\r\n\tIn particular, this book presents topics related to Audio Signal Processing based on the different perspectives of the following: pattern recognition on audio, audio processing, forensic audio, digital filtering, and frequency analysis, and digital signal processing chip for audio, although other topics can be included, too. The most innovative advances on Audio Signal Processing will be included in this book, in order to show the reader, the new researched and developed approaches.
\r\n
\r\n\tSpecific cases of voice applications are welcome, where the Voice over IP (VoIP), internet of things (IoT), deep learning (DL) approaches, etc., are very useful including the recent technologies applied on voice and audio.
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Travieso-González received his M.Sc. degree in 1997 in Telecommunication Engineering at the Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain; and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a Full Professor in Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition and Head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC; teaching from 2001 in subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification systems, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has taken part in 51 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 24 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals and up to 24 book chapters. He has had over 440 papers published in international journals and conferences (74 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). 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1. Introduction
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The chapter is structured as follows: first, an overview of Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution, which is followed by the future competencies required of human capital, conceptual framework for Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution, rewarding human capital in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution and conclusion.
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1.1. An overview of Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution
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Ever since the origin of Industry 1.0 revolution in the seventeenth century till to date, the world has systematically gone through different phases of rapid industrial revolution with each marked with something totally different from the others. From Industry 1.0 revolution to Industry 2.0 and to Industry 3.0, countries have witnessed and experienced fast pace of technological changes. In Industry 1.0 revolution mass production was by powered steam powered or water engines that characterized it at that time. However, today no country or organisation can afford to take backseat and watch without being actively involved in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution. The ingenuity of human beings in today’s world has surpassed any human definitions of creativity, as human has transformed into super beings. Humans now possess great knowledge and how organisations will trade in such knowledge will make the difference in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution.
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Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution are characterised by Mobile, Cloud, Big Data analytics, Machine to Machine (M2M), Man to Machine Interactions (M2MI), 3D Printing, Robotics and many more that will require organisations with specific expertise. It is also said that Industry 4.0 revolution goes far beyond these. Digital networks to Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) are simple physical objects with embedded software and computing power. In Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution, it is predicted that more manufactured products will be smart products and Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS). This is based on the connectivity and computing power, leading to self-management capabilities. Today, most of the manufacturing equipment transform into Cyber-Physical Production Systems (CPPS), which is software enhanced machinery. This equipment has its own computing power, capitalising on a wide range of embedded sensors and actuators, which is beyond connectivity and processing power. The CPPS act and know their state, capacity and different configuration options and are able to take decisions independently just like human beings. This gives way to a mass production, which in turn gives mass customisation, each product at the end of the supply chain. The mass customisation ensures unique characteristics as defined by the end customer. The characteristic of the Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution supply chain is extremely visible, integrated and the physical flows continuously mapped on digital platforms. This makes individual service provided by CPPS available to achieve the needed activities to make each tailored product. Therefore, characteristics of Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution are as follows:
Cyber-Physical Systems (a fusion of the physical and the virtual worlds) CPS.
Internet of Things (IoT) – comprises communicating smart systems using IP addresses. This communicates objects based on Internet technologies. Also, detect and identify using IPv6 addresses (128 bit address space). The advantage of this is that the detection, identification and location of physical objects and it communicates through connectivity.
Internet of Services (IoS) – this is new approach to provide Internet-based services, concepts for product specific on demand, knowledge provision and services for controlling product behaviour. Interaction between people, machines and systems improve added value.
Internet of Data (IoD) – in this scenario, data is managed and shared using Internet technologies. This is because Cyber-Physical Systems are producing big data. There is the development of a holistic security and safety culture.
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The future of production is forecasted in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution as one that is characterised by significant efficiency gains mainly through consequent digital integration and intelligentization of manufacturing processes [1]. This integration takes place on the horizontal axis across all participants in the entire value chain and on the vertical axis across all organisational levels [2]. In Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution, fully integrated and networked factories, machines and products act in an intelligent and partly autonomous way that requires minimal manual/human interventions [2]. Currently, Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution have introduced new concepts such as: Internet of Things (IoT), Industrial Internet (II), Cloud-based Manufacturing (C-BM) [3] and Smart Manufacturing addresses this vision of digitally enabled production and are commonly subsumed by the visionary concept of Industry 4.0 revolution [4]. In Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution, these concepts are related to recent technological progress where the Internet and supporting technologies (e.g. embedded systems) serve as the mainstay to integrate or create human-machine interface, materials, products, production lines and processes within and beyond organisational boundaries to form a new kind of intelligent, linked and agile value chain [2].
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In Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0, learning organisations prove to be an indispensable means for educating students and professionals regarding practical application of production management principles and concepts. Lean management as a learning subject has clearly dominated the scene in the last decades. However, the current and future production scenarios in the sense of Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution also need other competencies to be addressed in order to enable today’s managers and workers of organisations to deal with the challenges of an increasingly digitalised production system [5].
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1.2. Future competencies for smart manufacturing
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The Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 is characterised by small decentralised, digitalised production networks, autonomously acting and capable of efficiently controlling their operations in response to changes in the environment and strategic goals [2]. The nodes of such a network are referred to as Smart Factories/Smart Manufacturing (SF/SM). This type of network is linked to a larger value chain network with the responsibility to fulfil a certain customer demand. In addition, assets such as machines and materials are situated at the underneath line of the whole automation pyramid, but are all well integrated through standardised interfaces. Last but not least, during manufacturing process, machines and products are inimitably identifiable and situated at all times in their entire lifecycles. These smart materials and products are custom-built to a large extent at the costs of mass production in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution.
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1.2.1. Personal competencies
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The question that one may want to ask is what type of personal competencies, skills and abilities is needed to fit well in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution? Such competencies can be viewed as the ability of a person to act in a reflective and autonomous manner [2]. In nutshell, such competence comprises the ability to learn (develop cognitive abilities), to develop an own attitude and ethic value system that a person may possess. In addition, at the level of a worker, Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 have created an increased automation of routine tasks never witnessed before. Today’s workers have to face the fact that their present tasks no longer exist in the future, because the future promises uneven playground. The workers tasks keep on changing rapidly and there is a need to upkeep with the changes in the tasks. The rationale is that the digitals, Internet of Things and Networked Systems have eradicated some or most of the tasks, the worker currently performs [6]. This may require the ability to look at a person’s own task perspective taking into account the bigger picture of the society as a whole (the challenges, resource scarcity, opportunities and wealth). In addition, opportunities for a person’s own development and the commitment to lifelong learning should be the responsibility of both the individual and the organisation [3]. However, rather than developing naïve technology, devoutness as a critical attitude towards technological developments is a key asset for the future worker and organisation in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution [2].
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Personal flexibility with respect to work time, work contents, workplaces and mindsets are prerequisites competencies for an agile production, to respond quickly to market need and environmental situations. In addition, today and future managers need the ability to transform their management and leadership styles from power-driven to value-driven [7], as the teams of the Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 are diverse both in culture, education and geographical location.
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1.2.2. Social/interpersonal competencies
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This is conceived as an individual who is embedded in a social setting, for example, like human beings and organisations also need the ability to communicate, cooperate and establish social connections, structures with other individuals and groups [6]. This is because organisations are social systems where interactions take place between different players (human-machines, human-human, etc.). The full digital integration and automation of the Smart Manufacturing processes in the vertical and horizontal dimension entails as well an automation of communication and collaboration mainly along standardised processes. Consequently, workers are responsible for a broader process scope and need the capability to comprehend the relations between processes, information flows, possible disturbances and potential solutions to such interfaces. The increase in scope and complexity of Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 require a mindset geared towards building and maintaining networks of experts that are capable of cooperating in finding the ideal solutions to a particular problem. Currently, human work now concentrates at the edges of interfaces in which human flexibility in problem solving and creativity is strategic. Therefore, allowing creative activities to be performed in distributed social settings, involving heterogeneous interdisciplinary and inter-organisational teams, require the ability to communicate complex problems in different languages as well [4].
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Therefore today, managers must build or act as mediators that permit social processes such as mutual decision processes, which is not only within customary organisational borders but also for the whole network [8]. Social media play a key role as supporting technology in the Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution [2]. Managers, engineers and workers now have to show literacy, skills, knowledge and abilities with different tastes of technical communication and support systems [9].
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1.2.3. Action-related competencies
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Action-related competencies of a worker can be understood as ‘the ability to take individual or socially constructed ideas to action’ that transforms dreams into reality in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution. It is the ability of an individual to integrate concepts into its own agenda, to successfully transfer plans into reality, not only on the individual but also on an organisational level [6]. It is worth noting that these concepts could be in their abstracts forms and therefore need to be reflected in their real sense of meanings.
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Digitalisation production inevitably leads to high financial and technological efforts for the Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution. The inherent risk associated with such efforts needs pragmatic thinkers and actors to bring down the ‘sky-high’ vision of Industry 4.0 revolution to the shop floor, where majority of the workers are engaged [4]. Both managers and workers require strong analytical skills and ability to find domain-specific and practicable solutions without losing the overall goal, which is the key competencies. To accomplish this, therefore, managers must break down complex concepts into realistic work packages, to find and to assign appropriate people and teams [2]. Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 are not a straightforward methodology or technology. Managers are required to encourage taking new routes but also take into account the risk of failures. For workers and managers alike a strong interdisciplinary “out-of-the box” orientation is likely to facilitate solutions finding in complex environments [2].
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1.2.4. Domain-related competencies
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This is referred to the ability to access and use domain knowledge for a job or a specific task [6]. The key elements of the domain knowledge are methodologies, languages and tools that are designed for problem solving or business domain and reaches beyond marginal. A core element of Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution is the full digitalisation of planning and the exploitation of data. The full digitalisation acts facilitates intelligent planning, control production processes and networks [2]. Production processes and networks (also those in the future) have domain peculiarities that require domain-specific competencies. Digitalised and intelligently managed production processes require works that are capable to understand the basics of network technologies and data processing [4]. Therefore, workers need to appraise whether the subsystems are performing as expected and must be able to interact with such systems through suitable interfaces. In case of disruptions, workers and engineers must be able to analyse complex systems through specialised software [6]. Engineers are required to acquire skills, knowledge and abilities about state-of-the-art software architectures, modelling and programming techniques [4]. In addition, statistical methods and data mining techniques are key capabilities for future production engineers [10].
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In summary, human-machine interfaces in the Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution have to be developed based on the user-centred approach with a task- and situation-orientation.
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2. Human capital in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution
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Human capital is considered critical for the success of organisations in today’s world, however in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution, researchers and management practitioners are already predicting this scenario to take a different shape, given the characteristics of the changes anticipated. The characteristics of human capital that are key to success are education, experience and knowledge that organisations need to tap into to achieve success in the competitive world. Human capital theory considers that knowledge brings greater cognitive skills to individuals, thus impelling their productivity and efficiency potential to develop activities [5, 10]. From the national perspective, human capital can be defined as:
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“Human capital can be defined as a set of knowledge, abilities and skills, used in activities, processes and services that contribute to stimulate economic growth” [9].
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However, from this [9] definition, the author coins the definition that matches human capital in an organisation as:
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A set of education, experience, knowledge and skills possessed by employees and that is used to create value for the success of the organisation. In these two foregoing definitions, we can see how experience, knowledge, skills and education are critical for human capital in the organisations, which in essence underscore the importance and role of human capital in the Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution.
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Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 requires not only just workforce, but also human capital nurtured in competitive education systems that is well prepared for creative work environments. No organisations require physical and tangible humans, as the present and future seems to offer a plethora of challenges to organisations and humanity. Therefore, as humans embrace to usher in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0, it has become imperative for nations as well as organisations to embark on education systems that are more focused on knowledge beyond what the world currently preach. This may require teaching creativity to children at an early age (Early Childhood Education) right up to university levels. A move away from traditional education systems of writing, reading, cramming and memorising as mode of passing an examination that never produce thinkers, creators and ingenuity should be a thing of the past. Therefore, nations need to revolutionise their education systems that produce super humans capable of surviving in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution. Education revolutions require a national culture that is supportive to such initiatives from government, where the citizens feel they have something to contribute towards achieving Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution goals. Hence, result in producing human capital that is capable to benefit Industry 4.0 revolution needs for Smart Manufacturing competitiveness.
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3. Education in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution
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There is enough evidence that a country’s education system plays an important role in its social, economic and political development. Most successful countries are successful because of their education system, for example, Japan education system requires that from class one to three, children are only taught Japanese moral values and nothing else. This is to ensure that they are imbibed with the Japanese’s culture and education system that is supportive of Japanese’s work environment ethics. Classrooms should foster quality environment capable of creative thinking and divergent views among children irrespective of their ages and stages of their education. Embracing technologies at an early age make such children more adaptable to the needs of Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution as opposed to adoptions and diffusions of such technologies at a later stage. Education for Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution is defined by technology literacy, information literacy, media creativity, social competence and responsibility, workplace skills and civic engagement. This is because the information made available dramatically increase, hence requiring people to have new skills to critically access and process content to ensure the best social communication and interaction. Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution present an opportunity as well as challenges to nations’ education systems and only those nations whose education systems are anchored in inclusiveness and technologies imperatives will remain competitive. It is evident that, Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution rely more on the convergence of networks and devices to build bridges between people and countries. On the one hand, nations are already moving towards digital democracy to make their citizens productive and engaged participants in democracy. While on the other hand, in the workplace, more people are needed with technological skills to meet the demand of digital workplace worldwide. To meet all these demands for Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution, lifelong learning is necessary to ensure that everyone can stay informed. Universities have to lead research efforts not only to identify the skills but also to produce calibre of workforce that have the skills needed in the Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution. The questions that we need to address are: what sort of education systems is conducive for the Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution? How can we match education, knowledge and skills with that of Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution?
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The evaluation of the competitiveness in the higher education sector should apply the approach that appraises the competitive advantage of the present systems with its legal, political, economic, social and technological factors [11]. The appropriateness of this method is based on the growth of a higher education environment that inspires, allows and safeguards a competitive higher education system. This takes an active part in increasing the standard of public (society) welfare and satiating the public interests through innovative approaches [11] as shown in Figure 1. Not only the competitiveness of higher education system that plays critical role, but also right from early childhood education (Pre-school), primary, secondary, vocational and tertiary education that ensures a country’s competitiveness in its overall education system.
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Figure 1.
A model of human capital for Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution. Source: Author’s own illustration.
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The effectiveness of higher education system stresses the element of human capital (scholars, higher education managers, educators, academics, students, etc.): the overall effectiveness evaluation system is based on the human competencies, ensuring the performance of higher education institutions, its evaluation, quality assurance frameworks, potential demand or final outcomes [11]. This is where most developing countries should focus to revolutionise their education for knowledge and innovative society that results in the national competitiveness. Good and competitive education system ensures a country of creative and knowledgeable population that contributes immensely at national innovation systems (NIS) as individual or organisation. In this study’s conceptual (Figure 1), this relationship has been demonstrated.
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Any education system or policy should focus learning outcomes that stimulate the three components of creativity (creative-thinking skills, expertise and cognitive) at any level of the education. When these people are nurtured under this type of education system, then that assures a country of not only creative, but also knowledgeable society [7].
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Education systems that encourage and promote learners to question what they have been taught in formal as well as informal classrooms is an ideal for innovation-driven economy as it develops calibres of society where creative thinking is the norm of the day. This type of behaviour should be entrenched in the society as a whole, for example, early childhood education development level. When children are allowed to questioning, it leads to knowing, which develop their mental faculty to reason and analyse things from different perspectives. However, in most developing countries, particularly sub-Saharan-Africa countries, the cultural practices are that a child must not question anything coming from an adult person, as this is considered to be rude. In addition, it is viewed as a taboo and such children are seen as disrespectful to adult persons. But to create innovation-driven economy, any education policy should be such that it foster and nature creativity of the learners right from early childhood education development to higher education. This equips a country with creative and knowledgeable population that is capable for innovation imperatives. An attempt has been made to demonstrate three components of creativity that any education systems should focus on given creativity is a precursor to innovation. Education systems in the developing countries are products of colonialism that was developed without most of the developing countries people’s participation, since then little has been done to reflect the changes that have taken place in the world.
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A country’s capacity to absorb new technologies depends on upgrading the skills of the human capital, to produce goods and services that can reach standards of quality and performance acceptable in international markets. Such a country engages with the rest of the world in ways that create value. This requires the higher education system’s collaboration with the labour market, private, public and secondary education among others. In order for higher education system to contribute successfully to a country’s competitiveness, it needs to work hand in hand with all of them [12]. In particular, developing countries’ national innovation policy should focus on an education system that is able to develop basic analytical and problem-solving skills, creativity, imagination, resourcefulness and flexibility of its people [8]. These skills and knowledge are critical and relevant to the Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0. Such countries and organisations that invest and reward their people effectively compete in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution.
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4. Organisation culture
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Culture is the glue that glued a particular people together. In defining culture, several scholars have offered different definitions; however, of interest is that of [13] who defined culture as “the shared ways in which groups of people understand and interpret the world”. While on the one hand, Ref. [14] states that culture is something that is learned and therefore is entrenched in a society or nation. It is akin to a “mental programme” that is developed early in life and fortified through a widespread programme of socialisation. “The usual act of idea is greatly changed by culture” [15]. This is because of the effect, culture has on the lives of people; it provides a structured and highly consistent way of living that is not deliberately constructed [15]. Tse [13, 14] postulates a real-world application of culture to living, implying that culture can be perceived as an “onion” in which the central represents the value systems and the covers growing out of it denote customs and rites expected from values. The question that bog us are how does a national culture promotes and hinders a country’s innovation capacity? Throughout history and civilisations, those involve in innovation are gifted people who take creativity and risk. Others work independently, while some with groups and organisations. But, in almost cases, these persons want support and infrastructure to transform their concepts and creative ideas into something concrete and marketable. While individual instinct, inventive ability and tendency are instrumental in moving innovation projects forward, the surrounding environment and culture serve as the incubator that aids or inhibits innovation [16]. It is common to see in developing countries’ people laugh at innovators or inventors simply because they failed to make ingenuity materialise or their experiment could not see the light of the day. This is what I call “great killers of creativity and innovation”. Such innovators, inventors or creators need moral support irrespective of the outcomes of their experiments. Otherwise, the would-be innovators will naturally shy away from such innovation endeavours in future fearing to be turned into a laughing stock by the society in which they live. The support from the society and the government naturally make these innovators, creators and inventors to aspire for more of innovative ventures. Therefore, supportive national culture irrespective of success or failure will motivate more innovators to come forward and offer something new, which in turn can be transformed into innovation imperatives.
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Innovative culture is a tolerance of ambiguities, failures, divergent views and people are praised for trying out something new irrespective of the outcomes of such experiments. Much creativity has been killed due to the culture of intolerance to failures, as people are laughed at whenever they failed to achieve something they are experimenting with. Organisations as well as nations that want to be competitive in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution must be at the forefront to encourage diverse ideas as a way to foster creativity.
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5. Government
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The role of government in innovation pervades all the sectors of the economy. As the sole regulator of the economy, government can either promote or hinder innovation. Government promotes innovation through the formulation of user-friendly legislation and policies that are supportive to both creative and innovative endeavours in the economy. At the national level, government is responsible for pulling all the sectors of the economy towards a common purpose to achieve economic development. But how does a government achieve this in the first place?
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In other countries, Malaysia for example, the government is committed to a lower carbon footprint and reduction of air pollution in order to improve the health of its citizens and create a better environment [17]. To achieve this, the Malaysian government has established the Malaysia Green Technology Corporation (MGTC) to promote green technology under a national green technology policy [17]. This policy has encouraged Malaysian industries in the economy to explore innovative ways to improve development of new products, production processes, firm productivity and ecological improvements. This is a typical government promoting innovation through policy creation and implementation at a national level, which results in new start-ups/industries [18].
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Innovation at a national level requires efforts from all the sectors of the economy to be spearheaded by a committed government and political will. Countries that have experienced rapid innovation have succeeded doing so because of the government taking the front lead in areas such as policy formulation, funding, openness to external ideas (open innovation) and joint-ventures in large undertakings of projects. For example, the Chinese government encourages firms to source external knowledge by acquiring foreign technology through the enactment of various legislations, policies and reforms [19]. Innovation policy at a national level that covers a broad spectrum of industrialisation and development needs of a country through financial, tax, industry, trade and Science and Technology (S&T) should serve as a link that connects all relevant players/actors at various levels of NIS [19].
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The policy imperatives should define specific types of innovation at NIS such as inbound Open Innovation (OI), Outbound Open Innovation (OOI) and Closed Innovation (CI). This guides players/actors at different levels of the NIS as they engage in innovation endeavours at a national level. The innovation policy should also cater for how the resources of the NIS are shared among the actors, given that some innovation ventures require substantial resources that may not be within individual or organisational reach. Collaboration and engagement of government and citizens in NIS is paramount for an innovative nation [20].
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To tap on the creativity of the entire population, outreach and other mechanisms need to be put in place that involves citizens. It is a bottom-up approach to problem solving. Governments should be ready to reward and incentivise innovators in the economy through appropriate legislations and policies as a way to promote innovation at a national level [21]. Such recognition of innovativeness strengthen and motivate innovators to come up with more creative approaches to solving real societal problems such as unemployment, poverty, infrastructure issues, health issues and other myriad problems facing a country.
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It is unquestionable that the government plays a significant role in encouraging and stimulating innovation in the economy. This is achieved through various ways such as enactment of legislation that is pro-innovation as well as sustainable economic development. Government, too, can change the state of happiness, commitment and dedication in a society towards innovation [18].
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6. National knowledge management
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Since the beginning of Adam and Eve, knowledge has always existed and the co-existence of knowledge and humanity is shown in different human-made exploits [22]. Such exploits can be seen from Pyramids of Egypt, Taj Mahal in India and many others. Just like an organisation, a country’s capability to innovate hangs on its domestic (within the boarder) competencies such as its own knowledge, organisational and technological base as well as its skills in discovery, embracing, developing and expanding knowledge generated within its boarders and collaborations with its proximate environment [23]. Knowledge-grounded development in today’s global economy has become an arsenal and the ability of nations to generate, transfer and apply knowledge, but also to “tap external knowledge as well as adapt such knowledge for specific needs” locally [24]. For sustained (knowledge) development to take place, countries need to establish mechanisms that facilitate the circulation of data, information and knowledge across developing and developed nations [25].
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In the twenty-first century, new organisations are emerging where knowledge is the primary production resource as opposed to capital and labour [26]. It is now believed that efficient utilisation of existing knowledge could create wealth for organisations. Knowledge management (KM) refers to the process of enhancing organisation performance by designing and implementing tools, processes, systems, structures and culture to improve the creation, sharing and the use of knowledge [27, 28]. Knowledge is increasingly becoming more valuable because management is taking into account the value of creativity, which allows for the transformation of one form of knowledge to the next. The perception of the existing relations among numerous systems elements leads to new interpretations and this means another knowledge level where a new perceived value is generated [29]. This relationship denotes that innovation highway hangs on the knowledge development [29, 30]. This relationship has well been captured in the proposed conceptual framework (Figure 1).
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Previous studies [24] have shown that knowledge generation or acquisition, knowledge sharing and knowledge leverage or utilisation build employees’ skills are relevant to the process of innovation. Knowledge management that facilitates collaboration between employees and sectors enhances the knowledge sharing and utilisation, which in turn increase innovation (see Figure 1). Therefore, knowledge sharing plays an important role in innovation imperatives. Encouraging knowledge sharing between employees and incorporating KM into strategies lead to gain competitive advantage, customer focus and innovation [24, 31]. Organisations also could trigger off the sharing, application and the deployment of knowledge to facilitate innovation, because KM has a positive effect and contribution to transform tacit knowledge into innovative products, services and processes, which improve innovative performance as shown in Figure 1. Some studies showed that there is a relationship between organisational innovation and knowledge transfer as well as reverse knowledge transfer, but its effect depends heavily on learning orientations [24]. In gist, two key elements are important in the definition. From the review of the literature, there is evidence that knowledge is the core component of innovation – not technology or finances.
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In a nutshell, strategic human capital practices are deployed in Smart Manufacturing and Industrial 4.0 revolution to ensure a competitive advantage by focusing extensively towards the human capital and build the knowledge base for a sustained growth. From the strategic human capital management perspective, a set of integrative human capital practices that support organisation’s strategy produces a sustainable competitive advantage (Figure 1).
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7. Rewarding human capital in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution
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Human capital management in the Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution provide workers with clearly defined and consistently communicated performance expectations. In Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution, managers are responsible for evaluating their employees’ performance. This evaluation takes into account a fair rating, rewards and holds worker accountable for achieving specific business goals. The sole aims of such evaluation is crafting innovation and supporting continuous improvement). In Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution, human capital management is viewed as an approach to organisation staffing that values workers as assets. Such organisation perceives human capital as assets whose current value can be measured and future value can be enhanced through investment [32]. Human capital acts as a catalyst to increase productivity in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution. Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution cannot survive if there are no human capital with the necessary skills, knowledge and abilities to transform concepts and abstracts thinking into reality that add value to the organisation. The success or failure of Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution depends entirely on how human capital contributes in his or her own way in its success and productivity. Human capital represents the collective value of Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution’s competencies, knowledge and skills. This renewal is the source of creativity and innovation that imparts to Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution, the ability to change. Workers are the facilitators who stimulate the physical, inert forms of knowledgeable human capital and the docile forms of tangible capital, materials and equipment to improve Human capital as the most vital asset in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution and managing it is the greatest challenge facing modern managers and organisations [32]. For Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution to succeed, it is critical to map the workers centric approaches with that of Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution strategies.
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In Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution, it is not possible to just get rid of them (employees). In fact, unless organisations learn to get the best out of their creative employees, they will sooner or later end up filing for bankruptcy. Similarly, if organisations just hire and elevate workers who are friendly and easy to manage, such organisations will be mediocre at best. This is because suppressed or stifled creativity is harmful organisational growth. While every organisation claims to care about innovation, very few are ready to do what it takes to keep their creative people happy or at least, productive. So what are the keys to engage and retain creative employees? In whatever form or structure, rewards must be seen to motivate and retain the creative human capital for the Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution.
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7.1. Spoil them and let them fail
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Like parents who rejoice their children’s chaos: show your creative absolute encouragement and inspire them to do the illogical and flop. Innovation can originate from uncertainty, risk and experimentation if you know it will work, it is not creative. Creative people are the natural experimenters, so let them try and test and play. This is because there are costs associated with experimentation but these are lower than the cost of not innovating [32].
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7.2. Surround them by semi-boring people
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Managers must not find themselves doing the worst by forcing a creative employee to work with someone like them. Such action is likely to flop because employees will compete for ideas, brainstorm eternally or simply ignore one another at the end. That being said, managers should not surround creative worker with colleagues who are really boring or conventional, they would not understand them and fall out. In line with this, recent research suggests that teams consist of diverse members who are open to take each other’s viewpoint and perform most creatively [32].
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The response, then, is to support creative workers with their colleagues who are too conventional to challenge their ideas, but unconventional enough to collaborate with them. These colleagues will need to pay attention to details, mundane executional processes and do the dirty work.
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7.3. Involve them in meaningful work
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Innovators naturally tend to have more vision. They see the bigger picture and able to comprehend why things matter (even if they cannot explain it). The downside to this is that they simply will not involve in worthless work. This all or nothing approach to work reflects the bipolar character of creative artists, who perform well only when is fuelled by value. This approach can also apply to other employees because everyone is more creative when driven by their honest interests and a hungry mind.
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At the same time, in any organisation there are employees who are less interested in, well, doing interesting work; they are satisfied with simply clocking in and out and are incentivized by external rewards. Organisations should ensure that frivolous or meaningless work is assigned to these employees [32].
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7.4. Eliminate pressure from employees
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Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution require that workers be given more freedom and flexibility at work as this usually enhances creativity, which is a precursor innovation. It cautions managers in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution against leaning towards structure, order and predictability, terming such managers as probably not creative. This is because workers are more likely to perform more creatively in spontaneous and unpredictable situations. Managers should not constrain creative employees or force them to follow processes, rules, procedures or structures. Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution require workers to work remotely and outside normal hours; the emphasis is managers must not ask where employees are, what they are doing or how they do it. Workers left to decide what, when and how to perform a particular task is the calibre of employees needed in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution.
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7.5. Do not overpay employees
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There is evidence suggesting a relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Over the past two decades, psychologists have provided persuasive support for the so-called “over-justification” effect, namely the process whereby higher external rewards weaken performance by lowering a person’s genuine or intrinsic interest [32]. Most notably, two large-scale meta-analyses reported that, when tasks are naturally meaningful (and creative tasks are certainly in this condition), external rewards weaken commitment. This is true in both adults and children, especially when people are rewarded merely for performing a task. However, providing positive feedback (praises) does not harm intrinsic motivation, so long as the feedback is perceived as honest. The moral of the story! The more you pay people to do what they love, the less they will love it. In the words of Czikszentmihalyi [33]:
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“The most important quality, the one that is most reliably present in all creative individuals, is the ability to enjoy the process of invention for its own sake” [33].
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More significantly, workers with talent for innovation are not motivated by money. Evidence suggests quite clearly that the more imaginative and inquisitive workers are, the more they are motivated by appreciation and absolute logical inquisitiveness rather than commercial needs.
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7.6. Surprise employees
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Few things are as frustrating to creative as tediousness. The characteristics of creative people are that they naturally seek persistent change, even when it is of less value. They take a different route to work every day, sometimes they get lost on the way and never repeat an order at a restaurant or hotel, even if they really loved it. Creativity is linked to higher tolerance of ambiguity [32, 34]. Creative and inventor love complexity and like making simple things complex rather than vice-versa. Instead of searching for the solutions to a problem, they usually prefer to generate a thousand solutions or a thousand problems. It is therefore necessary that managers keep surprising their creative employees; failing that, managers should at least let them generate enough chaos to make their own lives less predictable.
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7.7. Make employees feel important
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“Most of the problem in this world is as a result of people seeking to be important” in organisation. And the reason is that others fail to appreciate their worth. Justice is not treating everyone the same, but like appreciating and giving them what they are worth. Every organisation has high and low potential employees, but only competent managers and leaders can identify such employees. If managers or leaders fail to recognise such employees’ creative potential, employees will switch to other organisations where they feel more valued in terms of contributions [32]. Therefore, in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution, organisations need to change their way of rewarding and managing these new generations of employees in order to successfully compete.
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A final warning: Being able to manage your creative employees perhaps may not mean that managers should let creative employees manage others. Evidence suggests that natural innovators or inventors are hardly talented with leadership skills to warrant them handed leadership of other fellow employees. This is because the profile for good leaders and those of creative people are rather different. Example of such creative people who could not relate well with other people, but doing well with gadgets can be drawn from Steve Jobs. In addition, most Google engineers are completely not interested in the position of leadership or management. It is been proven that the orthodox view that corporate innovators or intrapreneurs demonstrate many of the psychopathic features that inhibit them from being successful leaders: they are uncontrollable, anti-social, self-seeking and often too low in responsiveness to other employees’ welfare. But if these creative employees are managed well, motivated and incentivized, then their inventions will delight many [32, 34].
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8. Conclusion
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The chapter provides a strong evidence of the important role human capital plays in the Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution. In Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution, the success or failures of most organisations largely depend on how their human capital is managed. This is because Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution provides a space where employees to machines interactions are the order of the day. There is interconnectedness among various players and actors. The interfaces created become the connecting points between workers and machines. The features of Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution require creative and inventive workers. These are workers who are not creative but also knowledgeable and have techno how to work in such environments. Such workers are nurtured through an education system, where creativity, inventiveness, knowledge and technology flourish and entrenched in the national culture.
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A concept concerning all activities regarding employing and managing people in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution is considered human capital management or more in a narrower sense human resource management [34]. Developing a workforce to meet present and future market needs proposes the identification of required competencies [34]. Competencies such as skills, abilities, knowledge, attitudes and motivations an individual needs to cope with job-related tasks and challenges effectively as defined by Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution cutting edge. In addition, Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution require people who are well entrenched into Technology of Things (ToT), human-machine interactions, technology-technology interfaces, good understanding of networked systems, creativity and innovative.
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\n\n',keywords:"human capital, cyber physical space, industry 4.0 revolution, innovation, management, virtual organisations",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/59319.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/59319.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59319",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59319",totalDownloads:1814,totalViews:1625,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"May 6th 2017",dateReviewed:"January 8th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 28th 2018",dateFinished:"February 13th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The purpose of this chapter is to highlight the important role of human capital management in the Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution. Two hundred years ago, industrial revolution in the west has transformed or evolved from mechanical production driven or powered by water, and to date, we are in an era characterised by cyber physical systems. This transformation or industrial revolution has been driven by humans using creative minds to solve problems that were confronted. The Industrial 1.0 Revolution around 1700 AD, mass production was carried out by mechanical production powered by water (steam engines), which was labour intensive. The more manpower an industrial organisation has, the more goods and services would be produced, though this could take long to reach the market but that was the industrial system at that time. From mechanical production powered by steam engines between 1700s and 1800s to the second Industrial Revolution mass production powered by electricity between 1800s and 1900s to the third Industrial Revolution powered by electronic and IT automation and finally to Industry 4.0 Revolution cyber systems in 2000 and beyond, human capital has generated innovative solutions to human problems more than ever before. Today, human capital is not only creative, but rather a super human capital.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/59319",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/59319",book:{slug:"digital-transformation-in-smart-manufacturing"},signatures:"Joseph Evans Agolla",authors:[{id:"210562",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:"Evans",surname:"Agolla",fullName:"Joseph Agolla",slug:"joseph-agolla",email:"nyagonya2009@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Botswana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Botswana"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. An overview of Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Future competencies for smart manufacturing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"1.2.1. Personal competencies",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"1.2.2. Social/interpersonal competencies",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"1.2.3. Action-related competencies",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"1.2.4. Domain-related competencies",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8",title:"2. Human capital in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. Education in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Organisation culture",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Government",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. National knowledge management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"7. Rewarding human capital in Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 revolution",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"7.1. Spoil them and let them fail",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"7.2. Surround them by semi-boring people",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"7.3. Involve them in meaningful work",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"7.4. Eliminate pressure from employees",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"7.5. Do not overpay employees",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"7.6. Surprise employees",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"7.7. Make employees feel important",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Zhou J. Digitilisation and intelligentilisation of manufacturing industry. Advance Manufacturing. 2013;1(1):1-7\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Enrol S, Jäger A, Hold P, Ott K, Sihn W. Tangible Industry 4.0: A scenario-based approach to learning for the future production. Procedia CIRP. 2016;54:13-18\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Monostori L. Cyber-physical production systems: Roots, expectations and R&D challenges. Procedia CIRP. 2014;17:9-13\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Gao L, Wang L, Teti R, Dornfield D, Kumara S, Mori M, Helu M. Cloud-enabled prognosis for manufacturing. CIRP Annuals-Manufacturing Technology. 2015;64(2):749-772\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Maguire K. Lean and IT – Working together? An exploratory study of the potential conflicts between lean thinking and the use of technology in organisations today. In: Understanding the Lean Enterprise, Chiarini, Found and Rich. 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Available from: https://hbr.org/2013/04/seven-rules-for-managing-creat?goback=.gde_3044917_member_229811488\n\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Csikszentmihalyi M. Creativity: The Work and Lives of 91 Eminent People. 1996. Available from: http://psychologytoday.com/articles [Accessed: Aug 10, 2017]\n'},{id:"B34",body:'Heclau F, Galeitzke M, Flachs S, Kohl H. Holistic appraocah to human resource management in Industry 4.0. Procedia CIRP. 2016;54:1-6\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Joseph Evans Agolla",address:"nyagonya2009@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Botswana Open University, Gaborone, Botswana
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1. Introduction
University teachers’ efforts and activities of developing blended e-learning courses for professional competence development in manufacturing industry pose potentials but causes also challenges for the university, the teaching practice, and the practitioners. In this chapter these transformative efforts have been defined as design work. The complexity of planning and designing of e-learning courses has been discussed from the university teacher’s perspective for meeting experienced industry practitioners need of work-integrated learning.
The potential of blended e-learning is claimed to support learning that is more active, participatory, personalized, flexible, and inclusive towards today’s diverse learning needs [1, 2, 3]. Blended e-learning courses offer a formal system for arranging and constructing new collaborations and learning between teachers and practitioners in which they can integrate organizational, social and individual perspectives for mutual knowledge development [4]. However, designing for new modes of e-learning targeting industry knowledge needs are forcing teachers’ work into a changed pedagogical and didactical practice that pushes them into unfolding new learning strategies and to find an applicable course blend of digitized learning material and new communicative strategies outside the class room [5, 6, 7, 8]. Arranging for such learning events includes challenges to define a qualitative mix of on-line time combined with spaces of physical effective meetings and defining knowledge content that matches the workplace demands. Altogether these challenges impact the university traditional routines and teacher’s knowledge mediation and hence design work and implementation, hence their design practice [2, 9].
The manufacturing industry is constantly challenged by the digital transformation of the engineering work [10] with an increased need of industrial automation and robotics [11, 12], interconnected machines and big data analytics [13], and new production systems [14] put future professionals under continuous reconstruction [15, 16]. Industry professionals need to be competitive and keep up to industry companies efficiency paradigm, and pressured to strengthen and update their knowledge and skills to meet a globalized production [12]. Consequently, learning to become and stay as a competent expert for an entire working life tends to be harder for professionals [16, 17, 18].
Given this situation, engineering professionals continuously seek for new knowledge and learning as an integrated part of work, here described as work-integrated e-learning labelled e-WIL [19]. This means knowledge that will further strengthening their industry experiences combined with new theoretical knowledge. Given these potentials and challenges of long-term transformations call for universities to plan, implement and evaluate competence efforts that meet the industry practice in a whole new way. Earlier studies have emphasized the need to further investigate e-learning across professional boundaries in manufacturing organizational domains and communities [20]. Furthermore, it has been shown that designing for learning across such boundaries is hard, therefore it is here argued for a more close and detailed analysis of how to design to actually plan and implement courses for work-integrated e-learning. Professionals are continuously balancing between individual and mutual goals pressured of their obligations to achieve organizational purposeful objectives and results.
To shed light on the professionals (teachers and practitioners) design work, the theoretical concept knotworking [21] was used as an analytical tool to rethink the design work towards more collaborative activities of professionals temporal teamwork. Knotworking refers to tying, untying, and retying together seemingly separate threads of activity. Hence, the purpose of knotworking is to address professionals innovative and creative ideas and to grasp their inner thoughts and actions in a process of e-learning design. This chapter aims to explore professionals’ knowledge discussions in forms of knotworking through the cultural historical activity theory, CHAT [22, 23].
To grasp professionals’ involvement and interaction in the design work of e-learning courses, an effort has been made to analyze professionals’ specific experiences, their identification, and coordination activities towards transformative efforts. Two studies were carried out within the ProdEx, a longitudinal competence development project, with duration between the year 2013 until 2020 [20]. The project was focusing on competence development within production technology knowledge targeting practitioners in manufacturing industry. In this chapter, a re-analysis of the teachers’ and practitioners’ experiences has been done by applying the knotworking concept following these two research questions:
RQ1: How can knotworking expand a new e-learning design practice for work-integrated learning?
RQ2: What can be learnt on a systemic level from e-learning design work when applying knotworking as an analytical concept?
2. The context of the research
2.1 The ProdEx project
The ProdEx project (Expert in Production Technology) was initiated as a collaboration between one university in West Sweden together with regional manufacturing industry companies in 2013. It has been ongoing for seven years and will formally end in December 2020. ProdEx will however continue as a regular competence program at the university with courses designed targeting industry knowledge needs. The overall project aim is co-production of competence activities for university-industry stakeholders to strengthen industry practitioner’s expert competences. Today the project comprises a network of about 40 different industry companies within the automotive and aerospace sector. ProdEx runs by a project group that is situated at a Production Technology Centre (PTC), which is a well-equipped research laboratory with an automation laboratory, multi-task CNC machines, a material laboratory, etc. PTC is affiliated to the university engineering department.
The university project group consists of action researchers, information and communication pedagogues, IT technicians, administrators, and program managers. Representatives from the project group continuously participate in meetings and co-production activities with the industry stakeholders, around competence mapping of knowledge needs and definition of learning content. Cross-boundary activities topics also concern the design practice of evaluating e-learning design technologies and learning forms towards developing professional skills for a future digitalized industrial work practice.
The teachers are also conducting research projects together with many of the industry companies that takes part within the project. The initial courses in 2014, were designed in action design research cycles on an academic master’s degree level [24]. Besides, these teachers are regularly teaching campus courses of 7.5 European Credits (ECTS) within the engineering areas such as robotics and automation, cutting processes, sheet metal forming, welding, additive manufacturing, and smart manufacturing etc. With the support of the project they are responsible for the design work of modifying and slicing courses into shorter modules of 2.5 ECTS targeting the industrial instant knowledge needs. Today, in 2020 within the mentioned subject areas, a total of 30 different five-week flexible e-learning courses, each offering 2.5 European Credits (ECTS), have been designed. At the end of the project in 2020, 82 occasions of the courses will have been completed.
2.2 University and industry perspectives on e-learning
Designing courses for competence development on an academic level encompass a dual situation with the industry effectiveness pressure on the one hand, and the blended competence development opportunities offered by the university, on the other [25]. There may be different motives from the two stakeholders’ perspectives of the cross-organizational collaboration that presume a productive development. The university aims to strengthening the individual student to learn more, meanwhile the industry aims to increase the efficiency and competitiveness [11]. Colliding interests and conflicts on different systemic levels may occur, rather than foster energetic changes for learning [26]. Hence, cross-organizational collaborations may not per se cause benefits and learning [27] rather needs to be analyzed through its inner activities as power for change [22]. Learning activities with various inner contradictions are however systemic, embedded in history, developing over time, and cannot be studied directly. They rather need to be understood over time and through close collaborations with the actors [28]. How teachers are using learning technologies has been researched in recent years, however essential questions such as teachers’ approaches to use learning technologies in course design that integrate practitioners’ experiences and the workplace knowledge needs into the design work is relatively scarce [9]. Studies of teachers’ professional identities and coordination activities are affecting their e-learning design plans and pedagogical approaches when including practitioners’ experience-based and workplace knowledge needs [29]. Industry practitioners need to learn and develop their competences in a constantly changed work practice. For such needs, blended e-learning courses in higher education (HE) offer a flexible way of learning which is adjusted to and integrated in work practice.
Hence, teachers are shifting identities in their professional role when they approach a new target group [30]. Their perceived design challenges, how they identify and frame earlier experiences of e-learning and/or distance education, or maybe lack of experiences affect how their future pedagogical and technological design will be accomplished. Teachers individual’s beliefs and ideas have implications on the professional teaching role and in the design work of e-learning courses that aim to involve active participation from the learners (here the practitioners).
Also, practitioners can feel resistance of meeting the academic culture. Teachers are subject matter experts through an academic degree, but now they need to situate and mediate engineering knowledge, targeting a new group of skilled practitioners with workplace experiences. However, if these differences are used wisely, both actors can, despite their differences, can contribute with valuable knowledge in a learning situation. Industry practitioners and engineers traditionally have long experience-based knowledge of handling machines, tools, and systems, rather than theorizing on practical knowledge. They are knowledgeable and often problem-solving oriented. Therefore, it is argued that constructing knowledge together between teachers and researchers, early in the design process [31] will create valuable insights, higher relevance and flexibility in the design of e-WIL courses [24].
2.3 Work-integrated e-learning and engineering knowledge
In the learning literature, there is limited research on learning that includes engineering workplace knowledge built on participant’s experiences as knowledge resources, which can be used in blended e-learning courses [32, 33]. Teachers’ need to find a learning approach that is more integrative and relational between themselves and the practitioners, which also can be viewed as ‘sideways learning’ [34]. Other researchers highlight work-integrated learning (WIL) [19, 35], meaning that work and learning is integrated in everyday practices. WIL can be defined as “an umbrella term for a range of approaches and strategies that integrate theory with the practice of work within a purposefully designed curriculum” ([19] p. 4). Designing curricula built on ‘ways of experiencing’ [36] calls for an approach that incorporates expertise from the practitioners’ and their workplaces.
However, what is an engineering practice? [37]. In the engineering work environment, products and processes are constantly changing due to increased digitalization, automation, and robotization. There is a continuous need to improve the capabilities in the working process in manufacturing plants [38]. Operators and engineers therefore must both have operational experience and to be up to date on advanced manufacturing knowledge [14, 39]. The continuous reformation of the manufacturing processes requires employees to regularly assess new engineering knowledge and adapt to changes that imply short-term flexibility, instead of long-term perspectives [18]. Besides short-term perspectives, it is hard to find time for education due to time limits (work vs. time to study), and personnel sometimes have limited experiences of e-learning technologies and low management tolerance for taking time off work for studies, etc. [40, 41].
As argued before, teachers need to establish a close collaboration with practitioners in their design work and to incorporate engineering workplace know-how built on practitioners’ experiences. However, such activities presume multiple roles of both theoretical depth and practice-based engineering work. They move from a campus situation into a whole new situation of on-line flexible modes with design of for instance practical cases. Practitioners expertise bonds to diverse tasks such as problem solving and everyday hands-on operations of manufacturing systems. Such know-how relates to procedural knowledge and is different from declarative knowledge [42].
Accordingly, teachers’ will have to rethink the learning conditions in advance in their design work of e-WIL courses competence development [43]. Hence, to recognize and comprehend the company organization’s knowledge base including their culture, traditions, and practical know-how in such design initiatives [44].
3. Knotworking for tying and untying learning activities
Recent year’s research on knotworking have emerged as a response to traditional teamwork [21, 45, 46, 47]. According to Engeström [21] teams’ traditionally means several people gathered to approach a mutual goal and to accomplish a certain work task, however such teams usually lack both context and history. Today, teams are best understood and replaced by forms of fluctuating work in knots, and through knotworking, as a part of a certain context or activities. The notion of knot refers to distributed activities and partially improvised arrangements of collaboration with otherwise loosely connected actors across organizational boundaries.
“It is horizontal and dialogical learning that creates knowledge and transforms the activity by crossing boundaries and tying knots between activity systems operating in divided multi-organizational terrains”. ([48], p. 385).
A movement of tying, untying, and retying together seemingly separate threads of activity characterize knotworking ([21], p. 194). Collaborative knotworking shapes and reshapes to local settings and the center is not fixed and coordinated, rather the unstable knot itself needs to be made the focus of analysis [21]. The knot of collaborative work is not reducible to any specific individual or organizational entity as the center of control because the locus of initiative changes from moment to moment within a knotworking sequence.
Knotworking, and specifically negotiated knotworking, can be used to understand the social processes in inter-organizational collaboration of the learning activities [21, 47]. However, knotworking differs from traditional teamwork in the sense that continuity is connected to the object, not to the professionals, because the teachers, the practitioners and the initiators of knots can change. Hence, knots can be considered teams because of their changing memberships and the limited time of their existence.
Engeström [23] has defined the first principal of knotworking, meaning the object orientation of an activity. Through knotworking new object orientation might evolve into a new directionality of purposeful meaning ([23] p. 66). The second principle of knotworking concerns the tool-mediation of human action and activity. For instance, how e-learning technologies tools (video, LMS-systems etc.) are re-meditating information and knowledge between humans. The third principle concerns the mutual constitution of actions and activity. This applies to collective activities, group actions and to the level of co-constructed mutual activities. The fourth principle of knotworking directs to study changes through contradictions. Contradictions are historically accumulated tensions between opposing forces in an activity [34]. Through revisiting historical layered routines in for instance past e-learning design failures and its contradictions, it was possible to re-construct new ways of designing with new technological tools on a systemic level. Applying the knotworking model requires a long-term effort to study and establish new practices across organizational boundaries. It is through temporary groups that tasks are completing in a longitudinal process where the deadline is not fixed, in which mutual co-construction of future solutions are developing into new practices and further challenges.
4. Methodology
During the years 2014–2016 data collection of two research studies took place within the ProdEx project. Study I was conducted from a teacher perspective [30], and the other Study II, was conducted from a practitioner perspective. The data collection of respondents and specific focus from these two studies are outlined in Section 4.1. Section 4.2 is a re-analysis of excerpts from those two studies through the lens of knotworking.
4.1 Studies and data collection
Of the six included research studies conducted within the ProdEx project [20, 49], two studies were selected that in particular take the perspective of the teachers, Study I, and the practitioners, Study II. The original data collection of the two studies are described below. Study I was conducted through teacher interviews during spring 2014 and targeting the five teachers assigned to develop the first e-WIL courses [30]. Table 1 describes the teachers positions, course subject area and expertise.
Position
Subject area (courses)
Associate professor, PhD Industrial Automation
Industrial automation, robotics, programming (PLC, C++), and flexible and virtual manufacturing.
Senior lecturer, PhD Industrial Automation
Industrial automation, electronics, control systems, robotics, and flexible and virtual manufacturing.
Professor Machining, PhD Mechanical Engineering
Manufacturing technology, machining, metal cutting and forming, simulation, and operations management.
Senior lecturer, PhD Mechanical Engineering
Logistics, quality and design, operations management, negotiation skills, robot systems.
Senior lecturer, PhD Mechanical Engineering
Manufacturing technology, electrical engineering, machining, and cutting.
Table 1.
Overview of the five respondents’ positions and expertise.
The interviews were performed through a thematic interview guide and lasted about one to one and a half hours in duration. They were audio recorded and afterwards transcribed verbatim. Two interviewers were discussing with the respondents (the teachers) in an open dialogue in which alternative knowledge claims were debated throughout the session [50]. There was also a conversational tone and an open-minded approach guided our interest to understand the teachers’ interpretations on alignment and representations of an engineering learning practice. The teachers explored how they perceive design challenges, and how they identified and framed earlier experiences of e-learning and/or distance education, or maybe a lack of experiences. They defined their conceptions on design plans for blended e-learning courses targeting industry practitioner’s knowledge needs. Also, a focus was on their perceived ideas on work-integrated learning, meaning how to include practitioners’ everyday practice into the course situation and how such inclusion could affect the design of real cases, tasks, examinations and blended forms. A content analysis with open coding was conducted and grounded in the data material of the teachers’ narratives about their teaching practice. Individual transcripts were compared to find patterns between statements and thereafter categorized (p. 243 [30]).
The practitioner Study II was conducted during 2014–2016 through continuous focus group interview sessions, which were conducted at the end of each course unit. Data from focus group sessions were collected, audio recorded, and participants were taking part in informed consent. Each session took from one hour to one hour and 15 minutes’ to perform [20]. The focus group sessions were performed to capture practitioners’ course experiences through their ongoing negotiations, methodologically considered as formative interventions [51]. Each session gathered a unique ensemble of practitioners and teachers with the overarching object of strengthening industry knowledge within specific engineering areas. In total 119 participants (practitioners) and 12 focus group sessions were included, see Table 2.
Knowledge subjects
Courses
Nr of sessions
Nr of partici-pants
Automation and Robotics
Industrial automation (4) and Machine security in Robotics (1)
5
44
HR and Businesses
Negotiations Skills (3)
3
34
Mechanical Engineering
Machining (3) and Machining with Tribology (1)
4
41
Summary
12
119
Table 2.
Overview of the focus group sessions, related courses, and number of respondents’.
The data collection of the study was ongoing for three years and explored the practitioners’ perspectives on knowledge construction through the learning activities within the courses. Mainly their reflections, knowledge views and learning trajectory were studied in order to delineate forms and content of mutual knowledge construction on both knowledge content and e-learning design forms. The data analysis focused individuals’ expression of their knowledge experiences and the ongoing social interaction between the participants collectively. For this matter, a content analysis was conducted with concepts, unit of analysis, codes, categories, and themes [52]. During the analysis, codes such as learning technologies, pedagogical strategies, web conferencing use, with corresponding sub-codes such as login problems, communication, and interaction, and so on, developed. Furthermore, the analysis captured patterns and traces of new ideas around practitioners’ various negotiations that not only concerned e-learning design and technology use, i.e., the cultural tools, but also motives for knowledge development and new learning related to their own workplace. In sum, practitioners’ different motives for competence development, the overall university support and the company support became an overall categorization.
4.2 Analysis through knotworking
This chapter first asks how knotworking can expand an e-learning design practice for work-integrated learning. Thereafter, it is asked what can be learnt on a systemic level of e-learning design work when applying the knotworking concept on such design practice. Given this, the re-analyzed excerpts from Study I and Study II through the analytical tool knotworking [21] is applied to earlier learning activities to make open problematic solutions, and more readily grasp fluid forms of knowledge exchange and learning between teachers and practitioners.
In particular, these re-interpretations are presented and organized in relation to the knotworking concept to capture the complexity of the identified issues from a teacher perspective (Study I) and a practitioner perspective (Study II), see Table 3. First, excerpts from the previous coding processes was re-coded as examples of untying and tying processes. The coding scheme was further developed to categorize interpretations of oral manifestations of untying and tying processes linked to specific demanding situations. Thus, the analysis was both driven by theory-based categories and new categories that emerged from re-interpretations of the transcribed interview materials following the process of systematic combining [53]. The developed coding scheme is presented in Table 3.
Actors
Untying
Tying
Teacher perspective
Campus mode versus on-line mode Issues of new e-learning technologies
Designing together with practitioners Designing digitized cases and labs Digitizing learning content Work-integrated learning
Practitioner perspective
Time and routines for e-learning studies as part of work is affecting the work situation Negotiating obstacles to achieve an academic degree
Time and place for qualitative e-learning towards new practices Incorporating business issues for becoming a competent professional in forms of work-integrated learning
Table 3.
Teacher and practitioner perspectives of untying and tying learning activities.
The analysis in Table 3, will further be explored in the result Section 5, in accordance with the coding scheme that developed during the iterative re-analysis.
5. Knotworking as analytical concept in a collaborative design practice
From a learning perspective, knotworking represents an ongoing process that involves the participation of different groups and stakeholders (university and industry). The mix of contributors bring about gaps and de-stabilization of knowledge, practices, and relationships to normal instruction of cross-boundary collaboration to understand and develop both practices [26]. The professional actors must struggle to make sense of identities, coordination activities and creative ideas in unfamiliar situations in colliding activities, as well as in each other expectations. With an activity theory perspective, learning takes place when subjects encounter dilemmas, tensions, and context-bound contradictions in their activity, in this case, the e-learning design work between teachers and practitioners.
The challenges previously presented in the Introduction (Section 1) and in the Research context and background (Section 2), are issues that teachers and practitioners are confronting, summarized as:
targeting relevant engineering knowledge through continuous mapping of industry competence needs
developing a case-based methodology that stimulate knowledge construction between practitioners and teachers
choosing relevant learning technologies and decide on e-learning forms such as number of physical meetings, use of web-conferencing systems, learning management system (LMS) functionalities, etc.
meeting experienced industry practitioners need of work-integrated learning, hence intertwining theory with relevant practice for workplace demands of new knowledge
understanding how design work is developing over a period of time for meeting both universities and industry needs of competence development
In the results below, tying and untying knots within the e-learning design activities are analyzed from both a teacher and a practitioner perspective. The excerpts are examples of knotworking processes that are negotiated from various levels. For examples problems and solutions regarding decisions on e-learning content for on-line tasks and examinations, experiences of performing such tasks, validity for practitioners to learn and enhance their own (practitioners) everyday knowledge and skills. The object orientation, the tool-mediation, the co-constituted activities and the contradictions [21] are principles of knotworking, which are analyzed in the activities through untying and tying on various levels (micro and mezzo) in which teachers and practitioners actually manifesting their experiences and thoughts.
5.1 Untying: teachers perspectives
Negotiating certain learning situations within the design work is a process of untying identified and experienced issues and to find a new objective.
5.1.1 Campus mode versus on-line mode
One teacher emphasizes physical meetings for interaction: “… we can push for having at least three meetings here at PTC for discussions and labs with real equipment ….”
This teacher is untying a problem by departure from habits of a traditional campus teaching mode, towards transformation to an on-line situation. Teachers earlier identities on how to conduct physical labs and to redefine their classroom context into an e-learning context is about finding a balance from one context to another.
5.1.2 Issues of new e-learning technologies
Another teacher within automation, with high software skills, are trying to unfold software issues: “There is much software, and I think the challenge is how to present the content of the course in a new way.”
A third teacher argues: “… technology problems to get connected with industries because of firewalls. Also, we cannot do everything online, we need to meet and discuss according to my experience.”
Both teachers are explaining their anxiety of handling new technologies and the problems are untyed into certain micro-level issues concerning lack of skills and organizational restrictions. These hindrances make them anxious about how to perform qualitative e-learning solutions.
5.2 Tying: teachers perspectives
Processes of how to solve problems, to find models and new content delivery and also combining resources in new way in order to achieve new goals (both student goals and accomplished exams) are processes of tying together separate threads into future solutions.
5.2.1 Designing together with practitioners
This teacher claim that it is important to include practitioners’ knowledge:
“… look after what experiences they bring in with their background and if they have examples connected to the course … based on that, we arrange the assignments.”
Another teacher on the same topic: To find ways of explicate and include tacit knowledge is hard: “There is not a physical explanation on everything they observe. Therefore, we cannot explain everything. So, there is still a phenomenon what a person does that we can’t really explain.”
Both excerpts refer to considerations on how to design for or with practitioners in order to grasp their workplace experiences into an e-learning format. This knotworking process of tying suggests that understanding each other practices (university vs. industry) across boundaries are fruitful.
5.2.2 Designing digitized cases and labs
Actual problem solving (during a course task) is trained through authentic labs, earlier referred to as a process of untying in which labs should be conducted in a physical space. Such activities are strongly bound to hands-on actions and therefore become hard to mediate as digital learning content. However, one teachers says, there is a need for a qualified system for 3D graphics: “So, I think it’s good to create a virtual lab … it requires a very high graphic quality … then you can do your experiments online. However, we are not even close to that yet.”
In the tying process the teacher is suggesting new solutions into an unknown practice with high-quality graphics systems etc. An innovative solution that will generate satisfied practitioners conducting the course. It is a matter of continuously redefining and thereby shaping boundaries of the teaching role as they come to act in both worlds simultaneously.
5.2.3 Digitizing learning content
One teacher says: “I think the greatest challenge is to choose which content that must be interactive and to do the separation of other learning material… we do not believe in 45 minutes movies.”
By learning from bad experiences of long video material including all learning material, new ideas are tied into producing short video films and to decide on other tool-mediations for the rest of the learning material in other forms. This is a process of coordination in order to maintain the workflow through intertwining various technologies and pedagogics.
5.2.4 Work-integrated learning
One teacher describes WIL as: “WIL is two-folded; first to motivate it to the management that knowledge is good, giving specific demands on knowledge that makes you go to business tomorrow. However, for this type of WIL we are planning, when the companies actually buy a course from us, I think they should have a very clear vision, what they should do with the knowledge, and what they want to achieve by educating their staff.”
This teacher is arguing for how WIL also needs to be included in e-learning, hence designing for e-WIL courses. Tying together the university vision of WIL with blended e-learning targeting and involving industry practitioner’s knowledge requirements, is a way of having innovative ideas on how to perform high qualitative design work.
Untying and tying is an on-going process of resolving tensions and dilemmas into tying new solutions and finding good examples to go further with. The old mental models of campus education traditionally do not fit into this new type of practice. The professional teacher identity is grounded in historical traditions of the classroom metaphor in which the teacher also is the expert, and the learner should follow. However, the excerpts above illustrate that such practice is no longer valid in an on-line environment in which involvement of industry professional’s know-how needs to be co-constructed.
5.3 Untying: practitioners perspectives
Untying is a process of unfolding problems to further delineate solutions which is illustrated below from the industry practitioners’ perspectives with their experiences of conducting e-WIL courses and participating in focus group sessions as part the ProdEx project. They are actively contributing to the design work incorporating their home company requirements together with their individual experience-based know-how of the broad subject area of engineering knowledge.
5.3.1 Time and routines for e-learning studies as part of work is affecting the work situation
This negotiated knotworking of untying concerns the problematic dilemma of the company’s dissimilar conditions to allow practitioners to compensate time for studies versus working hours.
Interviewer:Do you need to compensate with work time for this course day?
Operator 1:No, it is more a feeling one has.
Operator 2:What I did not do at work today, I must catch up later.
Operator 3:I need to clock in at the factory every morning…
The operators have different issues for not having time to conduct the studies as they wish. Such dilemmas need to be considered for the teachers when they design how and when certain tasks and examinations could be performed and how it will affect the outcome of a course.
Other untying issues regard how the companies businesses objectives of increased business values are interfering the practitioners when the companies rather view them “as investments” and not emphasize and support their individual learning progress.
Operator 3:…will my company earn money after I participated in this course?
Interviewer: Hmm, the payoff may not occur instantly, what do you mean?
Operator 4: Through a single course, no, but maybe with a series of courses.
Operator 2: But this competence initiative was not intended due to the company to earn money on us, we should increase our knowledge in case of foretoken, or?
Operator 1: Do not say so to me, the purpose was to earn money!
Operator 5: XX, the HR manager said that we should increase our knowledge to develop from operators into service clerks (engineers), we are sitting loose in case of foretoken, and need to broaden our knowledge and get academic degrees.
Operator 6: Of course, the company wants to earn money on us, like with everything else…
The discussion is heating up and everybody is chatting in each other’s mouths. This untying of a problematic situation in which various obstacles are negotiated as alleged assumptions are not common to consider in the e-learning design work. The ethical dilemmas encountered here, are mostly uncommon when educating students in traditional campus courses.
5.3.2 Negotiating obstacles to achieve an academic degree
Furthermore, in the same session as above, the operators clearly describe problems of getting an academic degree meanwhile fear to not lose the job.
Operator 1: Yes, but that is also a question of study full-time or not. This course will give you some breadth.
Operator 2: But if the company was really interested of, hell yes, let’s get Marcus an education so that he will flourish into being as qualified as possible…?
Operator 1: If such case I would study half time right away, but such time is not even possible…
These two operators are eager to achieve personal development but clearly lack any opportunities to find a possible solution. By untying such dilemmas, they also manifest their fearfulness of not being able to hold on to their job if they don’t perform competence development. They are time pressured and hence the course content needs to be up-to-date and designed in a flexible form adjusted to full-time work hours.
5.4 Tying: practitioners perspectives
These excerpts refer to the course design regarding breaking up old teaching routines with less talking’s and doings in real life. How are such tying of new solutions and routines developing?
5.4.1 Time and place for qualitative e-learning towards new practices
In this session practitioners suggest using the latest technology of modern equipment to learn for new practices.
Operator M1: But we like to have more meetings here [PTC], so we can run the robots down the machine hall.
Technician 2: More web-based tasks and when we are here [at PTC], we like to run more labs, like those we did today on the final exams. Very nice!
5.4.2 Incorporating business issues for becoming a competent professional in forms of work-integrated learning
The skilled expert operators, liked to help out, and felt they had superior skills in relation to those with an academic degree. The university lacked enough preparations to support those with low experience of practical factory work.
Operator 2: You must have your own machine, the material, and also tools to test. These are the prerequisites, otherwise you cannot solve the task.
Operator 6: However, the benefit was to take an example from the own factory.
Technician 1: But you cannot just walk into the factory and start during ongoing manufacturing…
Again, the real case issues return due to lack of possibilities for all practitioners to perform the real case task. Hence, in this process of tying and re-tying, was emerging by pointing to the industry organizations values of high knowledge and how such knowledge could contribute to others. This was possible through finding own solutions in the real-tasks and to unfold experience-based know-how. Finding well-formulated tasks for real cases within the courses became important input to the teachers.
To summarize. The object of activity was fluent in the knots and the professionals brought in new knowledge through historical experiences and responses to their own doings and organizational culture (university and industry). Negotiations were conducted throughout the mutual design work before and during course implementation, which was captured during teaching and learning activities. Results show how negotiated knotworking on the boundaries between university and industry need to be accomplished, because crossing boundaries is not enough. It gives an understanding on how to go further with solutions or best practice for future innovative objectives. By applying the concept of knotworking it was possible to grasp explanations and innovations for a new design practice.
6. Discussion
In this research approach, knotworking was applied to the teacher study and the practitioner study that connected temporary groups of teachers, practitioners, tasks, and tools across organizational boundaries, to improve learning and knowledge development within production technology. The tying and untying of problems and suggested solutions were knotworking that took part during the course activities and hence described during the sessions. Knotworking that was negotiated in conversations and communicated, were studied from both the teacher and practitioner perspectives and in different time scales. Consequently, grasping such expressed knowledge, was used to give implications for the overall e-learning design process towards a qualitative design practice of e-WIL courses. The illustrated analysis show that knotworking, and specifically negotiated knotworking is prerequisite inter-organizational collaborative activities towards new modes of expanded object of activities. This means to find new forms, content, and constructions for strengthening expert knowledge between theory and practice, in order to open up respective expert knowledge area.
The negotiated knotworking analysis showed how habits and routines (structures) are not working anymore. Rather, the study shows the importance of not transfer old habits into a new on-line community situation that asks for a transformative process to act in a whole new way. By setting aside old structures and rather focus on a more creative e-learning mode of new technologies and content production the professionals are pushed to design differently.
Practitioners actively contributed to the creation of work-integrated e-learning through their own expertise and knowledge into the courses as valuable subject resources. Through negotiated knotworking of untying and tying, co-construction of new e-WIL solutions in various forms emerged.
Recommendations are to design in short cycles of learning activities including planning and implementation of both new e-learning technologies, real-case tasks, interactive pedagogy etc. towards qualitative e-WIL courses.
7. Conclusion
The analysis of the two studies explored a broad variation to further understand the e-learning practices in the design and implementation work of e-WIL courses. Given this, the concept of negotiated knotworking emphasized immediate actions of shared objects of interest as well as longitudinal processes of learning activities.
The chapter argues that knotworking is a concept for capturing creativity and innovation in temporary groups that meet around common challenges, in which everyone needs quick and creative input of both the joint work and the own areas of responsibility. To summarize, the following lessons learnt are outlined:
Knotworking stimulates direct uptake on short-term responses to changing objects of activity through tying, untying, and retying together seemingly separate threads of activity
Organizing for temporarily teams in order to stimulate shared motives, and sharing knowledge and learning insights outside traditional organizational boundaries are crucial
Decision making and engagement in new learning practices require stakeholders’ (industry-university) abilities of inter-organizational boundary crossing activities
Actors’ (practitioners, teachers) willingness to problem-orientation and curiosity of new technology and knowledge sharing need to be supported
Universities openness to new learning strategies of theory-practical intertwining, stimulating mutual learning through innovative pedagogy, e.g. case-based and work-integrated cases and tasks should be a priority.
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgement to the project management in the ProdEx project at University West, for participation and contribution to the research results. Thank you, all industry partners, involved in the studies during meetings and interviews. The original studies and data collection were funded by the Swedish Knowledge Foundation and this chapter is funded by the Sweden’s innovation agency.
School of Business, Economics and IT, University West, Sweden
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