Characteristics of child by Freud, Erikson, and Piaget
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Author of more than 100 publications, awarded three Doctorate degrees and the National End of Degree Award, granted by the Ministry of Education to the best academic records of Bachelor's degrees in Spain. Dr. Ortega-Sánchez has been Vice-Rector for Social Responsibility, Culture, and Sports at the University of Burgos since 2021.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"302925",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Delfín",middleName:null,surname:"Ortega-Sánchez",slug:"delfin-ortega-sanchez",fullName:"Delfín Ortega-Sánchez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302925/images/system/302925.jpg",biography:"I hold a PhD in Didactics of Social Sciences from the Autonomous University of Barcelona, a PhD in Educational Sciences from the University of Burgos, and a PhD in History from the University of Extremadura. My research interests focus on the construction of identities in the History and Geography teaching, gender mainstreaming in initial education and training for teachers, the didactic treatment of relevant social problems and controversial issues in the teaching of the social and human sciences, and the application of educational technology in the specific field of social sciences. 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Accordingly, it is focused on discussing various examples and features of current interaction designs based on a diversified examination of designed products, services, and social systems. It also aims to understand and analyze characteristics of crimes against children from a designer’s perspective and suggest a new direction for design while discussing basic suggestions on crimes against children and examining design methods with regard to crimes against children.
Firstly, what are the characteristics of children? Secondly, what are the characteristics of crimes against children? Thirdly, what is the current prevention system for against crimes and the advantages and disadvantages of such as system? Fourthly, what technologies could complement the disadvantages? The current study discusses interaction designs aimed to prevent crimes against children based on service designs through resolutions to suggested problems.
Researchers have revealed that more practical preventive measures can be taken when a protector – the government (the police) or private companies (security providers) – communicate with children to prevent crimes. The protector must immediately estimate the situation on behalf of children and a government agency or a private security service provider serves as a linking device and intervenes to protect children.
From examining the current products on the market as available devices, smart phones have been deemed appropriate; however separate development guidelines are needed given that users are children.
This chapter analyzes children’s performances and circumstantial judgments through literature and studies on preventing methods through understanding the procedure and characteristics of precedents of crimes against child over the past seven years.
A child refers to the ages between 6 and 12. During this period, a child learns similar tasks that he or she must perform once they become an adult Laura E. Berk, translated by Nang Ja Park, Infants & Children. Sung Sim Han, Joo Mi Song, ‘Child Welfare’, Chang Ji, 2003, page 12.
Psychologists | Development | Stages | Characteristics |
Psychosexual Development | Latency Stage 6-11 year old | Libido is repressed and the child develops superego.the child acquires social value through playing with same age group with same sex and adults other than family members. | |
Psychosocial Development | Industry vs. Inferiority Latency Stage 6-11 year old | Children develop competence and cooperation skills in school. Complex develop through negative experiences in the family or when experiencing incompetence in school or among same age group. | |
Stages of Development | Concrete Operations Stage 7-11 year old | A child can conduct logical reasoning what regard to specific cases and is able to divide objects into different categories (i.e., children can conduct operation). In this stage, the child which performs concrete operational reasoning, but cannot perform reasoning that requires algebraic equations because it require advanced abstract thinking. |
Characteristics of child by Freud, Erikson, and Piaget
Jean Piaget’s “concrete operations stage,” which is third of four stages of development applies to 7-11-year-old children. Children in this stage can perform simple operations and logical reasoning replaces intuitive thinking, which means that children can operate a mobile phone. However, how well a child can operate a mobile phone in case of an emergency must be carefully examined.
Therefore, the following needs to be considered when designing a device for kids. Although child in the concrete operations stage can perform operations that requires quite complicated and logical thinking, it must be designed so a child can operate quickly in case of emergency. Table 2 shows a list to consider in accordance with the characteristics of children.
Items | Contents |
should be able to get attention from same age group should seek for a way to educate children about utilization in case of emergency through game should prepare for malfunction caused by shock should educate children to avoid unintended operation out of curiosity child should be familiarized with operation | |
design should consider physical development of childhood design should consider safety of a child so he/she does not get injured from unintended operation due to physical development | |
cognition of age of 6, 9, and 12 is different and should have flexible structure or icon design for respective ages. not only a button but also a variety of methods need to be considered to respond in case of emergency circumstantial judgment and discernment may insufficient compare to an adult |
List of considered device designs in accordance with the characteristics of a child
Based on the analysis of precedents, what marks the child abuse is that most crimes involve sexual motivation, although some lead to the murder of a child. For the crime from occuring, there must be three prerequisites: (1) crime will, (2) victim, and (3) crime scene.
Once these are satisfied, there are five phases to commit a crime; crime prerequisite → approaching → luring and kidnapping → movement → committing the crime.
Step 1 | Step 2 | Step 3 | Step 4 | |
Crime prerequisite | Approaching | Luring and Kidnapping | Movement | Committing the crime |
Process of Crime
The intention of classification of a crime is to extract the Design Specification of the device for children to respond to each phase of the crime and prevent it the crime from occuring.
First the prevention of the first phase, crime prerequisite, has been conducted in the West in various ways.
Nevertheless, criminals continue to approach victims, wearing electronic Tagging. Criminals lure victims using feigned identity or by asking for directions. Criminals may also capture victims by force and move to a certain spot to commit the crime.
In the Kim Kil-Tae case, the preschool, the crime scene, and the criminal’s house were located within 300m. This shows that many crimes are committed within the child’s home environment. On study showed that the luring point and crime scene are only 30 min. away (i.e. within 2km).
Phase | Counter Measures |
Need for systematic measures to block any attempts for crime will, victim, crime scene. | |
Alert the child’s parent by receiving signals from the Electronic Tagging of recidivism through a device for children. | |
Educating the child about the action guide and letting them avoid the crime scene. | |
Informing the third party about the danger using an emergency button or strap when captured by force. | |
Collecting all data about a child’s routine pattern and alerting the parents when their child strays from the routine. |
Counter measures for each crime phases
According to a survey, cases where the victim’s house, crime scene, lure place, victim’s school and perpetrator’s house were located within 2 km and accounted for 50% or more of crimes. Findings also revealed that a perpetrator searched for the subject of the crime in surrounding areas and the crime scene was a familiar environment. In addition, the lure place was not the same as the crime scene, and a perpetrator lured the child to another place to commit the crime. In these cases, it is the only time when a child can be rescued. Of note, 2 km takes up to 30 minutes to traverse on foot.
Distance from victim’s house, crime scene, lure place, victim’s school, and perpetrator’s house.
A main characteristic of crimes against children is that it is impossible for children to protect themselves or ask for help when they perceive a crime because of physical differences between the child and perpetrator. Accordingly, it has been perceived that the intervention of a third party, who can immediately extend a helping hand to children, is desperately needed. Therefore, this study focuses on determining measures to achieve such an intervention.
Physical differences between a victim and a pertpetrator
Preventive means can be divided into individual and social means. As seen in the Figure 3, the social means are characterized by handling a situation after the fact. As it is difficult to protect many and unspecified persons, an emphasis is placed on preventing the recurrence of crimes that center on ex-cons. However, it is difficult to protect victims prior to a crime. Individual means are characterized by prevention that is focused on self-protective instincts aimed to protect oneself and one’s family from many and unspecified persons.
Characteristics of individual and social means
According to Table 5, which compares the domestic and foreign prevention system, the domestic system shows more favor to the rights of the criminal than those of the victims or the many and unspecified possible victims. Under certain circumstances, prevention becomes essential.
type | Measures | Comparison |
Child safety guards Amber alert Electronic Tagging Posting identities of sexual offenders | Victim’s human right < perpetrator’s human right | |
Isolation policy of the sexual offenders (U.S) Amber alert Posting sexual abuse record/ identities(U.S.) Surgical or drug castration of sexual offenders(U.S.) Genetic database (U.K.) | Victim’s human right "/> perpetrator’s human right |
Comparison of domestic and foreign systems and victims‘ and perpetrators’ human rights
The followings are current technologies used for crime prevention.
SOS feature on mobile phones: Transmits the signal to five or six people who are registered by users in case of emergency and are available for only limited mobile phones.
LBS (Location Based Service): Electronic Tagging of ex-convicts; this has been adopted in many different fields. The security company ADT uses LBS-based mobile service for crime prevention. Users can set up an ETA (Estimated Time of Arrival) and if the users do not arrive on time, the company dispatched their men. If users enter the plate number of a taxi, the company will do the background check. However, as seen from the Fig. 2, this is problematic because it is not a kid friendly interface.
Example of setting up an ADT mobile phone - service name : Taxi care
Electronic Tagging: Domestically, electronic tagging of ex-convicts uses an LBS system. Legislation regarding adherence to Electronic Tagging for specific sexual offenders was enacted in April, 2007. After its revision in May 2008, electronic tagging was effective starting September 1st, which is an another use of LBS. Thus, if inspectors and mobile phones for children can detect the signal of the Electronic Tagging, it would provide a significant solution for preventing crimes against child.
Table 6. summarizes the results of the analysis of utilization of applicable systems and technologies through an assessment of effectiveness of each crime phase.
Phases | SOS feature of Mobile phone | LBS | Electronic positioning system /Electronic Tagging |
Phase 1 : approaching | - | - | - |
Phase 2 : luring and kidnapping | ○ (when kidnapped) | ○ (when kidnapped) | ○ (when kidnapped) |
Phase 3: movement | ○ | ○ | ○ |
Post crime phase | ○ | ○ | ○ |
Informs guardians in case of an emergency. Frequently unintended operation causes loss of reliability | Not a user friendly interface when using the service through a mobile phone; requires frequently resetting the settings. High cost for extra device and fees can be a burden on users when using a satellite-based system | It is a current measure that is systematically utilized. There is limits to prevention of crimes against people with no criminal records. May not expect any prevention when intentionally detached and committing a crime |
Assessment of effectiveness of prevention technologies regarding each crime phase.
It is concluded that mobile phone SOS features, LBS, Electronic Tagging are ineffective for luring and kidnapping because a child is not aware of it; however, it is effective for movement after kidnapping. In addition, to find a solution for preventing crimes against children, it is necessary to integrate mobile phone ubiquitous and LBS.
The evaluation of precedents of existing mobile phones for kids was conducted to analyze features that are needed for this population of users.
Company model | Image | Characteristics |
Verizon Migo | -emergency use for kids/elders, -minimum capacity that allows only five limited numbers be saved including emergency number (911) -no texting | |
Kyocera Mamorino cell phone for kids | -only available in Japan, can locate child’s position and sounds alarm in emergency to inform -limited texting available through preregistered texts -there is a strap besides an emergency button and when pulled, it sounds an alarm and transmits signal to security company -when there is no light based on the setting, the lights will be turned on | |
Cingular Firefly | -private button for mom and dad -can save up to 20 numbers -emergency call button and designed to prevent mal-manipulation -suggests that child can be protected from harmful materials becuace there is no internet or email connection | |
Willcom Nico | -arrangement of large buttons/buttons with enlarged dome design -positioning system that can inform parents of child’s location -parents can learn child’s location by calling or through a computer at any time -high quality audio with low electromagnetic waves, which ensures safe use for kids | |
Gigabyte Sergeant Keroro, Doraemon | -Keroro and Doraemon version released by Taiwanese company Gigabyte -no specific features for child safety | |
au A5520SA | -provides location of child in real-time using GPS and informs when a child approaches specific location -pressing # for several seconds sounds an alarm and transmits current location through GPS mail to registered number and simultaneously informs the security company -can contact fire department or hospital in emergency of fire or illness -informs the child’s location in time intervals, even if the power is off -wireless internet NTT Tokomo arranged ‘Kids I menu’ and prevents child from harmful internet content | |
Hop-on chitterchatter | -mobile phone that can frequently connect family with child under 10 or person with disability -comprises five (mom, dad, home, 911, Track Me) buttons with total of seven emergency numbers -child can inform parents of their location -can be put in backpack, wallet, pocket, etc, or can hang on neck or worn on the wrist | |
Willcom Papipo | -Papipo, released by Willcom, is manufactured by plastic model company Bandai -produced in Blue, Damogochi, Chao version and has meticulous UI design -once connected to kids studio, a database for children, a child can download wallpaper, games, ring tones and even raising Damagochi (function of fun) -provides positioning system using PHS base station, and emergency button | |
Dmodo M900 | -manufactured by Hong Kong mobile phone handsets company -uses Walt Disney’s Mickey-Mouse design -popular among kids and young women, also uses Disney characters for integrated programs such as wall papers, animation, icon, button sound. |
Precedents of existing mobile phone for kids
The precedent analysis showed that it is not easy for a child to control the device in an emergency and protecting a child through third party involvement seems an easy task. However, some features of these devices were useful such as A5520SA from AU, which informs parents when a child is approaching a specific location and informs the child’s location at specific time intervals, even if the power is off. Additionally, Chitterchatter’s wearing method was found useful. Table 8 summarizes useful features for preventing crimes against children.
Categories | Functions | Contents |
Specified Key | Easy operation for various ages and children with disabilities. Can maximize battery by allowing limited number of phone numbers to be saved and prevent unnecessary calls and harmful content. | |
Emergency Button | Informs the current situation and self location to the preregistered person in case of an emergency | |
Notifying Self Location Button | Can inform self location at any time | |
Battery Cover | When the battery cover is forcibly removed, a warning sign will be sent out to preregistered numbers | |
Powerless Positioning Signal | Can notify one’s location without any power in certain time intervals | |
Lamp | When a child is trapped in dark area, the lights will be turned on based on the settings | |
Strap | If a situation doesn’t allow a child to a press button, he/she can pull the strap, which will sound the alarm and send out a text message to the preregistered numbers | |
GPS | Parents can confirm their child’s location any time and will be notified when the child approaches a specific location | |
DB | Parents can protect their child from harmful content and decorate the mobile phone using DB for kids. |
Useful current technologies to prevent crimes against children
The users have a need for normalization and avoiding admitting that they are special Shin Ah Jo, ‘Research on Designing Customized Menu for Users in Mobile Phone’, Dept. of Digital Design, Kyung Sung Univ.
Children aged 7 to 11 experience concrete operational stage as mentioned by Piaget with regard to characteristics of children who can deal with simplified manipulation and logical inference, which suggests that children have no problem manipulating a device.
With regard to characteristics of crimes against children, a perpetrator commits a crime if three conditions, crime will, victim, and crime scene are met and the crime goes through the stages Approaching→ Luring and Kidnapping →Movement→ Committing Crime.
Cases where victim’s house, commit place, lure place, victim’s school, and perpetrator’s house are located within 2 km account for 50% or more; therefore, crimes are committed near routing of children.
As it is deemed impossible for children to protect themselves due to physical differences between the child and perpetrator, it is perceived that intervention by a third party is essential and many thoughts have been given to intervention by a third party.
There are various methods to prevent crimes, which are divided into individual and social means. Individual means are preventive measures to protect oneself and family from many and unspecified perpetrators; however, few methods have been found to enable children to protect themselves. On the other hand, social means are related to ex-cons and are characterized by prevention after the fact; therefore, they are less often characterized by prevention prior to a crime.
According to an inquiry into preventive technologies, many useful technologies and functions have been found with mobile phones and include such diversified technologies as LBS and SOS functions. However, they may have problems because children are unable to perceive situations where they are exposed to crimes or there are difficulties in helping them directly or indirectly when they ask for help even thought they have perceived a crime.
As the study aims to prevent crimes, it is focused on suggesting the direction of design so that children can be protected from a crime through a device one way or another. Accordingly, it has designated a scenario to extract factors according to situations while suggesting guidelines needed for a device from the extracted factors.
The following scenario was written based on crime categorization of Table 9 and was used to support reasons for necessary device features.
Criminal records | Methods | Cognition | Categories |
Luring | does not perceive danger | category 1 | |
Kidnapping | recognize danger | category 2 | |
Luring | does not perceive danger | category 3 | |
Kidnapping | recognize danger | category 4 |
Setting up four categories
This scenario was established based on a previous research and has the following conditions. It has been sub-divided into the following crime stages: crime prerequisite → approaching → luring and kidnapping → movement → committing crime before suggestion.
First, perpetrators are divided into ex-cons and first offenders and this scenario is related to the application of electric tagging. Some criminals attempt to commit a crime after removing electronic tagging; these are regarded as first offenders. These criminals are divided into luring and kidnapping and luring refers to as a situation where a child is unable to be exposed to a crime; kidnapping refers to as a circumstance where a child perceives that he or she is in danger.
Category. 1 : Without Electronic Tagging and Luring
Category 1 of Table 10 describes the role of mobile phone for each phase under the premises that a 40-year-old man with less than two previous convictions targets a 12-year-old female victim.
Setting | Phase 1 | Phase 2 | Phase 3 | Phase 4 | |
40 year old, less than two previous convictions | Approaching | Luring | Movement | Commit a crime | |
6-12 year old girl / playground | Does not Perceive /wariness | Does not perceive | Does not perceive | Recognize | |
Function of mobile phone | Detecting any abnormal activities (route, speed, etc.) | - | - | Detecting any abnormal activities (route, speed, etc.) | Emergency button / Alarm/ lighting |
Category 1: Criminal without Electronic Tagging and Luring
The worst case is Category 1 because the perpetrator can hide intention and the child may never recognize the danger until right before the crime. In such a case, parents can be informed about abnormal activity of their child such as different routine pattern or sudden acceleration of speed and detect changes in mode of transportation; they can also confirm the situation of their child. In many cases, the child does not recognize danger until right before a crime, thus, active involvement of third party is necessary.
Category. 2 : Without Electronic Tagging and Kidnapping
Category 2, seen in Table 11, shows a case of threatening and forcible kidnapping by a criminal with a similar previous conviction. Here, the child does not recognize danger until the criminal approaches; however, is aware of that the situation is threatening
Setting | Phase 1 | Phase 2 | Phase 3 | Phase 4 | |
40 year old, less than two previous convictions | Approaching | Kidnapping (threatening) | Movement | Commit a crime | |
6-12 year old girl / playground | Does not recognize/ wariness | Recognize | Recognize danger | Recognize danger | |
Function of mobile phone | Detecting any abnormal activities (route, speed, etc.) | - | Emergency button / Alarm/ lighting | Emergency button / Alarm/ lighting | Emergency button / Alarm/ lighting |
Category 2: Criminal without Electronic Tagging and Kidnapping
While the mobile phone detects routine pattern and speed, it can also alert a nearby third party by sounding an alarm or informing the child’s parents and police when he or she presses the emergency button. However, when the child is being kidnapped forcibly or too nervous to control the device, the mobile phone’s secondary function activates through LBS and informs guardians of abnormal activities.
Category. 3 : With Electronic Tagging and Luring
Category 3, seen in Table 12, shows crimes committed by 40-year-old man with more than one previous conviction, wearing Electronic Tagging. Proposed mobile phone receives signals from Electronic Tagging; however, does not inform the child to avoid the human rights violation of the ex-convict.
Category 3 | Setting | Phase 1 | Phase 2 | Phase 3 | Phase 4 |
40 year old, more than one previous conviction | Approaching | Luring | Movement | Commit a crime | |
6-12 year old girl / road | Does not recognize/ wariness | Does not recognize | Does not recognize | Does not recognize | |
Function of mobile phone | Detecting any abnormal activities (route, speed, etc.) | receives signals from Electronic Tagging, transmits warning message to guardians | check with guardian’s remote camera, sound the emergency alarm, report to the police | Emergency button / Alarm/ Lighting | Emergency button / Alarm/ Lighting |
Category 3: Criminal with Electronic Tagging and Luring
The signal received from the Electronic Tagging transmits a warning message, such as “exposed to possible threat,” to the child’s guardian so they can determine whether their child is exposed to the actual threat or not. Additionally, if the guardian believes there is an actual threat, they can remotely sound the alarm on the child’s mobile phone regardless of the child’s will.
Category. 4 : With Electronic Tagging and Kidnapping
Category 4, as seen in Table 13, is criminal wearing Electronic Tagging and kidnapping a child by threatening. In such a case, the child recognizes a danger and may take immediate action to notify a third party by pressing the emergency button. Even if the child fails to press button, he or she still can get help because the guardians are being notified by signals from Electronic Tagging device.
Setting | Phase 1 | Phase 2 | Phase 3 | Phase 4 | |
40 year old, more than one previous conviction | Approaching | Kidnapping (threatening) | Movement | Commit a crime | |
6-12 year old girl / Apartment entrance | Does not recognize/ wariness | Recognize | Recognize | Recognize | |
Function of mobile phone | Detecting any abnormal activities (route, speed, etc.) | receives signals from Electronic Tagging, transmits warning message to guardians | check with guardian’s remote camera, sound the emergency alarm, report to the police | Emergency button / Alarm/ Lighting | Emergency button / Alarm/ Lighting |
Category 4: Criminal with Electronic Tagging and Kidnapping
Although it was impossible to consider every circumstance, this chapter has discussed the most common circumstances to conduct a study on children’s perceptions of crimes and devices that can be helpful in such situations. This discussion has led to the understanding that devices require the LBS function to locate a child, a child’s action radius and progress needed to be recorded and designated and a remotely controlled camera and microphone are required to help a protector judge the situation. It has also helped better understand that it is necessary to be able to communicate with parents or a guard.
Research was conducted to determine how devices sense abnormal movement by situation and how to deliver the information to a third party via logical operational device systems.
For the purpose of the operational system, routing, the rate of movement and location of a child, needs to be collected as data in advance for a certain period to be patternized. If the patternization is completed, the movement deviating from it, which is abnormal speed or change in rout, is considered abnormal movement of a child and is primarily reported to a protector. The following figure provides a detailed explanation.
As seen in Figure 5, a model for device function has been proposed based on the analysis of the above stated categories.
Model showing function of child protection device
Model showing function of device when abnormal activities are detected
Based on the model illustrated on Fig. 5, Fig. 6 explains how a device for kids uses data on a child’s routine pattern, moving speed, and signal from the Electronic Tagging and transmits information to a child’s guardian when it detects abnormal activities
Fig. 7 shows how parents can explain to a child how to act through texting or calling based on the level of the threat. If a serious threat is determined, parents can sound the alarm and notify people nearby or contact a preregistered 911(US), 119(Korea), 112(Korea), or security company.
Role of guardians through understanding the situation
Fig. 8 shows how a system can automatically be activated and reported to the police when the device is damaged, the battery is forcibly removed, or the child presses the emergency button.
Model showing how children can report.
Findings suggest that a government agency (the police or a private company), a protector, and a child need to be linked to one another for cooperation when equipped with the system above as the device acts as a link. From examining products with similar or available functions among those on the market, smart phones are the technologies that best meet these requirements. However, given children aged 6 to 12 and such peripheral functions as an emergency button, it is difficult to apply existing smart phones as they are, and guidelines are deemed necessary for developing beneficial devices.
Ex-cons, first offenders, luring and kidnapping have been mixed to categorize four scenarios based on four stages of a crime as extracted from the study: crime prerequisite → approaching → luring and kidnapping → movement → committing crime. Research has been conducted to determine the status of a child and the role of a device in each phase.
Research has been conducted to comprehend the role of a device through these scenarios. Toward this end, research has been conducted on detailed functions of a device through a systematic diagram.
This process revealed that practical preventive measures can be generated when a protector – the government (the police) or a private company (a security service provider) and a child communicate with one another to effectively prevent crimes. A protector can immediately estimate the situation on behalf of a child and a government agency or a private security service provider must intervene to protect a child while the device acts as a link.
From examining products on the market with regard to a device that can fulfill such a role, smart phones are deemed the closest ones and, given that users are children, separate developmental guidelines are needed.
The chapter suggests guidelines for developing a device for children so that crimes can be prevented.
Information herein has been established based on useful factors on previous research, technologies, and services.
Categories | Types | Contents | |
Without | - | May be limited as it allows only text informing | |
With | - | Informs a child of how to respond through various information | |
Type | Window | Provides information through text or illustrations | |
Full touch | Button type (Hotkey & 10-key) can be jointly used and age-specific usage is possible | ||
Size | - | Should not be larger than 5x9cm for usage by children aged over 6 | |
Number of buttons | 6-9 year old | Number and size of buttons should be designed while carefully examining abilities of 6-9 year old child’s operational skill. Buttons with icons are preferred over letter and should be limited with call, end, select menu, and number button (includes emergency button) | |
- | 9-12 year old | Number and size of buttons should be designed while carefully examining ability of 6-9 year old child’s operational skill. Uses numeric keys and should be limited with call, end, select menu, and number button (includes emergency button) | |
Size of buttons | - | Size and shape of buttons should consider one hand and two hand operation separately | |
Shape of buttons | General | Should have convex design for easy operation of frequently used buttons | |
emergency | Should be differentiated with general button and minimize unintended operation | ||
Arrangement of buttons | - | General and emergency buttons should be separated to minimize unintended operation, but should not hide it | |
Type of buttons | Hot key | Specified key type makes for easy operation for a child under the age of 9. However, cannot make calls to many people | |
10 key | Able to make phone calls to many people, but losses rapidness and is easy to operate for a child over age of 9 | ||
Emergency key or strap | Can use specified key in addition to keypad to supplement weakness of 10-key type | ||
Track me | Unlike emergency button or strap, it has general button and different operational strategies | ||
Color of buttons | Achromatic color | - | |
Low /high chroma | Change of chrome can visually alert people to cognize threat | ||
Text of buttons | - | - | |
Emergency buttons | Button type | Separate button can activate emergency button. It is easy to locate but has high risk of malfunctioning and is easily exposed to criminals | |
Projected type | Projected type looks as if part of a mobile phone but activates when broken. Once it is broken, it is hard to restore. It is not easily exposed to criminals and may be hard for a child to break under certain circumstances | ||
Emergency strap | Has a strap with hook. The hook may lead into malfunctioning; however, it has the advantage that a child can operate quickly compares to a button in any case | ||
Track me button | Child can inform guardians of his/her location when it is hard to make phone call or cognize great danger (unlike emergency button, it is used with general button and transmits signal with special operational method in emergency) | ||
Lighting | Lamp | -During night time phone calls -Notifying self location through flickering -Used as lantern in dark areas | |
Sound | Speaker | Informs a child what he/she should do through sound | |
siren | Ask for help through sound | ||
Battery cover | Enclosed type (integrated) | Main body has integrated battery and powering off should not be easy | |
Screw down type | Stops criminals from forcible powering off of a child’s mobile phone. There will be an interval time to power off | ||
Battery charging | Use solar power | Should be sustained to enable communication with a child under any circumstances | |
Self charged kit | Install portable or integrated self charger | ||
Latent battery | Has enough power to transmits signal of one’s position for a certain length of time even after the battery is removed | ||
camera | General phone call | Video telephone | |
Emergency | Remotely collects data about the environment | ||
Mic. | General phone call | Telephone | |
Emergency | Remotely collects data about the environment | ||
sound | Siren | Third party can remotely sound the alarm | |
Watch, ring, necklace | Report the threat automatically once child’s mobile phone is removed by criminals | ||
waterproof | Should operate under any circumstances |
Guideline for figure design
Categories | Features | Characteristics |
Selective layout is possible. | Cognition and operational skill of 6-9 and 9-11 year olds should be considered, respectively, for age-specific design. | |
Using illustration is suggested over text for UI. | ||
Font size can be adjusted. | Suggests using 16 font of computer monitor and could be modified, if necessary. | |
Font type can be adjusted. | Suggests using Gothic type, but may choose other types. | |
Maximum number of characters within screen. | Should be able to give information with minimum number of letters; Korean 4-6, English 9 letters, and should be legible instantly (e.g., emergency) | |
-Receives signal from Electronic Tag. -Informs preregistered guardians about the signal. | Receives signal once Electronic Tag and a child falls within certain distance. | |
Informs when child breaks out of route. | Warns guardians when child breaks time-based activity pattern. | |
Informs when detects change of moving speed. | When detecting dramatic change of speed; from 2-3km/h (normal walking speed) to 30-60km/h or stop moving for long period. | |
Guardians can remotely control child’s camera and microphone of mobile phone. | With prior consent, guardians who received warning message may access and control child’s camera, microphone, and siren, which are installed in child’s mobile phone. | |
Able to transmits short texts | ||
Transmits preregistered message in case of emergency. | Child can transmit text message to his/her guardians with one touch. |
Guideline for application design
The chapter introduces an example of a selective application of guidelines for a crime-prevention device for children.
Example of Device Specification
It is possible to set up the screen by age or taste. As users are aged 6 to 12, it has been divided into hotkey method and 10-key method based on children aged 9; however, can be set up in consideration of cognitive ability and manipulability.
Example of Age Specified Set-up
Because it is difficult for a child to conduct an initial setup for oneself, it can be set up with the help of parents as seen below. The initial setup is conducted based on synchronization of a device with a computer. Figure 11 provides an explanation for the initial setup. First, if the home address and school address (destination) are entered, movement section is indicated, and if a private academy or friends are added, destinations are additionally entered as well. At that time, a child enters all possible routes. Although all routings have not been entered, they can be added during the period of collection of data.
Example of Computer-Based Initial Setup Screen
After the setup, the device collects and records the routing of a child during a certain period. At that time, the direction and speed of movement are recorded by time and routes. The minimum unit of time is a week during a certain period and considerations are given for time of end of the class and after-school activities by day; learning schedule is designated by the week. Figure 12 below shows an example of recording changes in the daily movement of a child.
Example of Collection of Routing Data by Time and Day
Information collected for a week is recorded and the longer the period of data collection, more accurate patterns are displayed. The frequency of a child’s movements are indicated as the thickness of a line and a private academy and a friend’s house that have not been initially set up are recognized as abnormal routes to be reported to a protector for confirmation before the addition of the new destination and route. Figure 13 exhibits patternization of collected information.
Example of Patternization Based on Collected Information
This figure refers to collecting routing and speed and direction of movement by unit time in addition to frequency of routing.
It senses abnormal changes in speed, long-time stoppage, and reverse-directional movement on the part of a child to report them to a protector for interaction.
Theoretical examination and statistical research have helped understand serious problems in crimes against children who cannot protect themselves because of physical differences between when children perceive imminent danger. Such research has led to understanding that it is necessary for a third party to intervene for the sake of children. In the process of conducting research on including a third party, finding suggest that effective prevention can be realized when three factors exist (e.g., a child, society (the government or a private company), and a protector) and cooperate with one another. To facilitate such cooperation, a device enabling interaction is required to act as a link among the three factors. Among commercial products that are equipped with such functions, smart phones have been deemed appropriate; however, children are expected to have difficulties using existing smart phones as they are. In this regard, guidelines have been suggested through the application of available technologies and functions based on collected information.
With regard to the effectiveness of the study, it seems desirable that the government, rather than private companies, take the initiative for the welfare of children. This is because more children from low income families could benefit from measures taken by the government as it incurs costs of purchasing and maintaining such devices.
In the process of conducting interviews at welfare facilities, it was found that more sexual assaults are committed by acquaintances than by strangers and unofficial small crimes are frequently committed by relatives, which has not been accurately reported to protect children.
According to the study, it is impossible to protect many children from acquaintances committing a crime; however, it is difficult to prevent ex-con acquaintances from accessing children as they are acquainted with children.
In the process of conducting interviews with experts, other circumstances than usual situations were discussed with regard to evaluation of scenarios, which has been excluded as it appears difficult to consider each circumstance.
The longer the period for collecting data, the more sophisticated patterns; however, it might result in difficulties in preventing crimes that occur in the process of collecting data. Additionally, if it is difficult for parents to use a computer, it might be tricky to get help immediately.
Tissue engineering (TE) is an interdisciplinary field whose first definition dates back to 1987. It combines the knowledge from different research areas including medicine, material science and engineering to develop engineered biological substitutes able to restore, maintain or improve tissue functions [1]. TE was introduced from the necessity of finding alternative methodologies to organ transplantations due to their increasing demand in clinical medicine. Furthermore, TE emerged as a promising approach to overcome the limitations of the conventional surgical approaches for the treatment of tissue damages caused by injuries, diseases and congenital disorders [2, 3]. These surgical procedures are based on replacing the injured tissues or organs with a healthy one harvested from the same patient (autograft), or a compatible donor (allograft). Although these approaches have been revolutionary and lifesaving, there are still some drawbacks that need to be addressed. The surgical procedures used to harvest both autografts and allografts are often invasive and painful. The risk of post-surgical limitations in the donor’s body due, for example, to infections and hematomas is, in fact, quite high. Moreover, when allografts are transplanted, the chance of inflammatory and immune responses in the patient body together with the transmission of diseases from the donor to the patient is significant [4].
TE aims at overcoming the complications associated with the conventional techniques used during organ transplantation by inducing the complete regeneration of the damaged tissues instead of replacing them [2, 3]. Several approaches to promote
Illustration of TE paradigm (figure created with
The scaffold plays an essential role in regulating the process of new tissue formation. An ideal scaffold should be biocompatible and should degrade with kinetics compatible with the rate of tissue regeneration. It should be highly porous (< 75% [7]) with adequate pore size to promote cell migration/scaffold colonization and nutrient transfer throughout the scaffold. A scaffold should mimic the features of biological tissues in terms of topological properties (e.g., shape, size), mechanical properties (e.g., stiffness), and the biochemical processes that control and regulate the functionalities of the tissues. Moreover, it should not alter the normal functions of cells, which should adhere, migrate and proliferate within the scaffold before producing new tissue [5, 6, 8, 9]. Depending on their applications, scaffolds with different shapes, compositions and properties have been developed so far.
The biomaterial formulations used to produce the scaffold strongly affect its properties [10, 11]. Thus, the selection of the proper biomaterial formulation is pivotal for inducing the regeneration of the tissue in a controlled manner avoiding any undesired side-effects (e.g., cytotoxicity, apoptosis, carcinogenicity). The most used biomaterial formulations in TE are mainly based on synthetic biopolymers, natural biopolymers and composites [12, 13]. Synthetic biopolymers, like polycaprolactone, can be produced on a large scale under controlled conditions with predictable and reproducible physicochemical properties (e.g., mechanical properties, biodegradability) [6, 14, 15]. However, many synthetic biopolymers that have been developed so far are mainly derived from petroleum and coal, which make them not compatible with the environment [16]. Natural biopolymers include animal-derived proteins (e.g., gelatin, hyaluronic acid, collagen, silk) and animal- and vegetal-derived polysaccharides (e.g., cellulose alginate, chitosan). One of the advantages of this class of biopolymers is their biological similarity to native tissues which is beneficial for supporting cell functionalities (e.g., cell adhesion). Nonetheless, the use of animal-derived biopolymers may be associated with a high risk of transmission of diseases from animal to patient [10, 17, 18]. Therefore, the use of naturally occurring biopolymers from vegetal sources represents an attractive alternative to overcome these limitations. Moreover, they represent an ecological alternative to synthetic biopolymers in the preparation of sustainable and green scaffolds.
In recent years particular attention has been paid to the adoption of methodologies to derive biopolymers from renewable sources, such as industrial by-products, such as pectin from fruit pomace produced from the fruit processing industry [19] and cellulose nanofibers obtained from paper waste [20]. The application of more ecologically viable biomaterials in TE may, in fact, strongly contribute to reduce the polluting impact of producing and using un-recyclable synthetic biopolymers. Among the renewable and natural biopolymers, pectin is gaining particular attention in TE for its advantageous properties including biocompatibility, biodegradability and non-toxicity [21, 22]. In addition, the versatility in processing pectin-based formulations allows to produce scaffolds with diverse properties and for different applications (Section 2).
This chapter aims at highlighting the applications of pectin as the building block of bidimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds for TE applications. With this aim, in Section 2 the properties of pectin as biomaterial are provided. Section 3 reports the most representative applications of pectin-based formulations for producing scaffolds for tissue regeneration in the shape of 2D films for wound healing and 3D scaffolds for tissue regeneration.
Pectin shows several remarkable properties as a biomaterial. It is biocompatible and biodegradable, and it is soluble in cytocompatible and non-toxic solvents (such as water). Pectin is a versatile biomaterial as its physical properties can be facilely tuned due to the presence of several functional groups (e.g., carboxylic groups) that can serve as binding sites for other functional groups, biomolecules and drugs [21, 22, 23]. It is a low-cost biomaterial due to its ubiquity in nature, and this can strongly reduce the costs associated with the development of engineered tissues.
Pectin can form hydrogel due to the ability of its macromolecules to absorb and retain large volumes of water. This unique property makes pectin a suitable candidate to produce a natural extracellular matrix, which naturally surrounds cells. Furthermore, due to the possibility to be processed under sterile and physiological conditions (i.e., the aqueous environment at 37°C), pectin enables to encapsulate cells within its matrix to produce cell-laden scaffolds [23, 24].
Pectin tends to dissolve under physiological conditions, therefore physicochemical approaches are required to stabilize pectin-based scaffolds. These are mainly based on the use of physicochemical crosslinking approaches which consist of the formation of a stable network of links among the pectin molecules. This network reduces the interactions of pectin molecules with water and prevents the disruption of pectin-based scaffolds. For example, the most employed approach to form water-insoluble scaffolds of low-methoxyl pectin is based on the use of divalent cations (e.g., Ca2+) that interact with the carboxylic groups of pectin forming the so-called ‘egg box’ structure [21]. Notably, the crosslinking treatments should also be cytocompatible (under specific conditions/concentrations), and should not interfere with the capability of pectin to encapsulate cells [25].
One of the major drawbacks that limit the application of pectin as a biomaterial for TE applications is its low cell adhesivity due to the lack of sites for cell adhesion (such as arg-gly-asp (RGD) sequences). Therefore, pectin is often combined/blended with other biopolymers or biomolecules to enhance its bioactivity [21, 26].
Pectin-based formulations have been processed through different fabrication approaches into scaffolds with various shapes for different applications. In particular, pectin has been mainly used for the production of 2D films for wound healing, and 3D scaffolds for tissue regeneration. Figure 2 provides a graphical overview of the main applications of pectin in TE.
Illustration of the application of pectin (derived from citrus fruits) for the production of scaffolds for TE applications (created with
One of the applications of pectin-based formulations is the preparation of 2D hydrogel patches for the treatment of wounds. These patches provide mechanical support to cells during the process of new tissue formation, and an antibacterial barrier preventing eventual infections. Moreover, the hydrophilic pectin molecules in the film can react with the fluids of the wound forming a soft gel. The presence of a gel allows to maintain a moist environment in the wound. This helps to remove or control secretions from the wounded tissue and in turn facilitates the healing process. The regeneration of the damaged tissue can be further promoted by the incorporation of bioactive molecules such as drugs (e.g., antibiotics) and/or growth factors within the pectin patches [21]. The controlled and prolonged release of these molecules directly in the damaged site can actively contribute to decreasing the risk of infections and accelerating the formation of new tissue. As mentioned in Section 2, pectin is often combined with other biopolymers to enhance its bioactivity and also to modulate the physical properties (e.g., tensile strength) of the final patch.
Pectin-based patches for wound healing reported in the literature so far are principally obtained in the shape of non-porous films and porous membranes, as detailed described in the following Sections 3.1.1 and 3.1.2, respectively.
Pectin-based films are generally 2D, non-porous and flexible substrates able to retain large volumes of water within their matrix. One of the approaches used to produce these films is the so-called ‘solvent casting’. In this approach, a pectin-based solution is initially poured into a mold, and the solvent is subsequently let to evaporate leaving a 2D non-porous film (Figure 3).
Illustration of the solvent casting approach (created with
Pectin-based patches produced with this approach support cell adhesion and proliferation and accelerate the processes occurring during the formation of new tissue [27, 28, 29, 30]. Moreover, films with high toughness and stretchability can be produced with solvent casting, and these can be potentially used as pectin-based patches for load-bearing tissues (e.g., cartilage, tendon) [28]. In addition, pectin-based patches for a controlled drug into the targeted tissue were also produced by incorporating drugs in the pectin matrix [30, 31].
Nanoporous membranes based on pectin have been mainly obtained through electrospinning. This approach allows to produce highly porous and flexible patches starting from pectin-based/polymer solutions subjected to an external electric field. A standard electrospinning apparatus is illustrated in Figure 4. It generally consists of (i) a syringe pump containing the polymer solution, (ii) a metallic needle through which the polymer solution is ejected, (iii) a high voltage power supply (in the range of tens of kVolts), and (iv) a grounded collector (usually a metal plate). When a drop of the polymer solution is extruded through the needle, the high electric forces in the space between the needle and the collector induce its stretching and the formation of fibers from a few nanometers to microns in diameters [32]. These fibers are therefore deposited and collected on the collector forming a non-woven fibrous membrane after complete evaporation of the solvent (Figure 4).
Illustration of an electrospinning setup with a magnification of the electrospun nanofibers on the collector (image obtained with scanning electron microscopy).
Pectin-based patches obtained by this approach show several advantageous properties for TE applications. The random organization of electrospun pectin fibers together with the hydrogel nature of pectin enables to mimic the nanoscale organization of the native extracellular matrix. Furthermore, the high porosity and high surface-to-volume ratio typical of electrospun patches promote cell migration and nutrient diffusion within the scaffold, which is beneficial for the process of new tissue formation [33]. Nevertheless, it is quite challenging to produce electrospun structures from pristine pectin due to some intrinsic molecular properties of pectin (such as insufficient chain entanglement) that disable the fiber formation [34]. Thus, to improve its electrospinning ability, pectin is often chemically modified [35, 36] and/or combined with other biodegradable biopolymers such as poly(ethylene oxide) [34], polyhydroxybutyrate [37] that work as carrier polymer to induce the formation of stable fibers.
Pectin-based nano-fibers find application for the preparation of films/structures that can be potentially used as patches for wound healing of soft tissues [35, 36, 37] (e.g., vascular tissue [35], retinal tissue [37]). In addition, drugs (such as antibiotics [38, 39]) and particles (such as argentum ions for antibacterial purposes [38]) can be successfully loaded in these structures obtaining patches for a local and controlled release of drugs directly into the wound.
Pectin-based formulations can be further processed to obtain 3D scaffolds able to mimic the complex architecture of biological tissues. 3D pectin-based scaffolds have been principally obtained in the shape of porous 3D sponges and 3D bioprinted scaffolds.
Sponges are comparable to foams with an interconnected network of pores. This type of architecture is beneficial for cell penetration and scaffold colonization, while ensuring adequate diffusion of nutrients to cells within the scaffold. Moreover, a highly porous scaffold with open and connected pores is of critical importance as it allows for the diffusion of nutrients and waste products through the scaffold [6, 7].
Pectin-based sponges are mainly obtained by freeze-drying, also known as lyophilization. This technique consists in freezing a polymer solution followed by the evaporation of the frozen solvent by sublimation. Thus, a solid polymer matrix with numerous and interconnected pores is obtained (Figure 5). Before freezing, polymer solutions are generally poured into molds to produce porous scaffolds with the desired shape.
Schematic of the process for obtaining cylindrical porous sponges was obtained by freeze-drying. Magnification of the porous sponges obtained by scanning electron microscopy (image created with
Pectin-based sponges have been principally used to produce scaffolds for wound healing and tissue regeneration. For example, sponges obtained with pectin-based formulations have been used as scaffolds for different types of tissues including cartilage [40, 41], skin [42], and bone [43]. The high hydrophilicity of pectin molecules and the interconnected porosity enables these sponges to entrap a large volume of water creating a 3D hydrogel-based environment that can mimic the natural extracellular matrix [40, 41]. Furthermore, this provides and stabilizes a moist environment for wounds that strongly contributes to accelerating the healing of the wounds [44].
Producing scaffolds with a customized architecture and by automated and high reproducible approaches is one of the main challenges of TE. The development of pectin-based scaffolds with patient-specific architecture may boost their clinical applications.
Pectin-based scaffolds with complex shapes have been principally obtained by extrusion-based bioprinting so far. Extrusion-based bioprinting is one of the most widely used technology in TE due to its simplicity and versatility in processing a large variety of biomaterials, cells and biomolecules. An extrusion-based bioprinter usually consists of a movable cartridge containing the biomaterial formulation (called ‘
Schematic of extrusion-based bioprinting.
The application of pectin-based inks in extrusion-based bioprinting is relatively recent compared to the other fabrication approaches described in the previous sections. Pectin solutions are often not suitable to be processed through extrusion-based bioprinting and structures with poor shape fidelity are often obtained. The first application of pectin as ink for extrusion-based bioprinting dates back to 2017. In this case, pectin was combined with another biopolymer (Pluronic F-127), and complex-shaped scaffolds were bioprinted [47, 48]. Cells were successfully loaded within this formulation and 3D bioprinted to produce living 3D constructs [24]. From that moment, other pectin-based inks have been developed and optimized to produce 3D scaffolds with high shape fidelity [49, 50, 51]. For example, pectin-based scaffolds with more complex shapes such as a human ear and nose shape for cartilage tissue regeneration were successfully obtained (Figure 6) [41].
TE represents an alternative approach to conventional surgical techniques used to treat damaged, injured or diseased tissues or organs. This approach is based on the use of tissue-mimicking and biodegradable constructs, based on the so-called ‘scaffolds’, able to restore, maintain or improve tissue functions. The physicochemical properties of the final scaffold play a key role in the process of new tissue formation. The selection of the proper biomaterial formulation is therefore essential. Recently, renewable biomaterials derived from industrial by-products are finding increasing application in TE as an alternative to petroleum-derived and unrecyclable polymers. In this regard, pectin, a polysaccharide commercially derived from citrus peel and apple pomace (both by-products of the food processing industry), is gaining attention in TE due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability and non-cytotoxicity. Diverse pectin-based formulations have been developed and employed for the fabrication of functional scaffolds for TE applications.
This chapter presented the most representative applications of pectin-based formulations for the fabrication of scaffolds for TE applications. In particular, by properly processing these formulations through specific fabrication techniques is possible to produce pectin-based scaffolds with different features: from 2D non-porous films (obtained by solvent casting) to 3D scaffolds with patient-specific shape (obtained by extrusion-based bioprinting). Although pectin shows diverse advantageous properties as biomaterial, its application in clinical practice is still under investigation. The increasing number of studies on the preparation of biocompatible pectin-based formulations may strongly boost the employment of this polysaccharide in the fabrication of sustainable scaffolds for future TE applications.
The authors wish to acknowledge the Crosslab Additive Manufacturing of the Department of Information Engineering of the University of Pisa.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Authors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
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\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
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\\n\\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\\n\\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\\n\\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\\n\\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\\n\\nGang Chen 2016-18
\\n\\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\\n\\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\\n\\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\\n\\nMark Connors 2015-18
\\n\\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\\n\\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\\n\\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\\n\\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\\n\\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\\n\\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
\\n\\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
\\n\\nHamid Reza Karimi 2016-18
\\n\\nJunji Kido 2014-18
\\n\\nJose Luiszamorano 2015-18
\\n\\nYiqi Luo 2016-18
\\n\\nJoachim Maier 2014-18
\\n\\nAndrea Natale 2017, 2018
\\n\\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
\\n\\nMarjan Mernik 2017, 2018
\\n\\nSandra Orchard 2014, 2016-18
\\n\\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\\n\\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\\n\\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\\n\\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\\n\\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\\n\\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\\n\\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFei Wei 2016-18
\\n\\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\\n\\nQi Xie 2016-18
\\n\\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'New for 2018 (alphabetically by surname).
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nYuekun Lai
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPrevious years (alphabetically by surname)
\n\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\n\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\n\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\n\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\n\nGang Chen 2016-18
\n\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\n\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\n\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\n\nMark Connors 2015-18
\n\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\n\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\n\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\n\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\n\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\n\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\n\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
\n\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
\n\nHamid Reza Karimi 2016-18
\n\nJunji Kido 2014-18
\n\nJose Luiszamorano 2015-18
\n\nYiqi Luo 2016-18
\n\nJoachim Maier 2014-18
\n\nAndrea Natale 2017, 2018
\n\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
\n\nMarjan Mernik 2017, 2018
\n\nSandra Orchard 2014, 2016-18
\n\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\n\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\n\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\n\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\n\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\n\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\n\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\n\nFei Wei 2016-18
\n\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\n\nQi Xie 2016-18
\n\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\n\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
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MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. 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Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"},{id:"80821",title:"Neuroimmunology and Neurological Manifestations of COVID-19",slug:"neuroimmunology-and-neurological-manifestations-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:41,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103026",abstract:"Infection with SARS-CoV-2 is causing coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19). Besides respiratory symptoms due to an attack on the broncho-alveolar system, COVID-19, among others, can be accompanied by neurological symptoms because of the affection of the nervous system. These can be caused by intrusion by SARS-CoV-2 of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) and direct infection of local cells. In addition, neurological deterioration mediated by molecular mimicry to virus antigens or bystander activation in the context of immunological anti-virus defense can lead to tissue damage in the CNS and PNS. In addition, cytokine storm caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection in COVID-19 can lead to nervous system related symptoms. Endotheliitis of CNS vessels can lead to vessel occlusion and stroke. COVID-19 can also result in cerebral hemorrhage and sinus thrombosis possibly related to changes in clotting behavior. Vaccination is most important to prevent COVID-19 in the nervous system. There are symptomatic or/and curative therapeutic approaches to combat COVID-19 related nervous system damage that are partly still under study.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Robert Weissert"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"109268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ataby",slug:"ali-al-ataby",fullName:"Ali Al-Ataby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109268/images/7410_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Liverpool",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"3807",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:"Jose Albanez",surname:"Bastos-Filho",slug:"carmelo-bastos-filho",fullName:"Carmelo Bastos-Filho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3807/images/624_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38850/images/system/38850.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"239041",title:"Prof.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",slug:"yang-yi",fullName:"Yang Yi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/239041/images/system/239041.jpeg",institutionString:"Virginia Tech",institution:{name:"Virginia Tech",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"joao-luis-garcia-rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:"J. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"9",type:"subseries",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. 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