion, quadrillion, trillion, billion, million and thousand. Individuals are indefinitely unique.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Zouhair O. Amarin"},{id:"81930",title:"Smoking and Its Consequences on Male and Female Reproductive Health",slug:"smoking-and-its-consequences-on-male-and-female-reproductive-health",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104941",abstract:"Smoking contributes to the death of around one in 10 adults worldwide. Specifically, cigarettes are known to contain around 4000 toxins and chemicals that are hazardous in nature. The negative effects of smoking on human health and interest in smoking-related diseases have a long history. Among these concerns are the harmful effects of smoking on reproductive health. Thirteen percent of female infertility is due to smoking. Female smoking can lead to gamete mutagenesis, early loss of reproductive function, and thus advance the time to menopause. It has been also associated with ectopic pregnancy and spontaneous abortion. Even when it comes to assisted reproductive technologies cycles, smokers require more cycles, almost double the number of cycles needed to conceive as non-smokers. Male smoking is shown to be correlated with poorer semen parameters and sperm DNA fragmentation. Not only active smokers but also passive smokers, when excessively exposed to smoking, can have reproductive problems comparable to those seen in smokers. In this book chapter, we will approach the effect of tobacco, especially tobacco smoking, on male and female reproductive health. This aims to take a preventive approach to infertility by discouraging smoking and helping to eliminate exposure to tobacco smoke in both women and men.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Amor Houda, Jankowski Peter Michael, Micu Romeo and Hammadeh Mohamad Eid"},{id:"81468",title:"The Knowledge and Use of Intra-Uterine Device by Women Attending Ante-Natal Clinic at Enugu State Teaching Hospital, Parklane",slug:"the-knowledge-and-use-of-intra-uterine-device-by-women-attending-ante-natal-clinic-at-enugu-state-te",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104097",abstract:"Intrauterine contraception has been recognized globally as one of the modern long-term reversible contraceptive methods suitable for women of all reproductive ages. It represents the most cost-effective method for preventing unwanted pregnancies, scientifically proven for its safety, efficacy and cost-effectiveness and is known to last longer in preventing pregnancy than other methods. This study assessed the knowledge of mothers attending ESUT teaching hospital, Parklane on intrauterine contraceptive device, the use as well as the common side effects experienced by the users. A descriptive survey research design was used to sample 175 mothers. A structured researcher developed questionnaire was used for data collection. The findings revealed that more than half of the respondents have good knowledge of intrauterine device but only 23 (14%) respondents make use of it. The commonly experienced side effects identified were irregular bleeding (75%) and vaginal discharge (62.5%). Although, the respondents had good knowledge of intrauterine device, their uptake of the method was poor. Therefore, there is a need to improve contraceptive counseling to ensure that women understand the relative effectiveness of IUDS. The study also recommended the need for better education for both clients and providers to improve the accessibility and acceptability of intrauterine device.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Chukwuasokam Caleb Aniechi and Uloma Cynthia Ezuma"},{id:"81003",title:"Perspective Chapter: Modern Birth Control Methods",slug:"perspective-chapter-modern-birth-control-methods",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103858",abstract:"This chapter focuses on various modern birth control methods, including combined oral contraceptives, progestogen-only pills, progestogen-only injectables, progestogen-only implants, intrauterine devices, barrier contraceptives, and emergency contraceptive pills. Each contraceptive method is covered in detail, including mechanism of action, effectiveness, health benefits, advantages, disadvantages, risks, and side-effects.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Rahma Al Kindi, Asma Al Salmani, Rahma Al Hadhrami, Sanaa Al Sumri and Hana Al Sumri"},{id:"80084",title:"Contraceptive Implants",slug:"contraceptive-implants",totalDownloads:174,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101999",abstract:"Contraceptive implants or implantable contraceptive are five subdermal implants, rods the size of pencil lead that are embedded just under the skin on the inside of the upper arm. The rods contain etonogestrel, the metabolite of desogestrel, an equivalent progestin. Implants are often used during breastfeeding without an impact on milk production. It was identified that age does not affect the use of contraceptive implants but educational status is significant to its usage; there is an association between the age at first birth and the use of contraceptive implants; the number of liveborn children has a significant impact or influence on the use of implants; etc. This chapter focuses on types of contraceptive implants and its mechanism of action; global statistics on contraceptive implants; side effects; health benefits and positive characteristics of contraceptive implants; those who can and cannot use contraceptive implants; reasons women are not interested in contraceptive implants and factors influencing its usage.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Paul Hassan Ilegbusi"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:5},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. 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\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.