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\n
1. Introduction
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Residual biomass is defined as a compound that contains mainly nonedible vegetal material called lignocellulose. Lignocellulose is the most important component found in plant tissues and is composed of three different polymers: cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Each of these components can be found on different parts of the biological structure of the plant, being the hemicellulose is the matrix that covers the cellulose skeleton and the lignin is the encrusting material or protective layer [1].
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On the other hand, a plastic waste is defined as the material recovered by the final users after having complied with the use for which it was produced [2, 3]. This type of waste is classified in two categories: postconsumer plastic and postindustrial. The first one refers to residual plastics that have been previously used by people. In contrast, postindustrial or preconsumer plastics are defined as the industrial reject material (cuts of materials and damaged pieces, among others) that is not returned to the production line. These are recycled to a great extent, due to the high availability that exists and its relative degree of purity.
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Around 140 billion tons/year of biomass wastes are generated in the world as a result of agricultural activities [4] and 230 million tons/year of plastic wastes [5] related to the production of these materials. In the case of Colombia, an estimated production of 72 million tons/year of residual biomass is reported [6]. Crops such as coffee, bananas, coconut, corn, and sugar cane contribute a large proportion to this production. Waste generated by the coconut processing industry includes its shell, water, and coir. Shell and coir represent 35% in weight of the entire fruit. In Colombia, about 4100 tons/year of this type of waste are produced that is the reason why some studies are being carried out in the biotechnology and construction fields to give them an adequate use [7]. There are two types of coir, the brown coir which is obtained from mature coconuts and the white coir which is extracted from green coconuts. Generally, this type of fiber has a length of 350 mm, a diameter between 0.12 and 0.25 mm, and a density of 1250 kg/m3. It is a material resistant to microbial degradation and salt water. It has a high content of lignin and is defined as a strong material with a high tensile strength [8]. On the other hand, one of the wastes generated in large quantities during the process of the coffee bean transformation is the coffee husk. This material represents 4.5% of the grain composition, and about 33.000 tons/year is produced in Colombia [9]. The proposed uses for this waste are fermentation in order to obtain enzymes, organic acids, or bioethanol. Also, it is used as a substrate for the growth of fungi and other microorganisms [10]. This type of vegetable fiber has an average diameter of 1.2 mm, a high content of holocellulose, as well as a significant proportion of lignin [11].
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On the other hand, the national demand for plastic resins is close to 1.2 million ton/year [12], of which about 27.5% are recovered [13]. The rest of the material is disposed in landfills or inadequately in open dumps. Tables 1 and 2 show the waste generation of the main agricultural crops and plastic resins in Colombia, respectively.
There are different studies from different areas related to the use of biomass waste. A great number of treatments have been proposed to add value to this type of material or simply to change its characteristics and make its final disposition simpler [15]. The main areas for the use of biomass waste are animal and human nutrition, energy generation, biotechnology industry, and the production of biocomposites (natural fiber reinforced polymers or NFRP).
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Since several decades, biocomposites have emerged as an option aimed to solve several issues within the composite materials science. In most of published cases in literature, the use of natural fibers combined with polymers is carried out to achieve some degree of reinforcement from the fibers to the polymer. Many studies report the use of natural fibers such as flax, hemp, jute, sisal, coconut fiber, banana, and fique, among many others [16], using an extensive variety of polymer matrices like polyethylene [17, 18], polypropylene (PP) [19] polystyrene (PS) [20], epoxy resin (EP) [21], natural rubber [22], and recycled polypropylene (r-PP) [2]. Clear effects have been seen in the improvement of mechanical and thermal performance.
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These materials have the potential to be used in different industrial areas, mostly on automotive, industrial, construction, and decoration applications [23]. Due to its renewable nature, research and development of biocomposites have been constantly increasing, and its applications are spreading to multiple areas, being its main attractive is the combination between low price, biodegradability, availability, and their capability to substitute other compounds that use regular reinforcements as glass or carbon fibers [24, 25]. Characteristics as the ones mentioned before contribute to lower the environmental burden of these kinds of materials throughout their life cycle. When compared to traditional plastic products, the substitution of the polymeric material with a natural fiber fraction on the composite can reduce environmental impacts derived from raw material acquisition, operation life of the product, and end of life processes. Since natural fibers are in most cases residues from agricultural practices, their incorporation on an industrial processes serves as a waste management alternative where the fibers are recycled as reinforcement for plastic materials, helping to minimize environmental burdens from their primary process in agriculture where they are treated as conventional waste. Also, the reincorporation of these residues contributes to assess environmental impacts of raw material transportation at a local scale. Furthermore, this material fraction substitution reduces the amount of plastic material needed to fabricate one product, and as a consequence, less quantity of polymers are demanded for production, and less extraction of fossil resources has to be made in order to supply this productive sector. Regarding processing, biocomposites offer a wide amount of advantages related to processing techniques. These materials not only can reduce the melting temperatures on the process, contributing to lower the embodied energy of the product and consequently the carbon emissions of the product, but also can be processed with existing tools and procedures, which means that the producer does not have to make major adjustments on his production line to work with them.
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Nevertheless, not every composite is easy to process, and so traditional material may have a favored position related to biocomposites due to its advanced and well-studied processing techniques, and as direct result, fewer residues can be achieved during the fabrication process. Still some experiences with biocomposites have led to significant reduction of Greenhouse Gasses during processing and transformation stages [26]. In the case of thermoformed trays, it was found that by replacing talc fillers with starch fibers, the carbon footprint for this product was reduced around a 20% regarding gas emissions from processing [27].
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Other outstanding characteristic of biocomposites compared to their traditional counterparts is the reduction of weight for the final product. For automotive applications, this characteristic could allow savings of carbon emissions by reducing the total weight of the vehicle and thus consuming less fuel without compromising the integrity of the material properties and the security guidelines of the automotive industry. Materials that possess high specific stiffness and specific strength are often very valuable in applications in which weight will be a critical factor [25], which makes biocomposites ideal candidates for automobile design and spare parts production. Different automakers believe that all advanced composite car bodywork could be around 50–67% lighter than current similarly sized steel auto-body, 40–55% lighter than an aluminum auto-body, and 25–30% lighter than a steel auto-body. Nevertheless, there are not bio-based materials on commercial use or development that can be fully considered sustainable [28]. It is a fact that products derived from renewable resources tend to be competitive in the market if they prove to be similar or better than other products regarding performance and price. In fact, Reinders et al. [29] said that full bio-based brands usually have stronger purchase intentions than other brands, including those that are partially composed by bio-based products. However, the fact that a product has a renewable origin does not mean that its environmental performance is better when comparing it to traditional products in the market. A case-based evaluation is necessary to define the environmental aspects of a product and thus the sustainable nature of the product [30]. Virtually, biocomposites can be considered sustainable materials compared to traditional composites or fossil-based polymeric materials. The renewable provenance of these materials and the availability of the resource can suggest better environmental performance among its life cycle, easing pressures over the natural systems. However, critical aspects of the elaboration process during the materials life cycle can lead to different types of environmental impacts, which in turn, may be worse than the ones derived from traditional composite elaboration. Manufacturing techniques should be strongly studied and refined in order to make them mainstream and reduce concerns and impacts regarding their development degree. Therefore, as mentioned before, this is the main reason why every case of composite material has to be reported on a case-based scenario in order to objectively define the sustainable nature of products developed with these kinds of materials. In this book chapter, biocomposites based on recycled polypropylene (r-PP) and two different natural fibers (coffee husk and coconut coir fibers) with maleated polypropylene (MAPP) as a coupling agent were prepared through extrusion and injection molding processes. Morphological, mechanical, and thermal properties of the biocomposites were investigated with the aim to understand the effect of fiber type and MAPP addition on the r-PP matrix properties. Also, the environmental performance of the materials was studied through a carbon footprint evaluation on a cradle to gate life cycle assessment.
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\n
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2. Materials and methods
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\n
2.1 Materials
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Coconut coir (CCF) was obtained from “Kiero Coco” S.A (Manizales-Colombia), and coffee husk fiber (CHF) was obtained from a local coffee mill located in Tuluá-Colombia. Recycled polypropylene (rPP) was a postindustrial waste collected from extrusion and injection processes carried out in the materials laboratory of the Autónoma de Occidente University (Cali, Colombia). Maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (Licocene MAPP 6452 by Clariant) was used as coupling agent.
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2.2 Natural fibers characterization
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The time between the generation of the different fiber waste and its storage (at −20°C) was less than 8 hours, in order to minimize biochemical changes in the fibers. After separation, the fibers were dried in an oven at 45°C until reaching constant weight. Drying process was carried out at this temperature in order to avoid the elimination of volatile compounds and degradation of the lignocellulosic composition. After drying, the samples were milled (particle size <1 mm) in an impact mill (Retsch SR200). The milling time was 15 minutes for CHF and 30 minutes for CCF. Finally, fibers samples were stored in polyethylene bags with a hermetic seal at room temperature. After the characterization, the fibers were sieved in ASTM sieves, with the purpose of reaching a 60 mesh particle size, established by the ASTM standards for the analysis of solid samples.
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The fibers (CHF and CCF) were characterized by proximate and elemental analysis, calorific power, and structural composition. These analyzes were performed in triplicate. Through the proximate analysis, the percentage of moisture content (M), volatile matter (VM), ash (A), and fixed carbon (FC) was determined according to ASTM D7582-12 [31]. These analyzes were performed using approximately 1.0 g of sample in a Leco brand thermogravimetric analyzer, TGA-601. Table 3 shows the equations used in the determination of the proximate analysis of CHF and CCF. The calorific value was calculated using 1.0 g of sample in a Leco AC-350 calorimeter pump, following the ASTM 5865-13 standard. The calorific value establishes the amount of energy per unit mass that the waste can deliver when it is completely oxidized. This property was calculated using the equation also presented in Table 3.
The elemental analysis was carried out in a Leco CHN-628 analyzer to determine the content of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N) according to ASTM D 5373-14 and in a Leco S-632 to quantify the sulfur content (S) according to ASTM D 4239-14. A weight sample of 0.1 g was used on both equipments.
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The structural composition of the fibers was determined by the quantification of extractive compounds (EXT), lignin (LGN), cellulose (CEL), hemicellulose (HMC), and inorganic compounds (ashes). The preparation of the fibers was carried out following the standard NREL/TP-510-42620. In order to obtain the percentages of CEL, HMC, and LGN, it is necessary to perform two Soxhlet extractions to the fibers using water and ethanol as solvent, as indicated in the NREL/TP-510-42619 standard. The insoluble acid lignin percentage (LGN) or Klason lignin was calculated according to the standard NREL/TP-510-42618. The holocellulose percentage (HLC) was determinate by following the ASTM D1104 standard, while the cellulose percentage was determinate following the Han and Rowell methods [32]. Table 4 shows the equations used for structural composition calculation of CHF and CCF.
Equations used in the determination of the structural composition of lignocellulosic residues.
Where, % EXT: proportion of total extractives, % EXTwater: proportion of extractives in water, % EXTethanol: proportion of extractives in ethanol, PEXTwater: weight of extractives in water (gr), PEXTethanol: weight of extractives in ethanol (gr), PR: dry sample weight (gr), % MS: percentage of dry matter, % LGN: proportion of lignin, PLGN: weight of lignin (gr), PRlEXT: weight of the sample free of extractives (gr), % HCL: proportion of holocellulose, PHCL: weight of holocellulose (gr), % CEL: percentage of cellulose, PCEL: weight of cellulose (gr), % HMC: proportion of hemicellulose.
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2.3 Preparation of the biocomposites
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r-PP and its biocomposites were compounded in a co-rotating twin screw extruder (Harden Industries Ltd., China). For each case, MAPP, CCF, and CHF fibers were physically premixed with r-PP pellets in a plastic bag using 30% of fibers and 4% of MAPP in weight. A temperature gradient from 140 to 170°C from the feeder zone to the die was used. The rotation speed of the twin-screw was 50 rpm. The outcoming cord of r-PP and its biocomposites from the extruder were pelletized using a mill which produced pellets of about 5 mm long. After the pelletization process, the r-PP and its biocomposites samples were dried in an oven at 85°C followed by an injection molding process. A BOY XS (BOY Machines, Inc., USA) microinjection molding machine was used to prepare samples for flexural and impact tests. Table 5 summarizes the injection-molding processing parameters used. Figure 1 shows the injected specimens of neat PP, r-PP, r-PP-CHF, and r-PP-CCF biocomposites.
Three point bending flexural tests were performed with an INSTRON universal testing machine model 3366 according to the ASTM D 790-17 as shown in Figure 2. The tests were carried out on bars of rectangular cross section at 23°C and at a rate of crosshead motion between 1.34 and 1.44 mm/min. This rate was determined based on the dimensions of the specimens. Also, the distance between the supports was 50 mm and the tests were conducted up to 5% strain. All the results were taken as the average value of five samples.
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Figure 2.
Assembly used for flexural test (according to ASTM D790).
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2.4.2 Impact properties
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The impact strength of PP and biocomposites was determined with an Izod Tinius Olsen impact pendulum equipped with a 4.53 N pendulum. Prior to the test, the materials were subjected to conditioning for 48 hours at 50% relative humidity and a temperature of 25°C. The specimens were made following the standard ASTM D256, and the starting angle of the test was 150° as shown in Figure 3. All the results were taken as the average value of five samples.
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Figure 3.
Pendulum type impact test machine used for the notched IZOD impact measurements.
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2.4.3 Thermal characterization
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DSC test was carried out using a TA Q2000 differential scanning calorimeter under nitrogen atmosphere at a scanning rate of 10°C/min, with a sample of 10 mg in aluminum pans. The thermal history of the samples was erased by a preliminary heating cycle at 10°C/min from 20 to 200°C and maintaining it at that temperature for 10 min to melting residual crystals, cooling at 10°C/min to 0°C, and finally, they were heated at °C/min from 0 to 200°C. The crystallization temperatures (Tc) and melting temperatures (Tm) were determined from cooling and second heating scans. The melting enthalpies values were normalized according to the proportion of the components in the samples. The crystallinity (χc) was determined from the Eq. (13):
where wFiber is the CHF or CCF fiber mass fraction, ΔH is the melting enthalpy of the sample, and \n\n\n\n∆\nH\n\nm\n0\n\n\n is the specific enthalpy of melting for 100% crystalline PP. This value was reported in literature as 293 J/g [34].
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2.4.4 Morphology
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Scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) of the biocomposites was carried out on the cryogenic fracture surfaces of the specimens using a Quanta FEG 250 microscope operating at a voltage of 10 kV. The samples were previously sputter coated with gold to increase their electric conductivity. Determinations were performed in different areas of the SEM micrograph.
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2.4.5 Statistical analysis
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Flexural and impact properties of the materials were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA), and the Tukey’s test was applied at the 0.05 level of significance. All statistical analyses were performed using Minitab Statistical Software Release 12 (Pennsylvania, United States).
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2.5 Environmental characterization of the materials
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The environmental characterization of the materials was made through a cradle to gate Life Cycle Assessment based on the ISO 14041 parameters. The only indicator used for this evaluation was the carbon footprint, and the information for the emission factors was taken from secondary information found in literature.
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3. Results and discussion
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3.1 Natural fibers characterization
\n
The proximate analysis of CCF and CHF is presented in Table 6. Comparing the obtained values, it is observed that the fiber with the highest moisture content is the CCF. This parameter is directly related to the dispersion of the fibers in a polymer matrix during the melting processing [39]. Higher moisture content causes lower dispersion of a lignocellulosic material in a polymer matrix. This effect can be related with the final properties of the obtained biocomposites. Also, CHF presented the highest volatile matter value. Volatile matter is related to the cellulose and hemicellulose percentage in the fibers. It is reported that hemicellulose influences the distance of interfibrillary cellulose, impacting fiber stiffness [40]. For that reason, a higher content of volatile matter represents a significant proportion of holocellulose in the fiber and represents higher toughness and a better fatigue behavior in the fiber [40]. Therefore, better results can be expected in the mechanical properties of a biocomposite obtained from CHF compared to a CCF-based biocomposite. The results show that the moisture content value in CCF is higher than the data presented by several authors [38, 41, 42, 43]. Also, CHF volatile matter content is higher in comparison with the values reported in literature [35, 36, 37]. On the other hand, ash, fixed carbon percentages, and calorific value lower of CHF are lower than the values reported in literature [35, 36, 37, 41, 43, 44, 45].
The elemental analysis values of the fibers are presented in Table 7. The results show that the carbon content in the CCF (53.88%) was higher in comparison with the reported values in literature, while the oxygen content was lower. On the other hand, CHF elemental analysis values are within the ranges established by other authors. Atomic ratios O/C and H/C obtained for CHF and CCF were 0.61, 0.54, 1.63, and 1.45, respectively. These results are in accordance with the values of biomass established in the Van Krevelen diagram [31]. The values of the O/C ratio obtained can be attributed to a high content of cellulose and hemicellulose in the biomass [3, 47]. This O/C relationship can be used as a parameter to evaluate the polarity of fibers in the production of biocomposites materials, being related to the content of hydroxyl groups. These groups are reactive centers of high polarity, which influence the formation of hydrogen bonds and the compatibility between fibers and a polymer [48]. For this reason, the O/C ratio allows to estimate the interaction degree between the lignocellulosic reinforcement and the polar polymeric matrix used [3], and its value is higher for CHF compared to CCF.
The structural compositions of the fibers are presented in Table 8. CHF presented a higher cellulose content (33.38%) compared to CCF (22.24%). Cellulose is considered as a semicrystalline biopolymer with a fibrous and rigid structure, which positively affects the stiffness in biocomposites materials [52]. Also, a greater amount of cellulose is related to better compatibility between the fibers and the polymeric matrix and a better mechanical performance of the biocomposite [53]. Regarding the lignin content, CCF shows a greater quantity (25.42%) compared to CHF (17.31%). This type of compound is considered as an amorphous polymer with chemical heterogeneity and a low physical consistency. Bajwa et al. [48] mentioned that increase in the lignin content decreases the mechanical resistance of thermoset biocomposites.
The influence of CHF, CCF fibers, and MAPP addition on the r-PP flexural and impact properties was evaluated. The tensile behavior of the materials is shown in Figure 4. Table 9 presents flexural modulus, flexural strength, and impact strength values of the materials.
\n
Figure 4.
Average flexural stress vs. deformation of r-PP and r-PP biocomposites.
Flexural and impact properties of r-PP and r-PP-natural fiber biocomposites.
Mean of five replications ± standard deviation.
a–c Different letters in the same column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).
\n
The results show that CHF and CCF fibers incorporation induce a significant improvement of flexural properties of r-PP. r-PP-CHF and r-PP-CCF biocomposites flexural modulus (FM) increased 97 and 13%, respectively, in comparison with r-PP. Although the FM values were improved in both biocomposites, the effect was sharper for r-PP-CHF. This can be explained with the structural analysis of the fibers (Section 3.1). The cellulose content is related to the oxygen proportion and is associated with the resistance degree of the fiber. In this sense, lignocellulosic materials with a higher oxygen content or a higher value in the O/C ratio will have a better mechanical performance [54, 55, 56, 57]. CHF presented a higher cellulose content in comparison with CCF (33.38 and 22.24%, respectively), which could explain the greater improvement in FM values with this fiber. It was also observed that MAPP addition did not generate significant differences (p ≥ 0.05) on the FM values compared to r-PP-Fiber biocomposites.
\n
On the other hand, CHF and CCF fibers addition generate slight improvements (1 and 8%) on the flexural strength (FS) compared to neat r-PP. These results agree with previous studies found in literature [58, 59, 60]. However, for both r-PP-fiber biocomposites, MAPP addition causes an increase in FS of 16% in comparison with r-PP.
\n
Impact test results shows that CHF and CCF addition cause a decrease on the impact strength of 37 and 6%, respectively, in comparison with the r-PP. Similar results were reported by several studies about the morphology and mechanical properties of PP-natural fiber biocomposites [60, 61, 62, 63]. However, for r-PP-CHF and r-PP-CCF, an increase on the impact strength of 35 and 44% was observed. This result shows that MAPP addition increases the capacity of r-PP to absorb energy. This phenomenon can be explained by a possible energy absorption promoted by fracture mechanisms, which involve detachment, slippage, and fragmentation of the fiber. Mechanisms are not present on the r-PP and r-PP biocomposites without MAPP.
\n
The improvements in FS and impact strength with MAPP can be explained with the improved interfacial adhesion that MAPP caused. MAPP addition influences the chemical interaction between the hydrophobic matrix and the hydrophilic fiber through the formation of covalent bonds between the maleic anhydride groups and the hydroxyl groups present on the surface of the cellulosic fiber [57, 60]. In addition, Migneault et al. [55] mentioned that esterification reactions produced by the interaction between the natural fiber and the compatibility agent increase with the oxygen content of the fiber. Oxygen is directly related to the proportion of carbohydrates present in the surface of the fiber, creating a greater number of polar sites (hydroxyl groups) to react.
\n
\n
\n
3.2.2 Thermal characterization
\n
\n
3.2.2.1 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
\n
DSC curves for r-PP and their biocomposites with CHF and CCF are shown in Figure 5. Numerical values of the thermal events are shown in Table 10.
\n
Figure 5.
(a) Cooling and (b)second heating DSC curves for r-PP and r-PP biocomposites.
Thermal properties on cooling and second heating DSC scans of the samples.
Tc and Tm were taken at the maximum peak of crystallization and melting peaks.
\n
The DSC cooling curve of r-PP (Figure 5a) shows a main exothermic peak located around 116°C corresponding to the crystallization of PP chains. When CHF, CCF, and MAPP were added into r-PP, a 3–6°C shift in the crystallization temperature of r-PP was observed. This decrease indicates that natural fibers in biocomposites can act as a nucleation agent. The second heating runs of r-PP and r-PP biocomposites were shown in Figure 5b. All samples exhibit an endothermic peak between 162 and 165°C corresponding to the melting of the PP matrix. These results indicate that the addition of the CHF and CCF fibers does not disturb the melting processes of the PP matrix. Also, it is observed that PP crystalinity fraction melted during heating was 40%. For r-PP biocomposites, the crystalline phase content increases slightly up to 44%. These results show that CHF and CCF fibers promote the formation of crystalline phases in the r-PP present in the biocomposites. Some reports that were related to fiber-reinforced composites have found that the fibers act as nucleation points that increase the crystallinity of the polymer phase [64].
\n
\n
\n
3.2.2.2 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
\n
TG and DTG curves were used to determine the thermal stability of coffee husk (CHF) and coir coconut fibers (CCF). The results are shown in Figure 6. Also, main thermal parameters obtained from these curves are summarized in Table 11.
\n
Figure 6.
(a) TG and (b) DTG curves of CHF and CCF fibers at heating rates of 10°C/min.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Sample
\n
Degradation stage
\n
To (°C)
\n
Tmax (°C)
\n
Residual Char (%)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Coffee husk fiber (CHF)
\n
1
\n
266
\n
299
\n
25
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
336
\n
358
\n
\n
\n
Coir coconut fiber (CCF)
\n
1
\n
245
\n
284
\n
31
\n
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
314
\n
328
\n
\n
\n\n
Table 11.
Thermal degradation data of the fibers at 10°C/min in nitrogen atmosphere.
\n
As shown in TG curve (Figure 6a), fibers present three weight loss regions which are located around 60–100°C, 240–350°C, and 350–600°C. The first weight loss region below 100°C can be attributed to the evaporation of superficial water present in the sample, while the other regions might be associated with the decomposition of the fiber constituents. DTG curves (Figure 6b) show a first decomposition peaks at 299 and 284°C for CHF and CCF, respectively. These peaks correspond to the temperature of maximum weight loss rate (Tmax) of hemicellulose, while the second peaks located at 358°C and 328°C (for CHF and CCF) are related to the Tmax of α-cellulose. The residual weights of CHF and CCF have also been measured and are equal to 25 and 31% for CHF and CCF at 600°C. This results show that CHF possesses a better thermal stability compared to CCF.
\n
TG and DTG curves for r-PP and r-PP biocomposites are shown in Figure 7. Also, main thermal parameters obtained from these curves are summarized in Table 12.
\n
Figure 7.
(a) TG and (b) DTG curves of r-PP and r-PP biocomposites at heating rates of 10°C/min.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Sample
\n
Degradation stage
\n
Tonset (°C)
\n
Tmax (°C)
\n
Residual Char (%)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
r-PP
\n
1
\n
368
\n
428
\n
0.4
\n
\n
\n
r-PP-CHF
\n
1
\n
260
\n
354
\n
8.4
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
402
\n
445
\n
\n
\n
r-PP-CHF-MAPP
\n
1
\n
264
\n
355
\n
8.2
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
428
\n
460
\n
\n
\n
r-PP-CCF
\n
1
\n
243
\n
327
\n
11.9
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
427
\n
460
\n
\n
\n
r-PP-CCF-MAPP
\n
1
\n
259
\n
360
\n
7.4
\n
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
411
\n
453
\n
\n
\n\n
Table 12.
Thermal degradation data of r-PP and r-PP biocomposites.
\n
Recycled PP degradation occurs in a single step process with an onset temperature (To) located at 368°C and a Tmax of 428°C. The residue after final degradation was 0.4%. Regarding biocomposites, TG and DTG show that the addition of coffee husk and coir coconut fibers produces an increase in the thermal stability of the r-PP phase. As shown in Table 12, To increases between 34 and 60°C. Also, Tmax increases between 33 and 28°C in comparison to r-PP (as indicates in the orange area). This increment in the thermal stability of the biocomposites has been previously observed in different studies, indicating that the incorporation of fibers in the material induces spherulite nucleation points, increasing the crystallinity of the polymer and improving its thermal properties [64].
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.2.3 Morphology
\n
Figure 8a and b shows SEM images of the fractured surfaces of r-PP-CHF and r-PP-CCF, respectively. In these images, gaps between the fibers and the surrounding r-PP matrix can be clearly observed, which indicate a poor interfacial adhesion between the r-PP matrix and the natural fibers [65]. For Figure 9a and b, with the MAPP addition, gaps between natural fibers and r-PP were significantly reduced, and as a consequence, an improvement over the interface for the composite can be appreciated. This result confirms that MAPP addition improved the interfacial property of the hydrophobic PP matrix and the hydrophilic natural fibers. Also, this can be related with mechanical properties enhancement observed in the biocomposites after the MAPP addition.
\n
Figure 8.
SEM pictures for rPP-CHF and rPP-CCF biocomposites.
\n
Figure 9.
SEM pictures for rPP-CHF-MAPP and rPP-CCF-MAPP biocomposites.
\n
\n
\n
3.2.4 Environmental characterization of the materials
\n
When assessing the carbon footprint of the material, the stages of the life cycle were limited to raw material acquisition, transport, and processing. Since the material was not transformed into a product, the functional unit was determined as the 1 kg of manufactured material and the carbon footprint was determined on a cradle to gate life cycle. The comparison was made between the biocomposite materials, recycled polypropylene, and neat polypropylene. Neat polypropylene was brought from Medellín 412 km away from the final user’s location. Coffee husk was delivered from Tuluá (104 km) and coconut coir from Manizales (270 km). All the materials were transported on a diesel-powered truck to the final user location. Fibers were blended with the rPP matrix through an extrusion process and subsequentially pelletized with a 1.5 kW mill.
\n
Emissions were determined through emission factors for every activity involved on the elaboration of the material using the Eq. (14). For each emission factor, there is one activity related in order to calculate the emissions for the product elaboration. The results of those emissions are listed for each biocomposite on Table 13.
Results of the emissions for the compared materials.
\n
From Figure 10 emission accounting for each category, it could be noted that transport is the largest contributor to the overall emissions. Emissions on this stage are directly proportional to the amount of fuel used to transport the materials, and so, the further away the place, the greater the associated emissions. In order to achieve a more sustainable product, materials should be taken from regional suppliers to lower the footprint from transporting activities. Since rPP is produced inside the processing site, there is no emission associated to the transport of this material as stated on the life cycle boundaries for this particular case. Regarding raw material acquisition, the incorporation of natural fiber seems to improve the impact of the material compared to neat PP and recycled PP. For the coffee husk composite case, the carbon footprint on this stage for the 10 kg of material corresponds to 4.84 kg CO2 eq, and for coconut coir biocomposite, it corresponds to 4.29 kg CO2 eq. When compared to neat PP, a reduction in terms of carbon emissions of 76.93 and 73.78%, respectively, for rPP-CFH and rPP-CCH biocomposites. Also when compared to recycled polypropylene, it could be noted that emissions of rPP-CHF composite were slightly lower, reducing emissions on a 1.98%. Nevertheless, for rPP-CCF composite, the emissions raised on this stage on an 11.26% compared to rPP. In order to elaborate the composite, the fibers had to be blended with the recycled material, and so an extra process is needed as mentioned before. This extrusion and grinding process generates emissions of 4.54 kg CO2 eq for both biocomposites, adding emissions to the overall score. For this scenario, the carbon footprint for the finished materials is shown on Table 14. This table shows the carbon footprint in terms of a functional unit defined as 1 kg of processed material.
\n
Figure 10.
Carbon emissions comparison for neat PP, r-PP, and r-PP biocomposites.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Material
\n
Carbon footprint (kg CO2 eq/kg)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Neat Polypropylene
\n
40.14
\n
\n
\n
rPP-CHF
\n
10.44
\n
\n
\n
rPP-CCF
\n
25.55
\n
\n
\n
Recycled polypropylene
\n
0.44
\n
\n\n
Table 14.
Carbon footprint of the compared materials.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.3 Conclusions
\n
Biocomposites based on recycled PP (r-PP) and two different natural fibers (coffee husk-CHF and coconut coir-CCF fibers) were prepared by a melt extrusion and injection processes. Proximate, elemental, and structural analysis performed to the natural fibers show that CHF contains a higher cellulose percentage and a higher ratio O/C in comparison to CCF. This condition makes CHF more attractive for biocomposites production. The effects of natural fibers and MAPP addition on the properties of the biocomposites were explored. Flexural characterization showed that MAPP incorporation induces a significant improvement of flexural properties of r-PP biocomposites. Also, the impact tests showed that the addition of MAPP increases the capacity of r-PP biocomposites to absorb energy. Thermal studies show that CHF and CCF fibers addition did not disturb the melting process and improves the thermal stability of the PP matrix. Despite that for this case scenario, the values of the carbon footprint for both biocomposites is considerably high compared to the recycled polypropylene, it is important to keep in mind that the evaluation was made on a cradle to gate analysis, this means that the benefits of the mechanical and thermal enhancements are not taken into account on this evaluation among the use and operational phases. Depending on the application, the use of these biocomposites has the potential to reduce the carbon footprint over the lifespan of a product made with it, saving emissions derived from usage and disposal. Regarding the performance of both biocomposites, it can be noted that rPP-CHF has a better operation regarding environmental issues due to the saved emissions from raw material transportation. This means that in order to elaborate more sustainable biocomposites, raw material should be delivered on a local extent. Also in order to lower the environmental impacts of the material, the fiber fraction is an important issue due to the replacement of polymer fraction over the composite and thus saving emissions from polymer primary elaboration process.
\n
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The authors acknowledge to the Universidad Autónoma de Occidente, Cali-Colombia and Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Manizales-Colombia for the technical and financial support.
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors of this manuscript declare that do not hold any conflicts of interest that might have any bearing on research reported in their submitted manuscript.
\n',keywords:"coconut coir, coffee husk, recycled polypropylene, biocomposites, MAPP",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64235.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64235.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64235",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64235",totalDownloads:1259,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:82,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 26th 2018",dateReviewed:"September 23rd 2018",datePrePublished:"November 27th 2018",datePublished:"February 26th 2020",dateFinished:"October 31st 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In this work, biocomposites based on recycled polypropylene (r-PP) and two different natural fibers (coffee husk-CHF and coconut coir-CCF fibers) were prepared using extrusion and injection molding processes. Also, the addition of maleated polypropylene (MAPP) as a coupling agent on the biocomposites was explored. Recycled polypropylene and its biocomposites were tested following ASTM standards in order to evaluate tensile and flexural mechanical properties. Also, thermal behavior and the morphology of these materials have been studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and scanning electronic microscopy (SEM). The experimental results showed that the addition of CHF and CCF to the r-PP resulted in an increase in the flexural modulus and thermal properties of the composites but resulted in poor impact properties. Thermal characterization showed that CHF possesses a better thermal stability compared to CCF. However, both fibers act as nucleating agents and generate an increase in the thermal stability of the r-PP phase. Finally, it was observed that addition of 4% of MAPP significantly improved the mechanical strength and impact behavior of the biocomposites. Regarding environmental issues, a cradle to gate life cycle assessment was made in order to define the carbon footprint of the materials.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64235",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64235",book:{id:"9319",slug:"thermosoftening-plastics"},signatures:"Miguel Ángel Hidalgo-Salazar, Juan Pablo Correa-Aguirre, Juan Manuel Montalvo-Navarrete, Diego Fernando Lopez-Rodriguez and Andrés Felipe Rojas-González",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Materials and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Natural fibers characterization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Preparation of the biocomposites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Characterization of the biocomposites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.4.1 Flexural properties",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.4.2 Impact properties",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.4.3 Thermal characterization",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.4.4 Morphology",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.4.5 Statistical analysis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.5 Environmental characterization of the materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"3. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.1 Natural fibers characterization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.2 Characterization of the biocomposites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"Table 9.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"Table 10.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_4",title:"Table 10.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_16_4",title:"Table 11.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"3.2.3 Morphology",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"Table 13.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"3.3 Conclusions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_26",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Amin FR, Khalid H, Zhang H, Rahman SU, Zhang R, Liu G, et al. Pretreatment methods of lignocellulosic biomass for anaerobic digestion. AMB Express. 2017;7(1):72. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28353158\n\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Leão RM, da Luz SM, Araújo JA, Christoforo AL, Leão RM, da Luz SM, et al. 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Investigation Group on Waste Recovery GIAR, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia
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1. Introduction
Ionic liquids (ILs) are the salts of organic cations in the liquid state. The most common cations forming ionic liquids are pyridinium, piperidinium, and imidazolium. In addition, ammonium, guanidinium, sulfonium, phosphonium, or oxonium having various alkyl chains can also form ionic liquids. The counteranions can be small organic or inorganic ions, such as halogen-based anions (Cl−, Br−, BF4−, and AlCl4−), bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, [(CF3SO2)2N]−, trifluoroacetate [CF3COO−], or trifluoromethanesulfonate [CF3SO3−] [1]. Examples of some common organic cations and anions in the composition of ionic liquids are given in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Chemical structures, abbreviations, and names of several common ionic liquids.
ILs are currently used as an alternative to the organic solvents for various analytical processes [1], considering that they can be more environmentally friendly solvents than the classic organic solvents, due to their low volatility, flammability, and toxicity. The liquid property of these ionic compounds can be explained by the role of the short-range interactions and ion packing, combined with their long molecular structure [2]. Owing to the ability of ionic liquids to solvate the compounds of widely varying polarity [3], they are more and more utilized in separation processes. Examples of analytical separations based on ILs are liquid-liquid extraction (single drop microextraction, dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction, and hollow fiber membrane liquid phase) [4, 5, 6], solid-phase extraction and microextraction [7], gas chromatography (stationary phases based on ILs) [8, 9], electrophoresis [10, 11], and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), discussed further in this chapter.
The properties of ILs in the separation process depend on their interaction properties with surrounding molecules or surfaces, ion exchanging, H-bonding, ion-dipole, dipole-dipole, π-π interactions, hydrophobic, and hydrophilic interactions [12]. The interaction properties of ILs depend on the nature of both their anion and cation. The H-bonding interactions with water, by means of anion, determine the hydrophobic or hydrophilic character of IL. For example, for the IL based on the cation 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium [C4mim], its hydrophobicity depends on the anion size: for anions, such as NO3−, or BF4−, the interactions with water molecules are strong, and consequently, the IL becomes hydrophilic, while for anions PF6− or bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)-imide [(CF3-SO2)2N− or NTf2], the IL assembly becomes hydrophobic [13]. The nonpolar (hydrophobic) parts of ILs interact preferentially with nonpolar compounds by van der Waals forces, while the interface between the polar and nonpolar parts of ILs can interact by dipole-dipole with polar compounds, such as halogenated hydrocarbons or acetone [14]. Besides solubility in different solvents, the transport properties (viscosity, diffusion, and conductivity) can be described using theories on the structure–property correlations [15].
2. Stationary phases with attached structures of ionic liquids
There are a large variety of stationary phases containing ILs as an active functional group. Owing to their complex structure, these stationary phases are used in different separation mechanisms, including reversed-phase (RP), normal-phase (NP), hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC), ion-exchange chromatography (IEC), or combination of these mechanisms, known as mixed-mode separations. Generally, the stationary phases in HPLC having in their structure moieties of ionic liquids are synthetized having silica gel (type B) or derivatized silica gel as starting materials. Stationary phase can also be obtained by the polymerization of ionic liquids or by monolithic technologies. The most common types of IL-based stationary phases are bonded phases with a single-cation ionic liquid, obtained as spherical particles [16]. Ionic liquid stationary phases with multication ionic liquids and mixed functionalities between ionic liquids and hydrophobic or polar groups are also known in liquid chromatography [16].
The simplest method to introduce an IL moiety to the silica support is based on the two-step synthesis route illustrated in Figure 2. The first reaction is generally used to obtain chloropropyl silica, as intermediate material, from silica gel and 3-chloropropyltrimethoxysilane. The second reaction, between substituted imidazole or pyridine and chloropropyl silica gel, takes place in toluene under reflux [17, 18]. Longer linker than propyl is also used in attaching imidazole to the silica surface, such as octyl [19]. Imidazolium-based ILs with various functionalities are produced in order to obtain stationary phases with different retention properties: methyl, benzyl, and butylsulphonic [19].
Figure 2.
The synthesis route for attaching imidazolium and pyridinium IL structure to the surface of silica gel (R can be C8, C10, C18, benzyl, or antranyl).
Direct reaction between silica gel and imidazole-based derivatization reagent is also possible. Thus, the reaction between 3-bromopropyl-trimethoxysilane and 1-alkylimidazole can be used to attach IL to the silica gel surface [20, 21], as schematically shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Reaction between a functionalized imidazolium salt with silanol group from silica gel surface (adapted from [21]).
Thiopropyl silica gel can also be used for obtaining a stationary phase with a single-cation IL based on a synthesis similarly to the schema presented in Figure 2, but based on addition reaction of thio group to the allyl radical of imidazolium-based IL (known also as “thiol-ene” click reaction). The structural feature of this stationary phase [22], used in the HILIC separation mechanism, is given in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Stationary phase synthetized from thiopropyl silica gel (obtained from silica gel in the first reaction) by attaching an imidazolium-based IL (adapted from [23]).
Monolithic stationary phases are also reported in the literature [24], also known as supported poly(ionic liquid)s (SPILs) [25]. The most convenient method to prepare these stationary phases is based on monolithic support obtained from glycidyl methacrylate as monomer, using ethylene glycol dimethacrylate as crosslinker [26, 27]. Usually, the polymerization reaction is thermally initiated 2,2′-azobis-isobutyronitrile) by ultraviolet (UV) or γ radiation in a porogenic solvent (generally, they are the mixtures of cyclohexanol and dodecanol) [28]. The crosslinked structure contains epoxy groups, which are very reactive and can be used to react with imidazolium-based compound leading to more complex structures containing IL moiety at its surface [29]. An example of obtaining such monoliths is given in Figure 5.
Figure 5.
Synthesis route to obtain a monolithic stationary phase based on glycidyl methacrylate and imidazolium moiety on its surface.
Another possibility of obtaining polymers with ILs grafted to its surface is described in Figure 6. In this procedure, the monomer contains the imidazolium IL, which is then grafted to the surface of silica gel having thiopropyl as linker [30].
Figure 6.
Polymeric structure containing imidazolium IL grafted to the surface of thiopropyl silica surface (adapted from [30]).
Based on this route, two types of stationary phases were obtained bearing two different anions: 1-[2-alkyl(mercaptopropyl)]-3-octadecyl-imidazolium bromide and 1-[2-alkyl(mercaptopropyl)]-3-octadecyl-imidazolium p-dimethylaminoazobenzenesulfonate [31]. Their chemical structures are shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7.
Structure of 1-[2-alkyl(mercaptopropyl)]-3-octadecyl-imidazolium bonded to silica gel obtained by polymerization.
The copolymerization of anionic (vinylsulphonic acid) and cationic (vinylimidazolium substituted with long alkyl chain) monomers that were grafted on thiopropyl silica gel was used to obtain the stationary phase with mixed-mode characters, hydrophilic due to the IL moiety and reversed-phase due to the long alkyl chain attached to the imidazolium ring [32]. A structure of such material, where the radical R is typically a long alkyl chain (C18), is shown in Figure 8. These materials exhibited an increased stability and improved peak shape of separated compounds, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, bases, and flavonoids.
Figure 8.
Chemical structure of copolymerized vinylsulphonic acid and R-substituted vinylimidazolium grafted to the mercaptopropyl silica gel (adapted from [32]).
A novel facile and efficient immobilization strategy was introduced on the basis of the reaction between an isocyanate derivative of IL and aminopropyl silica gel as mesoporous silica spheres. The result of this reaction is a multifunctional silica material used as HPLC stationary phase in the mixed-mode mechanism, with urea polar functionality and imidazolium salt bearing aliphatic chains of different lengths or aromatic groups [33]. The main derivatization reaction of aminopropyl silica gel with an isocyanate reagent bearing imidazolium salt is presented in Figure 9.
Figure 9.
Reaction between aminopropyl silica gel and isocyanate generating IL structure on silica gel surface (adapted from [33]).
There have been synthetized stationary phases containing three ILs attached to mercaptopropyl silica gel with different anions [34]. Two examples of stationary phases used in reversed-phase and hydrophilic separations are presented in Figure 10.
Figure 10.
Structure of tricationic ionic liquid attached to silica gel as HPLC stationary phases.
More complex structures containing IL moieties and used as stationary phases in HPLC are reported by the literature [16, 21]. An example of such a complex stationary phase is based on the use of graphene oxide, which plays the role of linker between ILs and the silica support, which is easy to make further chemical modification [35]. Besides silica gel, or organic monoliths used as stationary phase supports, there are attempts to use zirconia as support to improve their thermal stability [36]. Stationary phases with ILs with chiral properties are synthetized from cyclodextrin bonded on silica gel, where the positively charged imidazole structure provides electrostatic interactions with opposite charged groups from analytes. Thus, chiral ILs functionalized β-cyclodextrins (β-CDs) were synthetized by treating 6-tosyl-β-cyclodextrin with 1,2-dimethylimidazole, which were bonded to silica gel to obtain chiral stationary phases (CSPs) to be used in high-performance liquid chromatography. There are applications when they have been used in separating different chiral aromatic alcohol derivatives and racemic drugs in mobile phase based on acetonitrile [37].
Stationary phases based on other IL moieties have been recently reported by the literature [38]. For example, phosphonium-based ionic stationary phase used in the mixed-mode mechanism was synthetized by polymerization from trioctyl(allyl)phosphonium bromide (denoted by [P888Allyl]Br, obtained at its turn from trioctylphosphine and allyl bromide) and mercaptopropyl silica gel microsphere, based on the principle of thiol-ene click reaction, described schematically in Figure 4. This stationary phase proved useful in separating the mixtures of uracil, uridine, adenosine, cytidine, and cytosine, various drugs, and mixtures of hydrophobic compounds (e.g., series from benzene to butylbenzene).
3. Ionic liquids as additives in mobile phase
The addition of ionic liquids in mobile phase increases its polarity, and this parameter can be useful in some separation mechanisms. On the other hand, the presence of these species in mobile phase can negatively influence the spectral domain used for UV-Vis detection. One of the main applications of these additives is to suppress the interference of residual silanols in the retention mechanism based on hydrophobic stationary phases.
The influence of residual silanols from the surface of reversed-phase stationary phases, based on derivatized silica on the retention of basic compounds is known to produce peak asymmetry and tailing [39]. A solution to improve the shape of peaks and eliminate peak tailing is the addition of ionic liquids in the composition of mobile phase, which have silanol suppressing properties [40]. This is based on the competition between the two adsorption equilibria, of ionic liquid cation and of basic analytes to the silanols, and thus, the basic analytes are less retained on these sites from the stationary phase surface. In practice, the concentration of ionic liquids is higher than that of analyte, and the analyte is practically excluded from the interaction with silanols. This effect has been observed in different applications, such as, for example, the separation of catecholoamines [41], β-lactam antibiotics [42], nucleotides [43], ephedrine derivatives [44], and fluoroquinolone [45], using imidazolium or pyridinium tetrafluoroborate ILs. However, the HPLC retention behavior of analytes in the presence of ILs in the mobile phase is influenced by both the cation and the anion due to their dissociation in aqueous medium [46].
The effect of ILs as additive on the retention of analytes depends on their polarity. The cation of IL can form ion pairs with the analytes as anions, and consequently, their retention can be increased in reversed-phase HPLC. On the other hand, the retention of organic cations is decreased by the presence of IL cation. For a complex mixture, the retention order and separation selectivity can be modified by the presence of IL in the composition of mobile phase. One example is given in Figure 11, where the separation of four compounds from a pharmaceutical formulation by the ion-pairing mechanism with sodium hexane sulphonate is carried out in the presence and absence of 1-butyl-1-methyl-pyrrolidinium tetrafluoroborate [47]. Usually, the increase of IL concentration in the mobile phase leads to an increase of analyte retention [48].
Figure 11.
Comparison between the retention of four pharmaceutical compounds (metamizole Na, metamizole impurity, fenpiverine bromide, and pitofenone hydrochloride, in the elution order), when the aqueous mobile phase contains: (1) both sodium hexane sulphonate and ionic liquid at 10 mM and (2) only 10 mM sodium hexane sulphonate (pH of the mobile phase is 3).
4. Retention behavior of ionic liquids studied as analytes in HPLC mechanisms
Separation between ionic liquids as analytes or between them and other organic species is possible by HPLC due to the differentiation in interacting with the stationary phase. The injection of samples containing ionic liquids as analytes in organic solvents has been studied by several chromatographic mechanism discussed as follows. The main possible interactions of ionic liquids, exemplified for imidazolium-based ILs with various moieties from HPLC stationary phases leading to retention, are illustrated in Figure 12. These interactions depend on the type of the stationary phase and, in many cases, on the composition of the mobile phase [49].
Figure 12.
Common intermolecular interactions between IL cation and silica gel (electrostatic interactions), C18 silica gel (van der Waals forces), and phenyl silica gel stationary phases (by cation-π interactions).
The retention on the octadecyl silica surface in the absence of ion pairing agents has revealed strong interactions between imidazolium-based cations and stationary phase, which can be used in their separation from mixtures. For a series of alkyl-imidazolium ionic liquids, the dependence of the retention factor (k), expressed as logarithm, and the number of carbon atoms from alkyl chain (nC) is described as follows:
logk=αnC+βE1
where the parameters α and β are dependent on the nature of the anion part of the ionic liquids [50]. The dependence of the retention factor of a certain ionic liquid on the mobile phase composition is described as follows:
logk=a+bCo.m.E2
where Co.m. represents the concentration of the organic modifier from the mobile phase (as percentage), and a and b are regression parameters calculated from the linear representation between the logarithm of the experimental retention factor and different mobile phase compositions used for the retention study. According to Eq. (2), the retention of IL species can be enhanced by decreasing the organic modifier (acetonitrile, methanol, and i-propanol) content in the mobile phase.
Another possibility to separate ionic liquids is the utilization of the ion-pairing mechanism. Owing to their positive charge, these ionic species can form ion pairs with opposite charged species, such as, for example, the alkylsulphonate anions, which can be interact by van der Waals forces with hydrophobic stationary phases (C8, C18, or even pentafluorophenylpropyl silica-based stationary phase) [51].
There are two models explaining the retention of ILs on hydrophobic stationary phases by the ion-pairing mechanism. The partition model supposes the formation of ion pair between IL+ and alkylsulphonate anion in the bulk of mobile phase, followed by the partition of the ion pair between the two phases, as represented by the following equilibria:
The adsorption model [52] considers that the alkylsulphonate anion is adsorbed on the stationary phase surface due to its hydrophobic chain, and the resulted charged stationary phase can interact electrostatically with the IL cation, according to the following simple equilibria:
In many cases, the graphical representations between the base 10 logarithm of the retention factor (log k) for the ionic liquid and the volume percentage of methanol in mobile phase (Co.m.) showed a characteristic “U” shape with a minimum value within the studied interval of mobile phase composition. This experimental shape can be mathematically described by a second-order polynomial equation between log k and Co.m., as follows:
logk=a+bCo.m.+cCo.m.2E3
where a is the intercept representing the extrapolated value of the retention factor (kw), which corresponds to a mobile phase composed of only the aqueous component (a = log kw for Co.m. = 0), while b and c can be calculated from the polynomial regression applied to this functional dependence. Mathematically, this dependence has a minimum point characterized by the value of Co.m., denoted by Cmin, and the value of the retention factor, that is, min(log k), according to following equations:
Cmin=−b2candminlogk=a−b24cE4
This minimum corresponds to the mobile phase composition that allows the lowest affinity of the ion pairs between studied ionic liquids and alkylsulphonate for the octadecyl silica surface. Some experimental curves for the retention behavior of two ILs by ion pairing with C6, C7, and C8 alkylsulphonate anions [53] are illustrated in Figure 13.
Figure 13.
Comparative dependences for log k versus Co.m., for the three alkylsulphonates as ion pairing agents, depicted for 1-butylpiridynium (BuPy+) bromide and 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium (All3MeIm+) chloride [53].
Ion chromatography is another HPLC technique used for the analysis of ionic liquids [54]. Depending on which part of ILs is analyzed, the selection of the stationary phase is done to separate anions or cations. For example, the mixtures of ionic liquids with tetrafluoroborate [BF4]−, hexafluorophosphate [PF6]−, and bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (triflimide) [NTf2]− anions combined with several cations based on imidazole, pyridine, and tetrahydrothiophene could be analyzed for the anion purity without any influence of IL cation, by means of anion chromatography, using as eluent Na2CO3/NaHCO3 in water-acetonitrile solutions [55]. The separation of IL cation can be performed by stationary phases with strong cationic exchanging properties, but the interaction between IL cations and stationary phase is rather complex, depending on the composition of mobile phase. The elution of mixtures of IL cations at different mobile phase compositions revealed a separation mechanism based on cation exchange, combined with nonspecific hydrophobic interactions [56].
5. Perspectives in utilization of ILs as materials for HPLC
Ionic liquids are more and more of interest in separation science. Analytical methods in high-performance liquid chromatography make use of these compounds as stationary phases having them on their surface as distinct functionalities For this purpose, more innovative stationary phases are synthetized by various approaches, involved in almost all the separation mechanisms in HPLC. Owing to the more complex structure of the IL-based stationary phases, the separation mechanism is more complex than with conventional stationary phases for reversed-phase, hydrophilic, chiral, or ionic HPLC. Ionic liquids are known as additive components in the mobile phase, and in many situations, they have improvements on the separation performances by the reduction of silanophilic interactions in liquid chromatography [57]. Owing to their charge, these additives may play the role of ion-pairing reagent and enhance the retention of dissociable compounds in reversed-phase HPLC. The interest in this class of compounds can be seen from the more increasing number of publications (research articles, reviews, and book chapters) in the last decade. This is why their perspective in liquid chromatography is not only a hope [58] but also a necessity for solving different complex problems with already proved advantages. Combinations with other materials may lead to more promising materials useful in separation applications [59].
\n',keywords:"ionic liquids, HPLC, grafted ionic liquids, imidazolium salts, pyridinium salts",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81368.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81368.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81368",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81368",totalDownloads:38,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 9th 2021",dateReviewed:"March 2nd 2022",datePrePublished:"April 18th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 18th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Ionic liquids (ILs) are salts of organic cations that are present in liquid state. They can be used as alternative to organic solvents for various analytical processes such as extracting solvents in sample preparation, or as mobile phase or components of the mobile phase in high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Also they can be used as stationary phase in gas chromatography (GC), or attached to a solid support as stationary phase in HPLC. Ils are typically more environmentally-friendly solvents than the classic organic solvents having low volatility, flammability and toxicity. The chapter presents various applications of ILs in liquid chromatography.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81368",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81368",signatures:"Victor David and Serban C. Moldoveanu",book:{id:"11204",type:"book",title:"Analytical Liquid Chromatography - New Perspectives",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Analytical Liquid Chromatography - New Perspectives",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Serban Moldoveanu and Prof. Victor David",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11204.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-514-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-513-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-515-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"91597",title:"Dr.",name:"Serban",middleName:null,surname:"Moldoveanu",slug:"serban-moldoveanu",fullName:"Serban Moldoveanu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"91597",title:"Dr.",name:"Serban",middleName:null,surname:"Moldoveanu",fullName:"Serban Moldoveanu",slug:"serban-moldoveanu",email:"moldovs@rjrt.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/91597/images/system/91597.jpg",institution:null},{id:"278733",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"David",fullName:"Victor David",slug:"victor-david",email:"chem_vdavid@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/278733/images/system/278733.png",institution:{name:"University of Bucharest",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Stationary phases with attached structures of ionic liquids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Ionic liquids as additives in mobile phase",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Retention behavior of ionic liquids studied as analytes in HPLC mechanisms",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Perspectives in utilization of ILs as materials for HPLC",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Ho TD, Zhang C, Hantao LW, Anderson JL. Ionic liquids in analytical chemistry: Fundamentals, advances, and perspectives. Analytical Chemistry. 2014;86:262-285'},{id:"B2",body:'McDaniel JG, Yethiraj A. Understanding the properties of ionic liquids: Electrostatics, structure factors, and their sum rules. Journal of Physical Chemistry B. 2019;16:3499-3512'},{id:"B3",body:'Zhang S, Sun N, He X, Lu X, Zhang X. Physical properties of ionic liquids: Database and evaluation. 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New poly(ionic liquid)-grafted silica multi-mode stationary phase for anion-exchange/reversed-phase/hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography. The Analyst. 2012;137:2553-2555'},{id:"B31",body:'Qiu H, Takafuji M, Sawada T, Liu X, Jiang S, Ihara H. New strategy for drastic enhancement of selectivity via chemical modification of counter anions in ionic liquid polymer phase. Chemical Communications. 2010;46:8740-8742'},{id:"B32",body:'Qiu H, Zhang M, Chen J, Gu T, Takafuji M, Ihara H. Anionic and cationic copolymerized ionic liquid-grafted silica as a multifunctional stationary phase for reversed-phase chromatography. Analytical Methods. 2014;6:469-475'},{id:"B33",body:'Zhang M, Chen J, Qiu H, Mallik AK, Takafuji M, Ihara H. Homogenous formation and quaternization of urea-functionalized imidazolyl silane and its immobilization on silica for surface-confined ionic liquid stationary phases. RSC Advances. 2014;4:34654-34658'},{id:"B34",body:'Qiao L, Shi X, Lu X, Xu X. Preparation and evaluation of surface-bonded tricationic ionic liquid silica as stationary phases for high-performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A. 2015;1396:62-71'},{id:"B35",body:'Liu H, Guo Y, Wang X, Liang X, Liu X. Amino-terminated ionic liquid modified grapheme oxide coated silica composite stationary phase for hydrophilic interaction chromatography. RSC Advances. 2014;4:37381-37388'},{id:"B36",body:'Liang X, Chen Q , Liu Q , Jiang S. Comparison of liquid chromato-graphic behaviors on methylimidazolium functionalized ZrO2/SiO2-4 and N-methylimidazolium functionalized SiO2 stationary phases. Journal of Chromatography A. 2008;1182:197-204'},{id:"B37",body:'Zhou Z, Li X, Chen X, Hao X. Synthesis of ionic liquids functionalized β-cyclodextrin-bonded chiral stationary phases and their applications in high-performance liquid chromatography. Analytica Chimica Acta. 2010;678:208-214'},{id:"B38",body:'Liu D, Wang H, Liang M, Nie Y, Liu Y, Yin M, et al. Polymerized phosphonium ionic liquid functionalized silica microspheres as mixed-mode stationary phase for liquid chromatographic separation of phospholipids. Journal of Chromatography A. 2021;1660:462676'},{id:"B39",body:'Moldoveanu SC, David V. Selection of the HPLC Method in Chemical Analysis. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2017'},{id:"B40",body:'Marszal MP, Baczek T, Kaliszan R. Reduction of silanophilic interactions in liquid chromatography with the use of ionic liquids. Analytica Chimica Acta. 2005;547:172-178'},{id:"B41",body:'Zhang W-Z, He L-J, Gu Y, Liu X, Jiang S-X. Effect of ionic liquids as mobile phase additives on retention of catecholoamines in reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. Analytical Letters. 2003;36:827-838'},{id:"B42",body:'Han D, Wang Y, Jin Y, Row KH. Analysis of some β-lactam antibiotics using ionic liquids as mobile phase additives by RP-HPLC. Journal of Chromatographic Science. 2011;49:63-66'},{id:"B43",body:'Zhang W-Z, He L-J, Liu X, Jiang S-X. Ionic liquids as mobile phase additives for separation of nucleotides in high-performance liquid chromatography. Chinese Journal of Chemistry. 2004;22:549-552'},{id:"B44",body:'He L-J, Zhang W-Z, Zhao L, Liu X, Jiang S-X. Effect of 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium-based ionic liquids as the eluent on the separation of ephedrines by liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A. 2003;1007:39-45'},{id:"B45",body:'Antonio VH, Javier H, Miguel AR. Ionic liquids as mobile phase additives for the high-performance liquid chromatographic analysis of fluoroquinolone antibiotics in water samples. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 2008;392:1439-1446'},{id:"B46",body:'Treder N, Oledzka I, Roszkowska A, Baczek T, Plenis A. Control of retention mechanisms on an octadecyl-bonded silica column using ionic liquid based mobile phase in analysis of cytostatic drugs by liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A. 2021;1651:462257'},{id:"B47",body:'Galaon T, Radulescu M, David V, Medvedovici A. Use of an immiscible diluent in ionic liquid/ion pair LC for the assay of an injectable analgesic. Central European Journal of Chemistry. 2012;10(4):1360-1368'},{id:"B48",body:'Jiang Q , Qiu H, Wang X, Liu X, Zhang S. Effect of ionic liquids as additives on the separation of bases and amino acids in HPLC. Journal of Liquid Chromatography & Related Technologies. 2008;31(10):1448-1457'},{id:"B49",body:'Studzinska S, Buszewski B. Study of retention mechanism of imidazolium-based ionic liquids in HPLC. Journal of Separation Science. 2010;33(9):1264-1273'},{id:"B50",body:'Ruiz-Angel MJ, Berthod A. Reversed phase liquid chromatography of alkyl-imidazolium ionic liquids. Journal of Chromatography A. 2006;1113:101-108'},{id:"B51",body:'Nichthauser J, Stepnowski P. Retention mechanism of selected ionic liquids on a pentafluorophenylpropyl polar phase: Investigation using RP-HPLC. Journal of Chromatographic Science. 2009;47:247-253'},{id:"B52",body:'Bartha A, Stahlberg J. Electrostatic retention model of reversed-phase ion-pair chromatography. Journal of Chromatography. A. 1994;668:255-284'},{id:"B53",body:'Radulescu M, Iorgulescu EE, Mihailciuc C, David V. Comparative study of the adsorption of pyridinium and imidazolium based ionic liquids on octadecylsilica stationary phase under ion pairing mechanism with alkylsulphonate anions. Revue Roumaine de Chimie. 2012;56(1):61-67'},{id:"B54",body:'Paszkiewicz M, Stepnowski P. How should ionic liquids be analyzed. Current Organic Chemistry. 2011;15(12):1873-1887'},{id:"B55",body:'Rutz C, Schmolke L, Gvilava V, Janiak C. Anion analysis of ionic liquids and ionic liquid purity assessment by ion chromatography. Journal of Inorganic and General Chemistry. 2017;643(1):130-135'},{id:"B56",body:'Stepnowski P, Mrozik W. Analysis of selected ionic liquid cations by ion exchange chromatography and reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Separation Science. 2005;28(2):149-152'},{id:"B57",body:'Marszal MP, Kaliszan R. Application of ionic liquids in liquid chromatography. Critical Reviews in Analytical Chemistry. 2007;37:127-140'},{id:"B58",body:'Ali I, Suhail M, Sanagi MM, Aboul-Enein HY. Ionic liquids in HPLC and CE: A hope for future. Critical Reviews in Analytical Chemistry. 2017;47(4):332-339'},{id:"B59",body:'Hui BY, Raoov M, Zain NDM, Mohamad S, Osman H. Combination of cyclodextrin and ionic liquid in analytical chemistry: Current and future perspectives. Critical Reviews in Analytical Chemistry. 2017;47(5):454-467'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Victor David",address:"victor.david@chimie.unibuc.ro",affiliation:'
Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Bucharest, Faculty of Chemistry, Romania
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The vacuum thermal evaporation technique, electron beam evaporation, pulsed-layer deposition, direct current/radio frequency magnetron sputtering, and chemical route deposition systems will be discussed in detail.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Asim Jilani, Mohamed Shaaban Abdel-wahab and Ahmed Hosny\nHammad",authors:[{id:"192377",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Jilani",slug:"asim-jilani",fullName:"Asim Jilani"},{id:"192972",title:"Dr.",name:"M.Sh",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel-Wahab",slug:"m.sh-abdel-wahab",fullName:"M.Sh Abdel-Wahab"},{id:"192973",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"H",surname:"Hammad",slug:"ahmed-hammad",fullName:"Ahmed Hammad"}]},{id:"17722",doi:"10.5772/23174",title:"Study of SiO2/Si Interface by Surface Techniques",slug:"study-of-sio2-si-interface-by-surface-techniques",totalDownloads:14157,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:null,book:{id:"332",slug:"crystalline-silicon-properties-and-uses",title:"Crystalline Silicon",fullTitle:"Crystalline Silicon - Properties and Uses"},signatures:"Rodica Ghita, Constantin Logofatu, Catalin-Constantin Negrila, Florica Ungureanu, Costel Cotirlan, Adrian-Stefan Manea, Mihail-Florin Lazarescu and Corneliu Ghica",authors:[{id:"50919",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodica V.",middleName:null,surname:"Ghita",slug:"rodica-v.-ghita",fullName:"Rodica V. Ghita"},{id:"57132",title:"Dr.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Logofatu",slug:"constantin-logofatu",fullName:"Constantin Logofatu"},{id:"57133",title:"Dr.",name:"Catalin-Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Negrila",slug:"catalin-constantin-negrila",fullName:"Catalin-Constantin Negrila"},{id:"57134",title:"Mrs.",name:"Florica",middleName:null,surname:"Ungureanu",slug:"florica-ungureanu",fullName:"Florica Ungureanu"},{id:"57135",title:"Dr.",name:"Costel",middleName:null,surname:"Cotirlan",slug:"costel-cotirlan",fullName:"Costel Cotirlan"},{id:"57136",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian-Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Manea",slug:"adrian-stefan-manea",fullName:"Adrian-Stefan Manea"},{id:"57137",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihail-Florin",middleName:null,surname:"Lazarescu",slug:"mihail-florin-lazarescu",fullName:"Mihail-Florin Lazarescu"},{id:"101735",title:"Dr.",name:"Corneliu",middleName:null,surname:"Ghica",slug:"corneliu-ghica",fullName:"Corneliu Ghica"}]},{id:"53225",doi:"10.5772/66396",title:"Radio Frequency Magnetron Sputter Deposition as a Tool for Surface Modification of Medical Implants",slug:"radio-frequency-magnetron-sputter-deposition-as-a-tool-for-surface-modification-of-medical-implants",totalDownloads:2294,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"The resent advances in radio frequency (RF)‐magnetron sputtering of hydroxyapatite films are reviewed and challenges posed. The principles underlying RF‐magnetron sputtering used to prepare calcium phosphate‐based, mainly hydroxyapatite coatings, are discussed in this chapter. The fundamental characteristic of the RF‐magnetron sputtering is an energy input into the growing film. In order to tailor the film properties, one has to adjust the energy input into the substrate depending on the desired film properties. The effect of different deposition control parameters, such as deposition time, substrate temperature, and substrate biasing on the hydroxyapatite (HA) film properties is discussed.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Roman Surmenev, Alina Vladescu, Maria Surmeneva, Anna Ivanova,\nMariana Braic, Irina Grubova and Cosmin Mihai Cotrut",authors:[{id:"193921",title:"Dr.",name:"Alina",middleName:null,surname:"Vladescu",slug:"alina-vladescu",fullName:"Alina Vladescu"},{id:"193922",title:"Prof.",name:"Roman",middleName:null,surname:"Surmenev",slug:"roman-surmenev",fullName:"Roman Surmenev"},{id:"193923",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Surmeneva",slug:"maria-surmeneva",fullName:"Maria Surmeneva"},{id:"193948",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Braic",slug:"mariana-braic",fullName:"Mariana Braic"},{id:"194047",title:"Ms.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanova",slug:"anna-ivanova",fullName:"Anna Ivanova"},{id:"194048",title:"BSc.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Grubova",slug:"irina-grubova",fullName:"Irina Grubova"},{id:"196398",title:"Prof.",name:"Cosmin Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Cotrut",slug:"cosmin-mihai-cotrut",fullName:"Cosmin Mihai Cotrut"}]},{id:"21157",doi:"10.5772/24330",title:"Compilation on Synthesis, Characterization and Properties of Silicon and Boron Carbonitride Films",slug:"compilation-on-synthesis-characterization-and-properties-of-silicon-and-boron-carbonitride-films",totalDownloads:5215,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:null,book:{id:"326",slug:"silicon-carbide-materials-processing-and-applications-in-electronic-devices",title:"Silicon Carbide",fullTitle:"Silicon Carbide - Materials, Processing and Applications in Electronic Devices"},signatures:"P. Hoffmann, N. Fainer, M. Kosinova, O. Baake and W. Ensinger",authors:[{id:"56722",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Hoffmann",slug:"peter-hoffmann",fullName:"Peter Hoffmann"},{id:"56726",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Kosinova",slug:"marina-kosinova",fullName:"Marina Kosinova"},{id:"56727",title:"Prof.",name:"Wolfgang",middleName:null,surname:"Ensinger",slug:"wolfgang-ensinger",fullName:"Wolfgang Ensinger"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52684",title:"Advance Deposition Techniques for Thin Film and Coating",slug:"advance-deposition-techniques-for-thin-film-and-coating",totalDownloads:7715,totalCrossrefCites:32,totalDimensionsCites:61,abstract:"Thin films have a great impact on the modern era of technology. Thin films are considered as backbone for advanced applications in the various fields such as optical devices, environmental applications, telecommunications devices, energy storage devices, and so on . The crucial issue for all applications of thin films depends on their morphology and the stability. The morphology of the thin films strongly hinges on deposition techniques. Thin films can be deposited by the physical and chemical routes. In this chapter, we discuss some advance techniques and principles of thin-film depositions. The vacuum thermal evaporation technique, electron beam evaporation, pulsed-layer deposition, direct current/radio frequency magnetron sputtering, and chemical route deposition systems will be discussed in detail.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Asim Jilani, Mohamed Shaaban Abdel-wahab and Ahmed Hosny\nHammad",authors:[{id:"192377",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Jilani",slug:"asim-jilani",fullName:"Asim Jilani"},{id:"192972",title:"Dr.",name:"M.Sh",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel-Wahab",slug:"m.sh-abdel-wahab",fullName:"M.Sh Abdel-Wahab"},{id:"192973",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"H",surname:"Hammad",slug:"ahmed-hammad",fullName:"Ahmed Hammad"}]},{id:"68467",title:"Semiconductor Nanocomposites for Visible Light Photocatalysis of Water Pollutants",slug:"semiconductor-nanocomposites-for-visible-light-photocatalysis-of-water-pollutants",totalDownloads:1821,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Semiconductor photocatalysis gained reputation in the early 1970s when Fujishima and Honda revealed the potential of TiO2 to split water in to hydrogen and oxygen in a photoelectrochemical cell. Their work provided the base for the development of semiconductor photocatalysis for the environmental remediation and energy applications. Photoactivity of some semiconductors was found to be low due to larger band gap energy and higher electron-hole pair recombination rate. To avoid these problems, the development of visible light responsive photocatalytic materials by different approaches, such as metal and/or non-metal doping, co-doping, coupling of semiconductors, composites and heterojunctions materials synthesis has been widely investigated and explored in systematic manner. This chapter emphasizes on the different type of tailored photocatalyst materials having the enhanced visible light absorption properties, lower band gap energy and recombination rate of electron-hole pairs and production of reactive radical species. Visible light active semiconductors for the environmental remediation purposes, particularly for water treatment and disinfection are also discussed in detail. Studies on the photocatalytic degradation of emerging organic compounds like cyanotoxins, VOCs, phenols, pharmaceuticals, etc., by employing variety of modified semiconductors, are summarized, and a mechanistic aspects of the photocatalysis has been discussed.",book:{id:"7671",slug:"concepts-of-semiconductor-photocatalysis",title:"Concepts of Semiconductor Photocatalysis",fullTitle:"Concepts of Semiconductor Photocatalysis"},signatures:"Fatima Imtiaz, Jamshaid Rashid and Ming Xu",authors:[{id:"292882",title:"Dr.",name:"Jamshaid",middleName:null,surname:"Rashid",slug:"jamshaid-rashid",fullName:"Jamshaid Rashid"},{id:"302498",title:"Ms.",name:"Fatima",middleName:null,surname:"Imtiaz",slug:"fatima-imtiaz",fullName:"Fatima Imtiaz"},{id:"308434",title:"Prof.",name:"Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"ming-xu",fullName:"Ming Xu"}]},{id:"17728",title:"Defect Related Luminescence in Silicon Dioxide Network: A Review",slug:"defect-related-luminescence-in-silicon-dioxide-network-a-review",totalDownloads:9504,totalCrossrefCites:46,totalDimensionsCites:97,abstract:null,book:{id:"332",slug:"crystalline-silicon-properties-and-uses",title:"Crystalline Silicon",fullTitle:"Crystalline Silicon - Properties and Uses"},signatures:"Roushdey Salh",authors:[{id:"48391",title:"Dr.",name:"Roushdey",middleName:null,surname:"Salh",slug:"roushdey-salh",fullName:"Roushdey Salh"}]},{id:"58469",title:"The Electrochemical Performance of Deposited Manganese Oxide-Based Film as Electrode Material for Electrochemical Capacitor Application",slug:"the-electrochemical-performance-of-deposited-manganese-oxide-based-film-as-electrode-material-for-el",totalDownloads:1746,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The transition metal oxide has been recognized as one of the promising electrode materials for electrochemical capacitor application. Due to the participation of charge transfer reactions, the capacitance offered by transition metal oxide can be higher compared to double layer capacitance. The investigation on hydrous ruthenium oxide has revealed the surface redox reactions that contributed to the wide potential window shown on cyclic voltammetry curve. Although the performance of ruthenium oxide is impressive, its toxicity has limited itself from commercial application. Manganese oxide is a pseudocapacitive material behaves similar to ruthenium oxide. It consists of various oxidation states which allow the occurrence of redox reactions. It is also environmental friendly, low cost, and natural abundant. The charge storage of manganese oxide film takes into account of the redox reactions between Mn3+ and Mn4+ and can be accounted to two mechanisms. The first one involves the intercalation/deintercalation of electrolyte ions and/or protons upon reduction/oxidation processes. The second contributor for the charge storage is due to the surface adsorption of electrolyte ions on the electrode surface.",book:{id:"6083",slug:"semiconductors-growth-and-characterization",title:"Semiconductors",fullTitle:"Semiconductors - Growth and Characterization"},signatures:"Chan Pei Yi and Siti Rohana Majid",authors:[{id:"197956",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"S.R.",middleName:null,surname:"Majid",slug:"s.r.-majid",fullName:"S.R. Majid"},{id:"216449",title:"Ms.",name:"Pei Yi",middleName:null,surname:"Chan",slug:"pei-yi-chan",fullName:"Pei Yi Chan"}]},{id:"60792",title:"TCAD Device Modelling and Simulation of Wide Bandgap Power Semiconductors",slug:"tcad-device-modelling-and-simulation-of-wide-bandgap-power-semiconductors",totalDownloads:2142,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Technology computer-aided Design (TCAD) is essential for devices technology development, including wide bandgap power semiconductors. However, most TCAD tools were originally developed for silicon and their performance and accuracy for wide bandgap semiconductors is contentious. This chapter will deal with TCAD device modelling of wide bandgap power semiconductors. In particular, modelling and simulating 3C- and 4H-Silicon Carbide (SiC), Gallium Nitride (GaN) and Diamond devices are examined. The challenges associated with modelling the material and device physics are analyzed in detail. It also includes convergence issues and accuracy of predicted performance. Modelling and simulating defects, traps and the effect of these traps on the characteristics are also discussed.",book:{id:"6625",slug:"disruptive-wide-bandgap-semiconductors-related-technologies-and-their-applications",title:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications",fullTitle:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications"},signatures:"Neophytos Lophitis, Anastasios Arvanitopoulos, Samuel Perkins and\nMarina Antoniou",authors:[{id:"236488",title:"Dr.",name:"Neophytos",middleName:null,surname:"Lophitis",slug:"neophytos-lophitis",fullName:"Neophytos Lophitis"},{id:"247344",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Antoniou",slug:"marina-antoniou",fullName:"Marina Antoniou"},{id:"247347",title:"Mr.",name:"Anastasios",middleName:null,surname:"Arvanitopoulos",slug:"anastasios-arvanitopoulos",fullName:"Anastasios Arvanitopoulos"},{id:"247349",title:"Mr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Perkins",slug:"samuel-perkins",fullName:"Samuel Perkins"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"159",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. 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Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:250,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. Asimeng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"9",type:"subseries",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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