Antibacterial activity of pomegranate extracts against different bacteria.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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\r\n\tThe global population will be nearly 10 billion by 2050, which means there will be about 2 billion more mouths to feed than in 2021. Rice is one of the most important staple foods in the world, where more than half of the population relies on it for more than 20% of their daily caloric intake. It is projected that global rice production will need to increase by 70% by 2050 to meet the food demands of the world’s growing population. Satisfying future rice demands will mainly depend on our ability to improve rice productivity rather than on the area enlargement of rice paddies because of space limitations caused by urban expansion. At the same time, we also require efforts to improve the rice quality because the demand and consumption of high-quality rice will increase as living standards improve. In addition, we urgently need to develop new technologies and strategies to overcome the constraints (e.g., climate change, soil degradation, and biodiversity loss) confronting the sustainable development of rice production. This book will aim to collect original research and review articles focused on but not limited to, the topics of rice productivity, quality, and sustainability.
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As the central nervous system (CNS) evolved from a basic network structure to compacted ganglia and centralized brains, two types of connections emerged as specialized structures favoring the integration of neural networks [1]. In 1897, Sherrington proposed the point of functional contact between neurons as the specific area at which transfer of information takes place and named it “synapsis,” soon shortened to the “synapse,” from the Greek word
Basic structure of connexin-based channels. Connexins have four α-helical transmembrane domains connected by two extracellular loops and one cytoplasmic loop; both the amino- and carboxy-termini are intracellular. The relative positions of the extracellular loop cysteines (red balls) are also shown. Hemichannels (also known as connexons) are formed by the oligomerization of six subunit connexins around a central pore. Under resting conditions, hemichannels remain preferentially closed, but they may be activated by diverse physiological and pathological conditions and offer a diffuse transmembrane route between the intra- and extracellular milieu. Hemichannels dock each other to form functional cell-to-cell channels termed gap junction channels (right panel). Gap junction channels aggregate in well-known anatomical structures called gap junctions to facilitate the intercellular cytoplasmic exchange of metabolites, second messengers, and ions.
The traditional notion of neurons being the only functional elements in the synapse has been questioned with the finding that intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) waves within and among astrocytes underlie the regenerative (nondissipative) transfer of biological signals [5, 6, 7]. Although astrocytes are not electrically silent cells [8], [Ca2+]i signals are their principal fast time-scale mechanism for allowing intra- and intercellular signaling [9]. These signals base their origin on the extracellular influx of Ca2+ via ion channels and through Ca2+ release from intracellular stores, resulting in [Ca2+]i transients that differ in frequency, kinetics, and spatial spread depending on the astroglial anatomical region [10]. Endowed with this machinery and along with pre- and postsynaptic neuronal elements, astrocytes embrace the “tripartite synapse”—the Rosetta stone of the chemical synaptic transmission—in where they sense neurotransmission and respond to it by releasing biomolecules that regulate neuronal activity called “gliotransmitters” (i.e., glutamate, D-serine, and ATP) [11]. Intracellular [Ca2+]i waves can spread among astrocytes to finally reach the terminal processes or “endfeet” of specialized astrocytes that contact the endothelium [12]. There, vasoactive molecules are released, permitting astrocytes to modulate the cerebral blood flow (CBF) and delivery of energy substances (i.e., glucose and lactate) with potentially significant consequences for neuronal firing and higher brain functions [13]. Indeed, a single astrocyte may contact over 100,000 synapses in rodents and up to 2,000,000 synapses in humans, revealing that they actually form a syncytium with multiple connections [14].
Nowadays, diverse mechanisms have been proposed to lead to gliotransmitter release (Figure 1), including Ca2+-dependent exocytosis [15, 16, 17], carrier membrane transport [18], and opening of a wide range of channels. Among the latter group, volume-regulated anion channels [19, 20, 21], P2X7 receptors [22, 23, 24], Ca2+-dependent Cl− channel bestrophin 1 [25, 26], and hemichannels [27, 28, 29, 30] are included. This chapter reviews and discusses recent data supporting a role for hemichannels as pathways for gliotransmission and relevant actors in that tuning of synaptic transmission and plasticity.
During the past decade, a growing body of evidence began to support a novel mechanism of autocrine/paracrine communication underlying gliotransmission and astrocyte-to-neuron communication: hemichannel-mediated signaling [31]. Each hemichannel is composed of the oligomerization of six protein subunits called connexins around a central pore (Figure 1). Connexins embrace a highly conserved protein family encoded by 21 genes in humans and 20 in mice, with orthologs in other vertebrate species [32]. These proteins are abundantly expressed in brain cells [33], including astrocytes [34], and they are named after their predicted molecular mass expressed in kDa, for instance, connexin 43 (Cx43) has a molecular mass of ~43 kDa [35]. For several years, the key function attributed to hemichannels was to constitute the building blocks of the gap junction channels, which are intercellular channels that allow the direct cytoplasmic exchange between contacting cells [35]. Nonetheless, in the 1990s, pioneering findings by Paul and colleagues revealed the presence of functional and solitary hemichannels in “nonjunctional” membranes [36]. Today, it is well accepted that these channels act like aqueous pores, providing a diffusional route of exchange for ions and molecules between the intra- and extracellular space [37]. Across the different tissues, hemichannels allow the cellular release of relevant quantities of autocrine and paracrine signaling molecules (e.g., ATP, glutamate, D-serine, NAD+, and PGE2), as well as the influx of other substances (i.e., Ca2+ and glucose) [37].
Since their discovery, hemichannels have been linked with cellular damage. This idea came from early studies suggesting that osmotic and ionic imbalances induced by the uncontrolled influx of Na2+ and Cl− through hemichannels could result in further cell swelling and plasma membrane breakdown [36]. In addition, it has been proposed that because hemichannels are permeable to Ca2+, their uncontrolled opening could lead to Ca2+ overload and the consequent production of free radicals, lipid peroxidation, and plasma membrane damage [38]. Alternatively, exacerbated hemichannel activity could also induce the release of molecules that at high concentration may be toxic for neighboring cells, such as glutamate, in the case of the CNS [39]. Despite the above, in the last decade, a substantial body of studies has proposed that hemichannels may underpin pivotal neurophysiological functions, such as synaptic efficacy, neural activity, signal processing, cognition, and behavior [27, 28, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44].
Although rat, mouse, and human astrocytes express abundantly Cx30 and Cx43, as well as Cx26 [45, 46, 47, 48, 49], at the moment, Cx43 is the only connexin probed to form functional hemichannels in astrocytes [50]. The opening of astroglial Cx43 hemichannels has been linked with the release of different gliotransmitters (e.g., glutamate, ATP, D-serine, lactate), as well as with the influx of extracellular Ca2+ and glucose. Seminal studies by Torres and colleagues demonstrated for the first time that astrocyte hemichannels may act as both sensors and modulators of synaptic activity [43]. Using UV-photolysis of caged MNI-glutamate in hippocampal slices, they found that specific deletion of Cx43 abrogates ATP-dependent spreading of slow Ca2+ waves among astrocytes. Furthermore, these slow Ca2+ waves were potentiated when authors used slices from transgenic mice with an astrocyte-targeted point mutation (Cx43G138R) that leads to an increased Cx43 hemichannel opening [51]. In addition, they observed that depolarization of inhibitory interneurons from the stratum radiatum reduced CA1 excitatory transmission via the astroglial Cx43 hemichannel-mediated release of ATP and subsequent stimulation of interneuronal P2Y1 receptors [43]. These data shed light for the first time about how astrocyte Cx43 hemichannels may underpin a negative feedback mechanism elicited during sustained excitation to prevent excitotoxicity (Figure 2).
Possible role of astroglial hemichannels in hippocampal synaptic transmission. During the basal firing of glutamatergic neurons in the hippocampus, Ca2+ influx into neurons results in a localized reduction in [Ca2+]e, which in turn opens Cx43 hemichannels (HCs) on astrocytes [
Although in normal astrocytes few Cx43 hemichannels are in the plasma membrane and most of them with a low open probability, recent findings have described that they facilitate the release of ATP under basal conditions [27, 41]. Chever and co-workers observed that basal release of ATP via astroglial Cx43 hemichannels is enough to boost the CA1 synaptic transmission triggered by stimulation of Schaffer collaterals, an effect mediated by purinergic receptors [27] (Figure 2). Likely the insertion of postsynaptic AMPA receptors as a result of the activation of P2X7 receptors could explain the ATP-dependent potentiation of glutamatergic transmission, as reported before in other brain areas [52]. Astroglial hemichannels also have been found to regulate neuronal activity in the olfactory bulb (OB) [41]. There, the group of Giaume demonstrated that pharmacological inhibition of Cx43 hemichannels decreased the firing and amplitude of depolarized states in mitral cells. Similar findings were observed in mitral cells of OB slices with specific astroglial deletion of Cx43 [41] or in slices treated with A1 adenosine receptor antagonists. These findings denote that likely astrocyte Cx43 hemichannels enhance the amplitude of depolarized states of mitral cells through the release of ATP and its further breakdown to adenosine (Figure 3). Usually, A1 receptors induce the presynaptic inhibition of glutamate release, reduced postsynaptic NMDAR activation, and decreased Ca2+ influx [53]. Therefore, it is possible that the adenosine-mediated enhancement of depolarized states is due to the suppression of inhibitory juxtaglomerular interneurons, as occurred in other brain areas [54] (Figure 3).
Implications of astroglial hemichannel activity in neuronal oscillations of the olfactory bulb. Spontaneous neuronal activity in the glomerular layer of the olfactory bulb requires glutamatergic transmission. In this scenario, astrocytes display a basal release of ATP via Cx43 hemichannels (HCs) [
Astroglial Cx43 hemichannels have been involved not only in synaptic function and transmission but also in synaptic plasticity. High-frequency stimulation (HFS) of neuronal layer 2/3 (L2/3) triggers glutamatergic synaptic transmission in pyramidal cells at layer 5 (L5) of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) [55]. In this context and using PFC slices, Meunier and colleagues observed that genetic ablation of Cx43 or inhibition of Cx43 hemichannels strongly counteracts the NMDAR-dependent excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) and increases AMPA/NMDA current ratio induced by HSF in L5 [28]. Relevantly, the latter responses did not occur when D-serine was added at the recording media, revealing that the release of D-serine and astroglial hemichannel function are linked and modulate NMDAR-dependent synaptic transmission in PFC pyramidal cells. Furthermore, when [Ca2+]i was clamped or D-serine production was inhibited in the L5 astroglial network, HFS failed to potentiate the NMDAR-dependent synaptic currents [28] (Figure 4). Accordingly, the authors hypothesized that potentiation of glutamatergic transmission at the PFC relies on [Ca2+]i-mediated opening of astroglial Cx43 hemichannels and the further release of D-serine (Figure 4).
Astroglial hemichannels and their impact on synaptic plasticity in the prefrontal cortex. In the prefrontal cortex, continuous stimulation of layer 2/3 neurons induces long-term potentiation (LTP) of NMDA and AMPA receptor currents in layer 5 pyramidal neurons. In this context, [Ca2+]i is needed for the opening of Cx43 hemichannels (HCs) in astrocytes [
The impact of astroglial hemichannels on synaptic transmission and plasticity has a subsequent echo on higher brain function and behavior. Indeed, in vivo inhibition of Cx43 hemichannels at the basolateral amygdala causes transitory and specific amnesia for auditory fear conditioning [42]. Remarkably, learning capacity was restored by the co-administration of a cocktail of supposed gliotransmitters (lactate, glutamate, D-serine, glutamine, glycine, and ATP), evidencing for the first time a physiological involvement for astroglial Cx43 hemichannels in higher brain function. In the same line, a recent study found that intraventricular administration of Gap19, a specific Cx43 hemichannel blocker [56], significantly impairs the spatial short-term memory, as assayed with the delayed spontaneous alternation Y maze task [44].
The impact of functional astroglial hemichannels in synaptic transmission and plasticity may depend on the number of channels available in the plasma membrane, their open probability, and their conductance and/or selectivity. Of particular relevance is to disentangle how synaptic function is modulated by regulations in gating properties of astroglial hemichannels, as well as changes in their trafficking or de novo synthesis. Elucidating the latter will allow us to understand whether hemichannel opening in astrocytes tunes the temporal outcome for sculpting either short-term (milliseconds to a few minutes) or long-term (minutes to hours) plasticity in the nervous system. One point of concern is the urgent need of developing new molecular and pharmacological tools to specifically dissect the contribution of astroglial hemichannels to the function of neural networks without affecting other hemichannel-forming proteins in other brain cells (e.g., microglia, oligodendrocytes, and endothelial cells). Finally, although growing evidence in ex vivo preparations has extended our knowledge about the role of astroglial hemichannels in gliotransmission, additional data are necessary to demonstrate whether this truly occurs in vivo.
This work was supported by (i) the Comisión Nacional de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica (CONICYT) and Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo Científico y Tecnológico (FONDECYT) Grant 1160710 (to JAO) and (ii) the CONICYT and Programa de Investigación Asociativa (PIA) Grant Anillo de Ciencia y Tecnología ACT1411 (to JAO). The author did part of the schematics with support of the free online Servier Medical Art repository (https://smart.servier.com/).
The author declares no conflict of interest.
Infectious diseases caused by pathogenic microbes are a fundamental problem and remain one of the major factors behind high morbidity and mortality across the world, especially in developing countries. This is exacerbated by the world-wide emergence of antibiotic-resistant pathogens which has in turn given increased urgency to the discovery of new antimicrobial compounds, including those derived from plants [1, 2].
The pomegranate, fruit of the
The phytochemistry of pomegranate extracts is well described in the literature [10, 11, 12] and they are known to be rich in bioactive compounds especially polyphenolics including anthocyanins and ellagitannins, in particular punicalagin, which is in the highest proportion [13]. As will be seen, it has become apparent that the pomegranate possesses unusual broad-spectrum potency against a wide range of species, which generally correlates with its polyphenol concentration.
In this chapter we aim to summarise published research into pomegranate extracts as antimicrobials and discuss some of the purported mechanisms behind such activity. Finally, the enhancement of antimicrobial activity by co-administration with metal ions is considered.
Pomegranate extracts have shown antimicrobial activity against to a range of oral microbes. It has been found that pomegranate extract powder at 1 mg/mL was effective against primary and secondary colonizer bacteria of dental plaque:
Moreover, ‘standardized’ pomegranate peel extract showed higher antimicrobial activity than other parts of pomegranate (flower, leaf, stem) and ciprofloxacin (2 mg/mL) against
Due to its antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, pomegranate extract has been studied for its preservation potential use in the food industry. Kannat
The activity of pomegranate extract against bacteria is summarized in Table 1.
Part of pomegranate used | Form | Test organisms | MICs | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
PomElla® (30% punicalagin) | 0.8 μg/mL 0.2 μg/mL 0.2 μg/mL 0.8 μg/mL | [16] | ||
Peel | Acetonic, Methanolic, Ethanolic PPE and Hydro-alcoholic PPE | 0.0125–0.025 mg/mL 12.5–25 mg/mL 0.0125–0.025 mg/mL 0.05–0.4 mg/mL 12.5–25 mg/mL 3.15–100 mg/mL 10 mg/mL 10 mg/mL | [17, 18] | |
Peel, flower, leaf, stem | Aqueous and methanolic | [19] | ||
Peel | Basic gel formulation including 540 mg pomegranate peel powder | 1:16 1:128 1:16 1:64 | [20] | |
Pomegranate mouthwash (Pomegranate extract were obtained from Verdure science, 30% punicalagin) | 62.5 mg/mL >31.25 mg/mL 16.125 mg/mL | [21] | ||
Peel | Methanolic PPE | 250 μg/mL 250 μg/mL 250 μg/mL 1000 μg/mL | [15] | |
Fruit pericarp | Methanolic | 640–2560 μg/mL 1280–2560 μg/mL 640–2560 μg/mL | [9] | |
Peel | Standardized extract (13% ellagic acid) | 15.6 μg/mL 7.81 μg/mL 7.81–15.6 μg/mL 7.81 μg/mL | [14] | |
Peel | Water | 200–450 ppm | [24] | |
Peel | Acetonic, methanolic, water | 200–400 ppm 150–500 ppm 200–450 ppm 200–700 ppm 200–400 ppm | [25] | |
Fruit | Water | 100 mg/mL 100 mg/mL 100 mg/mL | [27] | |
Peel | Ethanolic, methanolic | [28] |
Antibacterial activity of pomegranate extracts against different bacteria.
Treatment of fungal infections is a big challenge because of the eukaryotic nature of fungal cells that have similarity with host cells. While there are some drugs in the treatment of fungal infections available in the clinic, they are limited and there is a need for new alternatives [29, 30]. There are reports showing antifungal activity of pomegranate extracts, especially against
The potential of pomegranate extract has been studied against fungi in
In addition to
The activity of pomegranate extract against fungal microbes is summarized in Table 2.
Part of pomegranate used | Form | Test organisms | MICs | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Peel | Crude extract, Aqueous fraction, ethyl acetate fraction, butanol fraction, punicalagin | 3.9–7.8 μg/mL, 1.9–15.6 μg/mL | [32] | |
Peel | Methanolic | > 1000 μg/mL | [15] | |
Peel | Crude extract, Crude extract in a spray-dried microparticle formulation | 3.9–15.6 μg/mL | [38] | |
Peel | Hydroalcoholic | 125 g/mL, 125 g/mL, 250 g/mL, 250 g/mL | [40] | |
Peel | Aqueous | [42] | ||
Peel | Aqueous | [43] |
Antifungal activity of pomegranate extracts against different fungi.
Pomegranate extracts have been examined as an alternative treatment for viral infections [46, 47, 48]. A number of studies have shown that polyphenolic compounds have broad-spectrum antiviral activity, by inhibiting viral DNA and RNA, and directly binding the viral particles. It has also been suggested that polyphenols could provide antiviral activity during intracellular replication [49, 50, 51, 52].
Pomegranate peel extract showed antiviral activity against the influenza virus. In a study by Sundararajan
Studies have suggested that the antiviral activity of pomegranate extract originates from its hydrolysable tannins and polyphenols, especially punicalagin and gallagic acid. However, in one study, four flavonoids, ellagic acid, caffeic acid, luteolin and punicalagin, from pomegranate peel extract were studied against influenza virus and only punicalagin showed an inhibitory effect. The antiviral activity of pomegranate rind extract has been patented in Japan based on pomegranate peel extract ability to prevent the growth and kill viruses on the surfaces [46, 47]. The activity of pomegranate extract against viruses is summarized in Table 3.
Part of pomegranate used | Form | Test organisms | Mechanism of virus target | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Rind | Crude hydraulic extract, Punicalagin, Ellagic acid | Herpes simplex virus | Virucidal activity | [48] |
Juice, peel and pomegranate liquid extract | Influenze A viruses, H1N1, H3N2, H5N1 and coronavirus MHV A59 | Damage to virion integrity and virucidal activity | [53] | |
Juice | Pomegranate polyphenol extract, punicalagin, pomegranate liquid extract (from POM Wonderful) | Human influenza A (H3N2) | Inhibition of viral RNA replication | [54] |
Peel | Methanolic crude extract, punicalin, punicalagin, ellagic acid | Hepatitis C virus | [57] | |
Peel | Methanolic crude extract, ellagic acid, punicalagin, gallic acid | Adenovirus | Inhibition of adenovirus replication | [58] |
Antiviral activity of pomegranate extracts against different viruses.
Parasitic infections remain a significant global problem, affecting the health of hundreds of millions of people annually, especially in countries with low economic and social conditions. In addition, the increased world-wide resistance to conventional drugs is making most of currently used drugs less effective. As a result of this situation, the development of new drugs from medicinal plants for parasites is as important as for other microbes [62]. Different parts of
Al-Musayeib
Part of pomegranate used | Form | Mechanism of organism target | Organisms | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Seed | Methanolic | Reduction in gastrointestinal motility | [65] | |
Leave | Methanolic | Larvicidal and ovicidal activity | [66] | |
Peels, juice and leaves | Methanolic | Reduction in viability of parasite | [67] | |
Leaf, stem bark | Ethanolic | worms separation, reduction of motor activity, lethality, and ultrastructural tegumental alterations | [68] | |
Peel | Powder form directly given to animal | Growth inhibition and death | [72] | |
Juice | Crude extract was applied by patients in a clinical study | [73] |
Antiparasitic activity of pomegranate extracts against different parasites.
From the preceding sections it is clear that there is compelling evidence demonstrating the broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity of pomegranate extracts [74, 75, 76]. However, the precise mechanism behind this activity is not fully understood. The mode of antimicrobial action of polyphenols, in general, is also unknown, although some suggested mechanisms include membrane disruption, toxicity against microorganisms, the ability of complex formation with metal ions and enzyme inactivation [77, 78, 79]. The antimicrobial activity of pomegranate has been associated with polyphenolic tannins, especially punicalagin and ellagic acid content in the extract [80, 81, 82]. However, pomegranate extracts are a complex mixture containing a variety of secondary compounds and interplay between these components may be a factor in antimicrobial activity, with multiple mechanisms operating independently [83].
An antimicrobial mechanism suggested for polyphenolic compounds is based on the precipitation ability of these compounds with bacterial cell membrane proteins which leads to bacterial cell lysis [84]. In addition, polyphenols could inhibit microbial enzymes by reacting with sulfhydryl groups or nonspecific interactions with proteins [85]. In that vein, phenolic compounds can bind the protein sulfhydryl groups and make them unavailable for microbial growth [86]. In addition, it has been reported that polyphenols can damage the microbe respiratory chain by decreasing the oxygen consumption and thus limiting the oxidation of NADH [87].
It has been hypothesized that the antibacterial activity of phenolic acids and flavonoids could cause a decrease in membrane fluidity by giving damage to the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane [88]. Phenolic acids can cause hyper acidification when they interphase with the plasma membrane. This situation would cause an alteration in cell membrane by making it more permeable. This mechanism could explain why phenolic acids show different antimicrobial activity levels against different pathogenic microorganisms [89, 90]. One of the possible mechanisms could be related to hydroxyl groups of polyphenols. The position of OH group in the aromatic ring and the length of saturated side chain could be a cause of antimicrobial activity of polyphenols [91]. Hydroxyl groups can bind to bacteria cell membranes and interfere with processes, such as ion pumping. In addition, OH groups can interact with active site of enzymes and disturb the metabolism of microorganisms [91].
Pomegranate extract exerted an inhibition activity against biofilms, in addition to their planktonic counterparts. Since microbes act differently under biofilm conditions compared to their planktonic form, there are some suggested pathways about polyphenols biofilm eradication and formation inhibition activities, although still unconfirmed. The mechanism behind growth and biofilm inhibition by pomegranate extracts cause protein precipitation and enzyme inactivation [81, 92]. Pomegranate extract could precipitate proteins which play major role in biofilm formation, like adhesins. Moreover, major hydrolysable tannins in pomegranate extract such as ellagic acid can change the surface charge and reduce the cell-substratum interactions and biofilm formation and development on different surfaces [93]. It is well known that tannins have astringency properties, and this feature can play a part in biofilm disruption [94, 95]. Different studies have shown the activity of pomegranate on bacterial attachment and therefore biofilm formation. It has been demonstrated that
There are some reports suggesting that the inhibition of quorum sensing (QS) could play role in the biofilm inhibition activity of pomegranate [99, 100]. QS is a communication system between bacteria in a biofilm, and provides a network involving nutrients, defense against other microorganisms, virulence and biofilm formation. More importantly, QS helps microbes to escape from host immune response [101, 102]. Therefore, inhibition of QS is quite important in order to overcome microbial infectious diseases and resistant pathogenic microbes. For the evaluation of QS inhibitors,
The chemical structure of tannins has importance in bacterial growth inhibition. For example, hydrolysable tannins were found to give lower minimum inhibitory concentration than condensed tannins [109]. The degree of galloylation has an effect on antibacterial activity since a higher degree of galloylation have more protein binding capacity and higher affinity for iron. However, the antibacterial activity is not only correlated to galloyl groups and galloylation, also it is correlated to configuration of the digalloyl or trigalloyl groups that attached to glucose core [110, 111, 112]. In addition, free galloyl groups have a major role in antimicrobial activity of ellagitannins which are abundant secondary compounds in pomegranate extracts [12, 113]. Punicalagin showed the broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity and it has a gallagyl moiety [114]. However another ellgitannin, granatin A, which does not have free galloyl groups, did not show antibacterial activity [115]. In a study done by Reddy
Reduction of punicalagin, punicalin and HHDP to ellagic acid, adopted from Seeram
The antimicrobial activity of plants has been studied extensively and many active secondary compounds have been identified. However, it should not be ignored that plant extracts with antimicrobial activities contain potentially many secondary compounds. Therefore, it is not easy to attribute the biological activity of plant extracts to only a single compound or a group of secondary compounds. There is a high possibility that plant extracts show antimicrobial activity due to synergistic effect of different compounds [117].
There are many reports showing the antimicrobial activity of heavy metals such as iron, copper, silver, manganese and zinc, while many bacteria have mechanism for the detoxification of heavy metals [118, 119]. However, although metal ions have a strong antimicrobial effect, they can also be cytotoxic to human cells, therefore, the use of these metals may have limitations in healthcare [120, 121].
Stewart
McCarell
Significantly enhanced virucidal activity of PRE was later observed against HSV-1, HSV-2 and acyclovir-resistant HSV-1 by Houston
The mechanism for the synergistic antimicrobial activity of pomegranate extract in combination with metal ions is not clear, although there are some putative suggested mechanisms for this enhanced antimicrobial activity. For instance, it has been suggested that pomegranate tannins can form a ‘complex’ with metallic ions and this complex could show enhanced toxicity to microbes [127]. Furthermore, PRE could show enhanced activity due to redox cycling of the associated metal ion which increases local levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). For example some antibiotics e.g. bleomycin showed enhanced ROS production via the ability to bind to ferrous ions which resulted in enhanced toxicity against microbes [128].
The enhancement of antimicrobial activity of pomegranate rind extract with metal ions is important in terms of improved efficacy against antibiotic resistant pathogens, since this enhancement could reduce resistance of microbes by inhibiting their microbial adaptability features [8, 32].
The pomegranate has a long history of use as a folklore medicine for its ability to address microbial infections. Published research, as outlined in this chapter, clearly supports this and has shown that pomegranate extracts possess an unusual and potent broad-spectrum of activities against bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites.
There is some variation in the literature in terms of the levels of antimicrobial activity of pomegranate extracts, which could be attributed to different harvesting time and type of pomegranate cultivars, and use of varying microbial strains. However, it is also apparent that different workers have used a range of approaches to obtain ‘pomegranate extract’, with extraction methods sometimes being poorly described. As such, a lack of standardized test extracts presents a challenge in attempting to make quantitative comparisons. As a complex mixture, pomegranates extracts have the innate ability to inhibit resistance, even more so when used alongside a synergizing metal ion.
We would like to thank to Turkish Ministry of Education for supporting Vildan Celiksoy’s PhD project.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. 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In vitro, chemicals such as drugs and pesticides have different cytotoxicity mechanisms such as destruction of cell membranes, prevention of protein synthesis, irreversible binding to receptors etc. In order to determine the cell death caused by these damages, there is a need for cheap, reliable and reproducible short-term cytotoxicity and cell viability assays. Cytotoxicity and cell viability assays are based on various cell functions. A broad spectrum of cytotoxicity assays is currently used in the fields of toxicology and pharmacology. There are different classifications for these assays: (i) dye exclusion assays; (ii) colorimetric assays; (iii) fluorometric assays; and (iv) luminometric assays. Choosing the appropriate method among these assays is important for obtaining accurate and reliable results. When selecting the cytotoxicity and cell viability assays to be used in the study, different parameters have to be considered such as the availability in the laboratory where the study is to be performed, test compounds, detection mechanism, specificity, and sensitivity. In this chapter, information will be given about in vitro cytotoxicity and viability assays, these assays will be classified and their advantages and disadvantages will be emphasized. The aim of this chapter is to guide the researcher interested in this subject to select the appropriate assay for their study.",book:{id:"6310",slug:"genotoxicity-a-predictable-risk-to-our-actual-world",title:"Genotoxicity",fullTitle:"Genotoxicity - A Predictable Risk to Our Actual World"},signatures:"Özlem Sultan Aslantürk",authors:[{id:"211212",title:"Dr.",name:"Özlem Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Aslantürk",slug:"ozlem-sultan-aslanturk",fullName:"Özlem Sultan Aslantürk"}]},{id:"66259",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85270",title:"Antioxidant Compounds and Their Antioxidant Mechanism",slug:"antioxidant-compounds-and-their-antioxidant-mechanism",totalDownloads:7609,totalCrossrefCites:58,totalDimensionsCites:156,abstract:"An antioxidant is a substance that at low concentrations delays or prevents oxidation of a substrate. Antioxidant compounds act through several chemical mechanisms: hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), single electron transfer (SET), and the ability to chelate transition metals. The importance of antioxidant mechanisms is to understand the biological meaning of antioxidants, their possible uses, their production by organic synthesis or biotechnological methods, or for the standardization of the determination of antioxidant activity. In general, antioxidant molecules can react either by multiple mechanisms or by a predominant mechanism. The chemical structure of the antioxidant substance allows understanding of the antioxidant reaction mechanism. This chapter reviews the in vitro antioxidant reaction mechanisms of organic compounds polyphenols, carotenoids, and vitamins C against free radicals (FR) and prooxidant compounds under diverse conditions, as well as the most commonly used methods to evaluate the antioxidant activity of these compounds according to the mechanism involved in the reaction with free radicals and the methods of in vitro antioxidant evaluation that are used frequently depending on the reaction mechanism of the antioxidant.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo and Beatriz Hernández-Carlos",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"278133",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"40253",doi:"10.5772/50486",title:"Lipid Nanoparticulate Drug Delivery Systems: A Revolution in Dosage Form Design and Development",slug:"lipid-nanoparticulate-drug-delivery-systems-a-revolution-in-dosage-form-design-and-development",totalDownloads:11300,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:105,abstract:null,book:{id:"2509",slug:"recent-advances-in-novel-drug-carrier-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Novel Drug Carrier Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Novel Drug Carrier Systems"},signatures:"Anthony A. 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Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"49459",title:"Pharmacokinetics of Drugs Following IV Bolus, IV Infusion, and Oral Administration",slug:"pharmacokinetics-of-drugs-following-iv-bolus-iv-infusion-and-oral-administration",totalDownloads:15494,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:null,book:{id:"4491",slug:"basic-pharmacokinetic-concepts-and-some-clinical-applications",title:"Basic Pharmacokinetic Concepts and Some Clinical Applications",fullTitle:"Basic Pharmacokinetic Concepts and Some Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Tarek A. Ahmed",authors:[{id:"175649",title:"Dr.",name:"Tarek A",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"tarek-a-ahmed",fullName:"Tarek A Ahmed"}]},{id:"29240",title:"Oral Absorption, Intestinal Metabolism and Human Oral Bioavailability",slug:"oral-absorption-intestinal-metabolism-and-human-oral-bioavailability-",totalDownloads:27216,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:null,book:{id:"672",slug:"topics-on-drug-metabolism",title:"Topics on Drug Metabolism",fullTitle:"Topics on Drug Metabolism"},signatures:"Ayman El-Kattan and Manthena Varma",authors:[{id:"85539",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayman",middleName:null,surname:"El-Kattan",slug:"ayman-el-kattan",fullName:"Ayman El-Kattan"},{id:"88221",title:"Dr.",name:"Manthena",middleName:null,surname:"Varma",slug:"manthena-varma",fullName:"Manthena Varma"}]},{id:"66259",title:"Antioxidant Compounds and Their Antioxidant Mechanism",slug:"antioxidant-compounds-and-their-antioxidant-mechanism",totalDownloads:7606,totalCrossrefCites:58,totalDimensionsCites:152,abstract:"An antioxidant is a substance that at low concentrations delays or prevents oxidation of a substrate. Antioxidant compounds act through several chemical mechanisms: hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), single electron transfer (SET), and the ability to chelate transition metals. The importance of antioxidant mechanisms is to understand the biological meaning of antioxidants, their possible uses, their production by organic synthesis or biotechnological methods, or for the standardization of the determination of antioxidant activity. In general, antioxidant molecules can react either by multiple mechanisms or by a predominant mechanism. The chemical structure of the antioxidant substance allows understanding of the antioxidant reaction mechanism. This chapter reviews the in vitro antioxidant reaction mechanisms of organic compounds polyphenols, carotenoids, and vitamins C against free radicals (FR) and prooxidant compounds under diverse conditions, as well as the most commonly used methods to evaluate the antioxidant activity of these compounds according to the mechanism involved in the reaction with free radicals and the methods of in vitro antioxidant evaluation that are used frequently depending on the reaction mechanism of the antioxidant.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo and Beatriz Hernández-Carlos",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"278133",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"66742",title:"Introductory Chapter: Alkaloids - Their Importance in Nature and for Human Life",slug:"introductory-chapter-alkaloids-their-importance-in-nature-and-for-human-life",totalDownloads:4142,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:null,book:{id:"6828",slug:"alkaloids-their-importance-in-nature-and-human-life",title:"Alkaloids",fullTitle:"Alkaloids - Their Importance in Nature and Human Life"},signatures:"Joanna Kurek",authors:[{id:"214632",title:"Dr.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Kurek",slug:"joanna-kurek",fullName:"Joanna Kurek"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"19",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83173",title:"Pain Management in the Emergency Department- Newer Modalities and Current Perspective",slug:"pain-management-in-the-emergency-department-newer-modalities-and-current-perspective",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105952",abstract:"Pain is one of the most common complaints and yet one of the most neglected aspects of management in the emergency department. Optimal pain management is a nuanced skill which focusses on reduction of pain to an acceptable level to allow for safe discharge and return to normal activities, in addition to improving patient satisfaction and comfort during their stay in hospital. Adequate analgesia also improves physiological parameters such as heart rate and blood pressure. The aim is improving rather than eradication of pain altogether while maintaining an acceptable level of adverse effects. This chapter will discuss assessment of pain in the emergency department along with various modalities of pain management with specific focus on newer modalities including ultrasound guided regional nerve blocks. Ultrasound guided nerve blocks are associated with better analgesia and have fewer chances of drug related adverse events, especially in older patients and those with comorbidities where large doses of systemic medications are associated with a significant risk of adverse effects.",book:{id:"10883",title:"Pain Management - From Pain Mechanisms to Patient Care",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10883.jpg"},signatures:"Sakshi Yadav, Anuj Ajayababu, Tej Prakash Sinha and Sanjeev Bhoi"},{id:"83076",title:"Treatments for the Infection by SARS-CoV-2",slug:"treatments-for-the-infection-by-sars-cov-2",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106232",abstract:"In late 2019, pneumonia cases from unknown origin were detected in Wuhan, China. The cause was a new coronavirus. The World Health Organization (WHO) named the virus SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 the associated disease. In the first months of 2020, this disease became a pandemic with a high lethality reported. Since then, the search for treatments began. We started by searching among treatments previously approved for human use that were not designed for COVID-19 and were considered to treat this condition. We continued searching on the therapeutics guidelines published by the WHO for the management of infection by SARS-CoV-2. Based on these results, we searched for the literature in PubMed to obtain further evidence on the drugs against SARS-CoV-2. The treatments presented in this chapter are Ivermectin, Hydroxychloroquine, Nitazoxanide, Azithromycin, Molnupiravir, Casirivimab-Imdevimab, Ritonavir-Nirmatrelvir, Ritonavir-Lopinavir, Remdesivir, and Favipiravir. Two years ahead of the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, a plenty of options for treatment have been investigated. Only a few of them have been shown to be efficient and safe. According to the WHO, Ritonavir-Nirmatrelvir outperforms other proposed therapeutics.",book:{id:"11690",title:"COVID-19 Drug Development - Recent Advances, New Perspectives, and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11690.jpg"},signatures:"Nicolás Padilla-Raygoza, Gilberto Flores-Vargas, María de Jesús Gallardo-Luna, Efraín Navarro-Olivos, Francisco Javier Magos-Vázquez and Daniel Alberto Díaz-Martínez"},{id:"83054",title:"Pulsatory Liposome: A Possible Biotechnological Device",slug:"pulsatory-liposome-a-possible-biotechnological-device",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106347",abstract:"A unilamellar liposome filled with an osmotic solution is introduced into a hypotonic aqueous environment. Because of the mechanical tension induced by the osmotic flow, the vesicle swells up to a critical size, when suddenly a transbilayer pore appears and the vesicle relaxing stage starts. A part of the intracellular material leaks out through this pore, and the liposome membrane relaxes and finally recovers. The swelling begins again and the liposome experiences a periodical process. For this reason, we have named it a pulsatory liposome. The swelling of the liposome is described by a differential equation. All the processes which contribute to the vesicle relaxing and its coming back to the initial size are described by three differential equations. The pulsatory liposome can be programmed to work a number of cycles, established before. The activity of a pulsatory liposome can be characterized by the following parameters: (a) number of cycles, the length time of each cycle, and liposome activity life; (b) the length time of the swelling stage and the relaxation stage for each cycle; (c) the amount of solute leaked out through the pore in each cycle. The pulsatory liposome may be regarded as a two-stroke engine.",book:{id:"11814",title:"Liposomes - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11814.jpg"},signatures:"Dumitru Popescu and Alin Gabriel Popescu"},{id:"82962",title:"Pluralism Medical Treatment, Prevention, and Control of COVID-19 Infection and Its Long-Sufferings among the Older Adults in the Northeast of Thailand from 2019 to 2022",slug:"pluralism-medical-treatment-prevention-and-control-of-covid-19-infection-and-its-long-sufferings-amo",totalDownloads:51,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106339",abstract:"COVID-19 in 2019 has brought both changes and challenges to the world. This global pandemic has an impact on people of all age levels, especially older adults. In Thailand, older persons are at high risk of COVID-19 infection. They are included in the so-called 608 groups. The objective of this review article was to synthesize and present medical pluralism, the development of drugs from herbs, and projects conducted to treat, prevent, and control the infection and long sufferings of COVID-19. The review covers 10 studies, three projects produced at Mahasarakham University, Chaiyaphum Rajabhat University, and Khon Kaen University that were reviewed, synthesized, and analyzed. The results of the synthesis indicate that modern and Thai traditional medicine can help reduce the severity of the infection and long sufferings of COVID-19. The medical pluralism between modern and Thai traditional medicine is needed to remedy COVID-19 cases among the older adults in the Northeast of Thailand.",book:{id:"11690",title:"COVID-19 Drug Development - Recent Advances, New Perspectives, and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11690.jpg"},signatures:"Pissamai Homchampa, Khemika Napattaradechanon, Parichat Yatniyom, Thawalrat Ratanasiri, Piyaporn Sansila, Thanawan Sirisuk, Thawalwong Ratanasiri and Amornrat Ratanasiri"},{id:"82353",title:"Pharmacovigilance of Biological Drugs",slug:"pharmacovigilance-of-biological-drugs",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105520",abstract:"The use of biological drugs has significantly increased over the past decades and has allowed for the treatment of many life-threatening and chronic diseases. The patent expiration of biological innovative medicines enables copies of these drugs called biosimilars. The availability of biosimilars enhances competition, with the potential to improve patient access to biological medications and contribute to the financial sustainability of the healthcare systems. Unlike equivalent drugs, biosimilars are not identical but similar to their innovator products because of the differences in the manufacturing process, which is a biological process. However, they are considered comparable to their originators in safety, quality characteristics, biological activity, and efficacy. The regulatory procedures used for generic drugs cannot be applied for biosimilars, so they are subjected to rigorous characterization as well as comparative clinical studies. Since they are highly complex molecules produced from living cells, even small change in the production process can have major implications on their safety and effectiveness profile, causing a potential risk of immune-based adverse reactions. For all these reasons, for biological drugs, a robust long-term pharmacovigilance system is necessary. It is desirable that in the future, there are further guidance and resolution of the ongoing discussions on biosimilar labeling, naming, pharmacovigilance and interchangeability/substitution, to ensure the appropriate use of these drugs in clinical practice.",book:{id:"11679",title:"Pharmacovigilance and Regulations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11679.jpg"},signatures:"Simona Guerzoni, Flavia Lo Castro, Carlo Baraldi, Giuliana Colella and Luca Pani"},{id:"82868",title:"Recent Strategies for Ocular Drug Delivery: Promises and Challenges",slug:"recent-strategies-for-ocular-drug-delivery-promises-and-challenges",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106335",abstract:"Ocular diseases include various anterior and posterior segment diseases. Due to the unique anatomy and physiology of the eye, efficient ocular drug delivery is a great challenge to researchers. The emerging nanoscience is playing an important role in the development of novel strategies for ocular disease management. Various active molecules have been designed to associate with nanocarriers to overcome ocular barriers and interact with certain ocular tissues. In this chapter, highlights will be made on barrier to intraocular delivery, general pathways for ocular absorption, and factors affecting intraocular bioavailability. The recent attempts of nanotechnology for treating anterior and posterior ocular diseases will be explored. This will include nanomicelles, nanoparticles, nanosuspensions, vesicular systems, in situ gel, dendrimers, contact lenses, implants, microneedles, and cell-based delivery systems. In addition, gene-based ocular delivery systems will be discussed. 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Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"437913",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Urriolagoitia-Sosa",slug:"guillermo-urriolagoitia-sosa",fullName:"Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"435126",title:"Prof.",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"José de Castro Ferreira",slug:"joaquim-jose-de-castro-ferreira",fullName:"Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"437899",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Ángel Castillo-Martínez",slug:"miguel-angel-angel-castillo-martinez",fullName:"Miguel Angel Ángel Castillo-Martínez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"289955",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor Duggirala",slug:"raja-kishor-duggirala",fullName:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. 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