The Diversity among People
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"730",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Microangiopathy",title:"Microangiopathy",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Microangiopathies are pathological processes causing degenerative disorders of small vessels. 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\r\n\tThe textbook would target the recent most developments in the chromophores (dyes, pigments, organic compounds with extended conjugation and their metal-complexes) and bio-chromophores (natural biomolecules such as metalloenzymes and artificial biomolecules for instance those developed by integrating biomolecules with chromophores) based research.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will entail design, development, and industrial applications of new and novel dyes and pigments from wide areas of organic and inorganic chemistry along with biological sciences. Besides, this book will comprise recent design and development on organic molecules and their metal-complexes towards the detection of biologically and environmentally concerned cations, anions, neutral molecules via chromogenic, fluorometric, and electrochemical signaling responses using UV/vis, emission, and electrochemical techniques. Further, the advancements in the bio-chromophores for detection of biologically vital as well as harmful ions and molecules using colorimetric changes via UV/vis technique, fluorimetric signaling through emission technique, and electrochemical changes by cyclic voltammetry (CV), LSV, etc. will also be included in this book.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-341-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-340-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-342-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4aca0af0356d8d31fa8621859a68db8f",bookSignature:"Dr. Rampal Pandey",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10572.jpg",keywords:"Organic Probes, Metal-Complex Probes, Nano-Probes, Fluorometric Readout, Electrochemical Response, Environmentally Concerned Analytes, Bio-Chromophores, Biomolecular Detection, Multichannel Signaling Response, Absorption, Emission, Electrochemical",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 17th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 15th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 13th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 4th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 3rd 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A leading young researcher in the chromophore, MOF, and soft material research, Appointed Associate Dean at NIT Uttarakhand, received Presidents Inspire Teacher Award, published quality international papers, registred patents, developed MOOC and e-PG Pathshala contents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"338234",title:"Dr.",name:"Rampal",middleName:null,surname:"Pandey",slug:"rampal-pandey",fullName:"Rampal Pandey",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/338234/images/system/338234.jpg",biography:"DR RAMPAL PANDEEY\nAssistant Professor (Chemistry) & Associate Dean (Faculty Welfare & International Affairs) \n\t \nACADEMIC and PROFESSIONAL DETAILS\n1. Assistant Professor (Gr-1), The President’s Inspired Teacher, NIT Uttarakhand, India July 2018-To date \n2. Assistant Professor (DST INSPIRE Faculty), Dr. H. S. Gour University, Sagar, 2013-2018. \n3. Research Associate, September 2012-June, 2013 BHU, Varanasi (U.P.),\n4. Senior Research Fellow (2010-2012) Junior Research Fellow: (2009-2010), BHU, Varanasi. \n5. Teaching Assistant: 2012-13 (BHU) and Teaching Assistant: 2005-06 (APS University, Rewa). \n6. Post PG Project: (06 Months) 2004, BARC, Mumbai.\n7. M.Sc. (Inorganic Chemistry) in 2004; B.Sc. in 2002 from A.P.S. University, Rewa, India. \nADDITIONAL QUALIFICATION\n1.\tNET Qualified\n2. GATE Qualified\nRESEARCH GUIDANCE \n1.\tPhD Awarded: 01 (one); On-going 04 (four). One JRF trained under my project.\nRESEARCH PROJECTS \n1. DST Project (Rs. 35,00,000/-) 01/07/2013 to 30/06/2018.\n2. Co-ordinating MOOC programme (Rs. 13,00,000/-), Status: On-going \nHONORS and AWARDS \n1.\tVDGOOD International Outstanding Scientist Award-2020\n2.\tExcellent work appreciation from NIT Uttarakhand (present employer)-2020\n3.\tThe President’s Inspired Teacher (Recognized in 2015) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inspired_Teacher)\n4.\tAmerican Chemical Society Award (3 yr membership) for significant research-2015\n5.\tBest poster award in RSC-CRSI at NCL Pune, India-2015\n6.\tBest poster award (IYL) Conference at Dr. H. S. Gour University, Sagar, India-2015\n7.\tDST-INSPIRE Faculty Award-2012\n8.\tSenior Research Fellowship, CSIR, New Delhi, India-2010\n9.\tBest (1st) poster award at IISc, Bangalore, India-2010.\n10.\t1st ranker in university entrance examination for MBA-IR-2002\nMEMBERSHIP \n1.\tThree (03) year member of American Chemical Society (ACS), USA\n2.\tAnnual member of Royal Chemical Society (RSC), UK (No. 574194) \n3.\tLife member of Chemical Research Society of India (CRSI) (No. LM 1051).\n4. Life member of Society of Material Chemistry of India (SMC-INDIA) (No. LM-647).\n\nRESEARCH PUBLICATIONS (Cumulative Impact Factor 131; h-index 15, i10 23)\nInternational (41) in ACS, RSC, Elsevier, Wiley-Intersciences \nNational (03) \nPATENTS\nOne (01) GRANTED; one (01) under revision \n\n(a) Online Invited lectures delivered: 02\n(b) Invited lectures: 06 (02 International; 04 National), \n(c) Oral lectures: 03; Poster: 15 \n(d) Resource Person: 01\n(e) Conferences/meetings organized: 08 \n\nBook Chapters Written: 01 \n\ne-CONTENT DEVELOPMENT \n1. MHRD-UGC e-pathashala programme \n(a) Developed e-texts of 20 modules. \n(b) Delivered e-lectures of 09 modules available on YouTube by MHRD-UGC\nhttps://youtu.be/9nDUfojnjNk https://youtu.be/YKlQQodPXMo https://youtu.be/1WCpvT7wLso \n \n2. MOOC programme on-going (Role: Co-coordinator) \n(a) Developed 40 modules under my supervision\n(b) Seven (07) e-content developed as content writer.",institutionString:"National Institute of Technology Uttarakhand",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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But it is frequently pointed out that many of them are difficult to use, not so much effective or not so much efficient – in other words, lack the usability. Some of them were intended to provide users a new functionality but failed in giving them a satisfaction by the use of them. It is because the designer and engineers of such artifacts (products, systems and services) did not understand the real need of the user and the real information about the context of use. It is frequently observed that the designers propose new artefacts just based on their own experience and on their own intuition. It is quite natural that such artefacts thus designed will not have the validity that matches to the reality.
\n\t\t\tThis situation let the author consider about the desirable way for giving the designer and engineers of such artefacts the adequate information about the user. The idea of the micro scenario database described in this chapter thus came up to the mind of the author who has been involved in the development of the micro scenario method.
\n\t\t\tThis chapter will give the reader an idea on what the micro scenario method is and how the micro scenario database will be effective and efficient for providing designers and other stakeholders about the user characteristics and the context of use information.
\n\t\tThere is an anecdote that the typical user image that designers and engineers have in their mind is “a male of his 30’s who has a certain level of ICT knowledge”. The reason why products are difficult to use for “female” or “senior people” or “those who have not such level of knowledge” is that they are out of the range of the user’s image that designers and engineers are assuming. But the image they have is the image of their own. In other words, designers and engineers are mostly men and the age range is from 20’s to 40’s with the biggest population in 30’s. Besides, because they are designers and engineers, they have the knowledge and skill for using ICT-related artifacts.
\n\t\t\t\tIf the artifacts are designed based on the user’s image as described above, it is quite natural that they are difficult to use for people who have different characteristics from them. This kind of gap will occur when designers and engineers do not seek for or do not use the information about the real users.
\n\t\t\tThere is a variety of characteristics among real users as shown in Table 1. This table differentiates the traits, the situation and the attitude. The traits are characteristics of people as a “point” in the multi-dimensional space of characteristics and the situation is a “surroundings” of that point. The Attitude is a “tendency” to move from that point. In other words, traits are the static characteristics and the attitude is the dynamic characteristics.
\n\t\t\t\tThe traits include the biological traits such as age, generation, sex & gender, physical traits, cognitive traits and body dimension. They also include the psychological traits such as mental traits, knowledge and skill, cognitive style and learning style, and the social traits such as language, culture, historical background and educational background. The situation include the mental situation such as emotional condition and level of consciousness, the social situation such as economic situation, degree of freedom, lifestyle and social position, and the other situation such as urgency, geographical situation, physical condition and temporary condition. And the attitude includes individual preference, political attitude, religion, regression to tradition, and social attitude.
\n\t\t\t\tConsidering the existence of such a big differences among people as shown in this table, it is evident that we should consider the diversity of people when designing the artifact. Something that is favored to some person may be disliked by other person, and something that is usable to somebody may not be usable to others.
\n\t\t\t\tWe have a tendency to consider about other people based on the information of ourselves. But the imagination has a limitation and we need some information obtained from the real world. That is the point where the field work techniques including the observation and the interview are expected to play an important role for the design of artifacts.
\n\t\t\t\tBut before going to the discussion of such empirical approach, the author would like to focus on the persona and the scenario methods that have become popular recently for making the design of artifact more empirically valid.
\n\t\t\tPersona is an arbitrary description of the user and helps engineers and designers to design the artifact more realistically. Scenario is a description of the situation and the use of some artifact and helps engineers in which way their development should be directed. Scenario-based design is a design framework proposed by Carroll to describe the situation so that the program for solving those problems should be directed properly. Both methods have now become popular and are widely used in the planning process.
\n\t\t\t\tTraits \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSituation \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAttitude \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Biological Traits - Age, Generation (Senior, Middle-aged, Young, Children, Baby) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMental Situation - Emotional Condition (Stable, Unstable, Urgent, etc) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- Individual Preference (Many Preferences, No Preferences, etc) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
- Level of Consciousness (Sleep, Indistinct, Aroused, Over-excited) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- Political Attitude (Left-winged, Right-winged, Neutral) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
- Sex, Gender (Male, Female, Gender Identity Disorder) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
- Religion (No Religion, Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, Newly-risen Religion, etc) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
- Regression to Tradition (Conservative, Innovative, Radical, etc) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
- Social Attitude (Individualism, Collectivism, Anti-socialism, etc) \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
- Physical Traits (Upper Limb Disorder, Lower Limb Disorder, Paralysis, Pregnancy, Hurt, Handedness, etc) \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSocial Situation | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
- Economic Situation (Income Level, Regularity of Income, etc) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Cognitive Traits - Visual - Disorder: Poor-sightedness, Inborn Blindness, Acquired Blindness, Color-Blindness, etc. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | |
- Hearing Impaired | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
- Cognitive Impaired \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Body Dimension - Height, Weight, Hand Size, Arm Length, Leg Length, Flexibility, Hand Power, Fine Operation, etc \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Psychological Traits | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
- Mental Traits (Psychosis, Neurosis, Personality Disorder, Mental Retardation, etc) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
- Knowledge and Skill (Novice, Expert) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
- Cognitive Style (Systematic Cognition, Unsystematic Cognition, etc) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
- Learning Style (Strategic Learning, Ad-hoc Learning, etc) \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t Social Traits | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
- Language (Japanese, English, | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | ||
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | ||
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | ||
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | ||
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | ||
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | ||
Chinese (Mandarine, Cantonese, etc), etc) - Culture (Ethnic Culture, | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Nation Culture, Local Culture, Family Culture, Generation Culture, etc) - Historical Background (Ruling Class, Ruled Class, Oppressed Class, etc) - Educational Background (Junior High, High School, College, Graduate School, etc) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- Freedom (Free Situation, Staying in the Office or School, In Custody, etc) - Lifestyle (Workaholic, LOHAS, DINKS etc) - Social Position (Salaried Employee, Self-Employed,) \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t Other Situations - Urgency (Normal Situation, Urgent Situation) - Geographical Situation (Living in a Big City, in a Small City, or in an Isolated Place, etc) - Physical Condition (Temperature, Humidity, Illumination, Noise Level, etc) - Temporary Condition (Carrying a Heavy Baggage, Wearing a Bulky Clothing, etc) \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t | |
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
The Diversity among People
An example persona is shown in Figure 1. As can be seen, the persona contains descriptions on name, gender, age, occupation, personality characteristics, birth place, current address, academic background, family members, hobbies, licenses and other general information with a photograph. Although it is an artificial profile of a person, it will give engineers and designers who read that profile, a realistic image of the user. Besides, the persona contains such descriptions as the history of use for the PC, the internet and the cell phone depending on the focus of development. Furthermore it contains the background information that is related to the focus. It is a general scenario describing how the persona will act in terms of the device or the system that are the focus of development.
\n\t\t\t\tSample Persona.
Although the persona and the scenario method brought engineers and designers the information about the realistic image of the user and the realistic description on the use of the artifact, they are not real and are just the outcome of the imagination. It is true that the engineers and designers can get much stimulation and suggestion for their creativity by reading such descriptions. But there is no guarantee if the outcome of their creativity will fit to the real users because the information contained in the persona and the scenario is not real but just the outcome of imagination.
\n\t\t\t\tAnother problem that have to be pointed out is that the number of persona will usually be limited to several at the maximum. But as can be realized by looking at Table 1, several persona descriptions will not cover the whole range of diversity even if the relevant dimension of people for the design of specific artifact are limited to some of the dimensions listed in Table 1.
\n\t\t\t\tWhat is necessary is more realistic information about the user and the context of use, and the persona description and the scenario description should be more real so that the development of artifact can be valid for the actual usage of that artifact. This is the point that the persona and the scenario descriptions should be based on the real data obtained from the field work of which micro scenario method is emphasizing.
\n\t\t\tThe micro scenario method (MSM) is another approach that directly brings the information about the user, the situation and the problem. Unlike the conventional persona and scenario methods, the MSM uses the real information obtained from the field work thus the information contained in the persona and the scenario is real. From another viewpoint, it is an efficient way to summarize the qualitative information and brings engineers a better understanding of the user. In this aspect, it is similar to the Grounded Theory Approach (GTA) originally proposed by Strauss and CorbinStrauss and Corbin in 1998. But the MSM is more goal-oriented where the goal is the development of the artifact. The initial steps of fragmenting the facts found in the field research and summarizing the problem based on the similarity are similar, but the problem list that will soon be used to seek for the solution is different. It is because the MSM is more goal-oriented.
\n\t\t\tFollowing is a general procedure in the MSM. Figure 2 describes the whole steps of the MSM
\n\t\t\tSteps in the MSM.
(1)\tObtain the Field Data
\n\t\t\tFirst of all, the researcher should visit the informant and conduct the interview by watching the environment. This is fundamentally the same with the contextual inquiry proposed by Bayer and Holtzblatt (1998). The researcher tries to get the fundamental information about the informant including the general information as is described in Figure 1 and then focus on the topics of the research. If the research is on the educational issue, the researcher should first ask about the life history of informant focusing on the education; the school environment, the subject and the material used for each lecture, the teacher’s skill and attitude, the favourite subject, the companion, the school fee, the parents’ attitude toward the education, the homework, the motivation to learn, etc. In order to get sufficient information, the informant has to provide a list of questions in advance. But it is recommended to adopt the semi-structured interview because the structured interview is too narrow-scoped to get additional information and the non-structured interview has a chance to miss some key information. The researcher is recommended to use the digital recorder in addition to writing the field note. The researcher then asks about the opinion of the informant on the educational policy, the educational environment, important points at the school, the opinion for the e-learning, etc. depending on his/her interest. Usually the research will take about two hours considering the fatigue of the informant. And if more information is needed, visit the informant on the other day.
\n\t\t\t(2)\tWrite the Persona Description
\n\t\t\tBased on the information obtained from the contextual inquiry, the researcher describes the persona. The persona description should include the characteristics of the user and the background contextual information about the life of the informant. This information is common to any of the problem micro-scenario and should be referred to afterwards in order to get a better understanding of the pMS. Previously, the persona was called the ground information because this information forms the ground or the base for describing and interpreting the pMS. But it is now called the persona because it was revealed that there is no fundamental difference between the persona and the ground information in its contents and description.
\n\t\t\t(3)\tFind out Problems
\n\t\t\tThis step is similar to the open coding of the Grounded Theory Approach in that the fragmental information will be extracted from the field data. But this step in the MSM differs from the open coding of GTA, because only something that was regarded as a problem will be picked up whereas the open coding of GTA picks up any fragments from the original data. The difference lies in the fact that the MSM is a problem-solving activity and the GTA is an open stance theory construction approach. The criterion regarding what to pick up as a problem differs from research to research and depends on the focus of attention or the goal of the research. Some problem will be mentioned as the problem by the informants themselves. But other problem might not be noticed even by the informants. Hence, this step is quite dependent on the sensitivity of the researcher.
\n\t\t\t(4)\tDescribe pMS (problem Micro Scenario)
\n\t\t\tUsually the scenario is a FULL description of something including the information about the people who appear in the scenario. But in MSM such information as the characteristics of the informant and the contextual information of the informant will be separately described as the persona, only the description of a problem should be written as a pMS. Important point here is that each pMS describes just a micro problem, in other words, a fragment of the problem. If a problem found in the previous step has 2 or more problem fragments as in the case of problem description as follows: “the informant attended the elementary school where only 2 teachers were in the whole school of 30 pupils and the level of lecture was low because teachers had to take care of different level of pupils from 1st graders to 6th graders”. Each fragmental description of problem, i.e. pMS, should be “2 teachers had to take care of 30 pupils ranging from 1st graders to 6th graders” and “the level of teaching was not high because the teacher had to take care of the young pupils”.
\n\t\t\t(5)\tDescribe Tags
\n\t\t\tTag is a keyword that represents the key content in the pMS. In above case, “small number of teachers”, and “different level of pupils” will be the tags for the pMS “2 teachers had to take care of 30 pupils ranging from 1st graders to 6th graders”. Thus the tag is a [list of] word[s] that represent the key content of the pMS. Important point here is that the same tag description should be used all through the pMS and Tag extraction process. It is not good to use “small number of teachers” and “lack of teachers” for different pMSs although they are fundamentally meaning the same thing. The reason is that the tag will be used in the later stage of analysis as a key for the information retrieval. The steps (4) and (5) will be repeated until all the problem fragments in the problem description in (3) will be converted into pMS
\n\t\t\tand tags. Then the steps (3) + (4) (5) will be repeated until the whole information obtained from the field work will be analyzed.
\n\t\t\tRelationship between the fieldwork data and the MSM description as the persona, the
pMS, and the tags.
\n\t\t\t(1)-(5) Repeat this activity until the Saturation
\n\t\t\tSteps from (1) to (5) should be repeated until the researcher will think that the sufficient data was obtained. In the GTA, it is called the “saturation” that means the moment when the repetition of field work for different informants only gives the similar set of problems and no new finding are collected even if the researcher tried to get new information from a different type of informants. The timing when this saturation will come differs from research to research and usually depends on the size of the focus of the research. There is a research where 6 informants are thought to be enough but there is another case where more informants are needed even after taking the data from 18 informants. Every time when the research is repeated, the data described in Figure 3 will be accumulated.
\n\t\t\t(6)\tCollect a Set of pMS with the Same Tag
\n\t\t\tWhen it was thought that the researcher have collected enough data, then the researcher moves to this step. This step and the step (7) are for summarizing the problem. Figure 4 describes the situation where 3 sets of data were obtained from 3 different informants. By looking through the tag information, list up all pMSs that have the same tag, i.e. that relate to the same kind of problems. It is recommended to use MS Excel or some database software for recording the pMS and the list of tags. It is quite easy to get a set of pMS that have the same tag by using such a computer program. It is not necessary to repeat this process for all tags but should be done only for the tags that seemed to be important for the researcher. In the case of Figure 4, the second (because the order of pMS is arbitrary, the order doesn’t have any significance but just a nominal meaning) pMS for the 1st informant and the first pMS for the 3rd informant were found to have the same tag in their tag lists.
\n\t\t\t(7)\tSummarize the Problem
\n\t\t\tThe next step is to summarize the problem that is to take out the common and fundamental information from each pMS that has the same tag information. It is sometimes useful to refer back to the persona information when it is difficult to interpret the fragmental pMS. The problem description in Figure 4 is such a de-contextualized description of the problem. This step should be repeated until all the necessary retrieval of tag will have done. There will be a set of problem descriptions after this step. An example of the problem description is “the lack of sufficient number of teachers for the numbers of pupils”.
\n\t\t\tSummarizing the problem by using the tag information.
(8)\tConsider the Solution
\n\t\t\tThe MSM has two phases, one is focusing on the problem and another is focusing on the solution. The latter phase starts from this step. This step is not supported by any kind of method. But just the imagination of participants who will join in the stakeholders session will be the only source of ideas to solve the problem. Hence, it is recommended that a variety of stakeholders should get together in this idea generation step including other teachers, the school manager, the designer, the social worker, the local government officers, members of the PTA, etc. in the case of this school issue. Sometimes it will take a long time for considering the solution and usually a set of solution ideas will have to be listed. Usually, one session takes just one problem for about 2 hours and the rest of problems should better be discussed on other days.
\n\t\t\t(9)\tDescribe sMS (solution Micro Scenario)
\n\t\t\tIf the problem description in (7) were ”the lack of sufficient number of teachers for the numbers of pupils”, tentative ideas to solve the problem will be “to hire more teachers”, “to merge this school to another adjacent school which is much bigger with more number of teachers”, “to hire some part-time teachers”, etc. These fragmental ideas form the sMS. In the example of Figure 5, three sMS were proposed.
\n\t\t\t(10)\tDescribe Tags
\n\t\t\tFor the sMS, the tag information is useful but in a different sense from the tag for pMS had. In this case for sMS, tags are criteria for evaluating each solution idea. So the same set of tags will be used for all the sMSs proposed. Thus it could be described as a matrix in Figure 5. The first step is to list up all the relevant criteria for evaluating the pMS. Then write a matrix and evaluate each idea in terms of each tag or the criterion. In the example of Figure 5, tags are the total cost, the preparation time, the distance to school and the mental problems of children. And the point for, for example, the first sMS is 3, 4, 4, 3 respectively.
\n\t\t\t(11)\tCalculate the Weighted Sum
\n\t\t\tNext step is to weight each tag for its importance. It is because each tag does not necessarily have the same weight. There are important aspects but at the same time trivial aspects. In the case of Figure 5, weights are 8, 4, 6, 5 respectively. Then calculate the weighted sum for each sMS by adding the multiplication of weight and point for each tag criterion. In the first case of Figure 5, 8 x 3 + 4 x 4 + 6 x 4 + 5 x 3 = 79, and 79 is the weighted sum for the first sMS.
\n\t\t\t(12)\tSelect the sMS with Maximum Value
\n\t\t\tThe final step is to select the sMS with the highest weighted sum. In the case of Figure 5, the second sMS got the highest score of 97 and after a discussion for confirming the result, it will be adopted to solve the problem.
\n\t\t\tThe process to deal with the sMS with tags and their weights.
As have been described, the MSM is a problem solution method based on the qualitative field work data. But the former half of the method for describing problems as a set of pMS and tag can be used in another way. These data can be stored and be referred to afterwards from a bit different viewpoint. The data will serve as a good source of information in a specific format and if the same tag will be used later, the data will give a different insight. This is the base for an idea of micro scenario database that will be described in the next section.
\n\t\tIt is quite natural that the engineers will have the idea to collaborate with human science professionals so that their development can be more human-centered, i.e. more effective, more efficient, more interesting, and more useful. But based on the experience of the author, it is quite difficult for the collaborative project between engineers and human science professionals to be successful. In one extreme case, the project member that include the engineers and the human science professionals go in parallel from its start and finalizes in such a state as each result being still parallel under the title of an integrative approach. It is quite regretful that such an integrative approach fails by spending a big amount of budget and a long period of time.
\n\t\t\tSuch a misfortune can be caused by some reasons. One big reason is the difference of language or the difference of the scheme among different disciplines. Engineers expect human scientists such as psychologists to give them the information regarding the adequacy of their engineering devices or systems. But the psychological findings are based on the psychological scheme and can not easily be translated into the engineering scheme. This is due to the goal of each discipline. The engineer seeks for inventing and developing some devices or system that are new. But the psychologist looks for the new fact about the nature of human being. Because the psychology is one domain of science, the fact finding and the truth seeking are the fundamental stance of psychologists. There are, of course, applied psychologists who put more emphasis on the application of psychological findings. But the number of such psychologists is not large and furthermore the engineers tend to expect to get new finding from fundamental psychologists rather from applied psychologists.
\n\t\t\tAnother big reason is the temporal factor of the collaborative project. Usually, all the project members start their activity at the same time in such a collaborative project. Human science professionals or sometimes social science professionals start their research activity that they believe to bring about very valuable results in terms of the project goal. But, quite naturally, the research will take a certain amount of time during which the engineers are not waiting for the result to be available for them but will carry out their own approach. Hence, it frequently happens that when the result of the human science research are summarized, the development on the side of engineers have already advanced to a certain stage from which the modification of the development will be difficult. As a result, human engineer professionals summarize their own findings as a report whose content will nothing to do with or in a different direction with the technological development by the engineers.
\n\t\t\tThe idea of the micro scenario database was conceived of for minimizing the risk of such misled integrative approach between the engineers and the human science professionals. Figure 6 describes how the collaboration paradigm should change.
\n\t\t\tThe upper figure shows how the current collaboration projects between engineers and human science professionals or social science professionals are going on assuming the abscissa as a time. They start and end the project at the same time, thus the findings of the human science or the social science may not be able to be used by the engineering development.
\n\t\t\tThe lower figure shows the conceptual scheme for the collaborative project using the micro scenario database. The fundamental idea in this figure is as follows.
\n\t\t\t(1)\tA big project starts with just human science professionals and social science professionals. In that project a number of field work will be conducted in terms of various aspects of human life including the education, the medical treatment, the local government, the unemployment, the development of depopulated area, etc. Obtained data, for example, about the education will, for some part, include something about the unemployment or the local government issues. By conducting the multi-focused field work, mutually linked information will be obtained. Thus it is far better than the research with just one focus.
\n\t\t\t(2)\tThe second step is to pick up problems and write down pMSs and tags. Important point is to provide a list of tags to be used in advance. Thus the pMSs containing the same subject will be retrieved by just entering the tag. Of course, it could also be useful to provide a thesaurus for the tag. If it is provided, it is easier to input the tag and retrieve the pMS. pMSs and tags will be stored in a big database from which any information can be retrieved by entering the keyword (tag).
\n\t\t\t(3)\tWhen the engineers want to start a new project that is related to the human user, they simply retrieve relevant pMSs by entering the keyword (tag) to the system. They will be given pMSs that are related to the subject for which they are going to develop some devices or systems. Sometimes, the partial collaboration of the human science professionals will be necessary for adequately interpreting the pMSs.
\n\t\t\tConceptual Image of the Micro Scenario Database.
The micro scenario database will thus facilitate the collaboration between the human science (social science) professionals and the engineers or the designers. Some of the information in the database will be obsolete after a certain length of time, so the field work research to maintain the database should be conducted once per a few years.
\n\t\tIn this chapter, the diversity among people was explained at first and it was pointed that the diversity of user of any devices or systems should be covered before the beginning of the development process. After reviewing the current persona and scenario method, the micro scenario method was introduced as to summarize the problem information as the pMS and to lead the solution as the sMS. Then the idea of the micro scenario database was introduced. The author believes this will surely enhance the effective and efficient collaboration between the human science or the social science professionals and the engineers.
\n\t\tDyslexia is a neurological learning disability that impairs a person’s ability to read. Estimates suggest that dyslexia is a condition that affects nearly 13% of school-aged children in the United States [1] and more than 10% of populations worldwide [1, 2]. Although not a comprehensive list, the following characteristics are commonly associated with dyslexia [1]:
Difficulty with the development of phonological awareness and phonological processing skills.
Difficulty in accurately decoding nonsense or unfamiliar words.
Difficulty in reading single words in isolation.
Inaccurate and labored oral reading.
Lack of reading fluency.
Various degrees of learning the names of letters and their associated sounds.
Difficulty with learning to spell.
Difficulty in word finding and rapid naming.
Variable difficulty with aspects of written composition.
Variable degrees of difficulty with reading comprehension.
Vocabulary limitations, poor phonological awareness, and comprehension problems often associated with reading challenges such as dyslexia can become more pronounced in elementary school when the students begin to read to learn [3, 4]. Often, when higher cognitive-level reading processes are required, (i.e., not only reading words but retaining and applying information from what they have read), reading difficulties such as dyslexia often become more apparent as students progress in school. During these developmental years, the effects that reading challenges have on students with dyslexia can be quite apparent. The long-reaching effects of weak reading skills can be devastating. The impact of dyslexia on an individual can lead to poor self-esteem and limited awareness of social, emotional, and academic deficits [5]. Effective identification of dyslexia helps students, parents, and educators to manage the disorder, establish support, and reduce the impact of the condition.
Most students are diagnosed with dyslexia by an educational psychologist following referral from a teacher or other educational professional. It has been well-recognized that reading specialists and special educators provide critical support to students with dyslexia. Often lesser known is that differential assessment and management of language literacy disorders such as dyslexia can be supported by multiple disciplines, such as speech-language pathology or speech therapy [6]. The following section provides insight into the utility of the speech-language pathologist (SLP) in the identification and management of such students.
The position statement of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) states that SLPs “play a critical and direct role in the development of literacy for children and adolescents with communication disorders” and “make a contribution to the literacy efforts of a school district or community on behalf of other children and adolescents” [7]. In order to effectively and appropriately perform these roles, ASHA emphasizes the need for collaboration with written language development experts and those with expertise in each student’s specific situation(s) [7]. ASHA states that SLPs are uniquely trained in “normal and disordered language acquisition, and their clinical experience in developing individualized programs for children and adolescents, prepare them to assume a variety of roles related to the development of reading and writing. Appropriate roles and responsibilities for SLPs include, but are not limited to (a) preventing written language problems by fostering language acquisition and emergent literacy; (b) identifying children at risk for reading and writing problems; (c) assessing reading and writing; (d) providing intervention and documenting outcomes for reading and writing; and (e) assuming other roles, such as providing assistance to general education teachers, parents, and students; advocating for effective literacy practices; and advancing the knowledge base” [7].
As students with dyslexia are often characterized as having appropriate language comprehension skills but poor reading abilities, it stands to reason identification of dyslexia in children and adolescents can be aided by literacy and language assessments from SLPs (i.e., professionals uniquely trained in the assessment and management of expressive and receptive language and speech skills). As will be seen, the role that the SLP can play in assessment and treatment planning for students with language literacy disorders such as dyslexia can be a crucial and pivotal one.
For this chapter, a single-participant case report style was employed. This research methodology is often selected when a work seeks to answer a descriptive or explanatory research question. The question this chapter aims to answer is, “What can a trained SLP do to provide assessment and intervention for students with language literacy disorders such as dyslexia?”
Selection of a case study method is not without limitations. Certainly, generalization of John’s outcomes cannot be made to all students with dyslexia and reporting of a single study lacks the rigor of a blinded, systematic, multiple-subject research project. Further, the student selected, the instruments used, and the outcomes reported are at the discretion of the SLP and this author.
However, because a case study report allows for in-depth explanations that are not provided by other methods (e.g., qualitative research designs with multiple participants), John’s story is able to be told. A case study design also allows for a real-world context, such as John’s to be provided. Thus, the benefits of a case study research design lie in its ability to study real-world situations and address important research questions [8].
John’s mother consented for his participation in the initial assessment at the SLP’s clinic on a university campus in the United States. She also consented for the use of his assessment, outcomes, and history to be included in this work. The author is a professor at the clinic where the SLP works and was granted access to his case study by his mother who consented and the SLP who provided the reporting results. The Human Subject and Institutional Review Board at the university agreed that the author did not need to submit materials for approval, since this case study chapter is one case study in a book chapter and thus does not meet the federal definition of “generalizable.” Had this chapter involved a large-scale case study project involving multiple cases, research approval may have been required. All identifying markers were removed and his name was changed to preserve anonymity. His age was also changed by a month.
John1 is a 8-year-, 9-month-old English-speaking male brought for a speech and language assessment by his parents who expressed concerns with his language and literacy abilities. He attends third grade at a local elementary school. John works hard in school, but struggles academically, especially with reading. Specifically, John often writes with letter reversals, omits or substitutes basic sight words when reading aloud, and skips punctuation. Legible handwriting, appropriate use of punctuation, omitting words and reversals of letters in writing can be characteristics of dyslexia [9].
John’s birth history and hearing screening history are unremarkable. The first indications of John’s language challenges were noted at the age of 3. He reportedly was able to combine up to three words yet had a lexicon of only about 45 words. He scored below average in expressive language (SS = 80) on The Preschool Language Scale-5 (PLS-5) [10] and his total communication index score fell in the low average range (SS = 85). Dyslexia has been linked to deficits in expressive and receptive language skills [11].
When John was in second grade, his academic performance warranted psychoeducational testing by the school’s educational psychologist. Overall, John’s cognitive functioning was noted higher than average on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fifth Edition (WISC-V; [12]). Students with dyslexia do not typically test below average on intelligence tests [13].
On the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test—Third Edition (WIAT-III) [14], John demonstrated strong mathematic abilities. However, his comprehension, sight word reading, phonetic decoding, and written expression were below average. The presence of early speech sound disorders has been shown to be related to poor phonemic skills and spelling at the age of 5½ and difficulty with reading words at the age of 8 [15].
Although John’s listening comprehension was above average range in receptive vocabulary, his oral discourse comprehension score was in the lower average range, indicating possible processing problems. Weaknesses in semantics, syntax, and oral expression have been shown to contribute to reading difficulties in children with dyslexia [16].
Presently, John receives speech-language pathology and reading specialist services at his school. The school SLP is targeting articulation of /r/ and /r/ blends in all positions of words in all contexts. Articulation errors have been identified among students with dyslexia [17].
In his most recent report card, John received passing grades in all areas except reading. His classroom teachers stated that he is not a fluent reader and his comprehension of written text seems inconsistent based upon the given task and its requirements. He also has reported difficulty with word recall and story event sequencing and challenges with spelling and decoding. Persons with dyslexia often demonstrate inaccurate word recognition and comprehension, poor spelling and difficulty with decoding [18]. John receives classroom accommodations and is allowed to read aloud in a quiet area during reading tasks.
His teacher and parents state that John is aware of his reading difficulties, and this increases his anxiety and impedes his academic performance. Children with dyslexia may demonstrate low self-esteem and anxiety, among other feelings because they must work harder in school to keep up with their classmates, [17]. The SLP determined they needed to assess his language skills in-depth.
The tests that the SLP selected for use with John were (1) tests within the discipline’s scope of practice and that (2) utilized both formal and informal measures. Specifically, the SLP selected the Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing—Second Edition (CTOPP-2) [19], Test of Word Reading Efficiency—Second Edition (TOWRE-2) [20], the Test of Integrated Language and Literacy Skills (TILLS; [21]), the TILLS Student Language Scale (SLS Questionnaire; [21]), the AIMSweb Spelling and Reading Maze Curriculum Based Measures [22], the Gray Oral Reading Test—Fifth Edition (GORT-5) [23], a morphological awareness probe, and a writing sample.
The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) suggests the following areas be examined to ensure a comprehensive educational dyslexia assessment: Phonological awareness, phonological/language-based memory, rapid automatic naming, receptive vocabulary, phonics and de-coding abilities, decoding of both reading and nonsense words, oral reading fluency, spelling and writing of single words, sentences, paragraphs [1].
The CTOPP-2 assesses phonological processing skills [19]. As noted previously, phonological processing skills underlie word reading efficiency and deficits in these skills are a key characteristic of language literacy disorders such as dyslexia [3]. Often identified as a fundamental building block of reading, phonological awareness is the ability to attend, reflect on, or manipulate speech sounds in words. Phonological memory is the ability to encode and store phonological information (i.e., speech sounds) [24]. Rapid symbolic naming refers to the ability to quickly name a series of letters, numbers, familiar objects, or colors [25]. Therefore, the SLP opted to employ three subtests to determine John’s phonological awareness, phonological memory, and rapid symbolic naming abilities. Results revealed John scored two standard deviations or more below the mean on all three subtests, scoring lowest on the phonological memory subtest.
The TOWRE-2 includes the subtests of sight word efficiency and phonemic decoding efficiency to determine the ability to pronounce printed words [20]. It has been suggested that persons with reading difficulties have more challenges retaining sight words in memory than readers without difficulties [26]. Additionally, phonemic decoding has been shown to be challenging for students with language literacy disorders such as dyslexia [27]. Thus, the TOWRE-2 subtests lend information about a reading efficiency at the word-level. Word reading efficiency leads to effective reading comprehension and reading ability.
For each subtest, John was instructed to read as many words as he could from the list, as quickly and accurately as possible in 45 seconds. He was permitted to skip words he did not know by saying “pass.” He correctly read 42 sight words and 11 pseudowords. He made errors on eight other pseudowords. For the sight word efficiency subtest, John received a scaled score of 77, placing him at the 6th percentile. For the phonemic decoding efficiency subtest, he received a scaled score of 74, placing him at the 4th percentile. His total word reading efficiency index (i.e., a combination of both the sight word and phonemic decoding efficiency tests) was a scaled score of 74, placing him at the 4th percentile. In sum, his performance on these subtests was significantly below average.
The TILLS is an assessment of oral and written language and literacy abilities from the single-sound level to discourse level and is used to (1) identify a language/literacy disorder, (2) describe patterns of strengths and weaknesses, and (3) track changes over time [21]. To minimize fatigue and optimize time (as John was going to have numerous assessments to complete during his comprehensive evaluation), the SLP selected subtests that would provide the core, sound/word composite, and written language composite scores.
John’s identification core composite raw score of 17 was less than 34, which is the cut score for 8- to 11-year-olds. His score was consistent with having a language/literacy disorder. The sound/word composite evaluated John’s intact morphological and phonological awareness abilities across writing, reading, and oral language tasks. John’s sound/word raw composite score of 35 was considered low, and translates to a standard score of 69, which is three standard deviations below the mean, and indicates a significant deficit at the sound/word level. John scored within the average range on the nonword repetition and reading fluency subtests, but below average on the phonemic awareness, nonword reading, nonword spelling, and written expression-word subtests. Deficits at the sound/word level are a defining characteristic of dyslexia.
Two sentence/discourse subtests, the Listening Comprehension and Vocabulary Awareness subtests were administered. John achieved a standard score of 7 and a percentile rank of 14 in Listening Comprehension, indicating borderline average ability. On the Vocabulary Awareness subtest, John achieved a standard score of 6 and percentile rank of 8 (i.e., one standard deviation below the mean). On the written composite score, John achieved a standard score of 69 (i.e., three standard deviations below the mean), indicating a significant written language deficit.
The Student Language Scale (SLS) from the TILLS is used to screen for language/literacy disorders by asking parents and teachers to rate their perceptions of student ability. When teachers or parents rate more than two areas on items 1–8 as less than 5, SLS results indicate the student may have a language and/or literacy disorder [21].
Overall, parent and teacher ratings of John’s language and literacy abilities were very similar, indicating John is at risk for language and literacy deficits. The homeroom teachers rated John below 5 in 7 out of 8 areas, the reading and writing teacher rated John below 5 in 6 out of 8 areas, and John’s mother rated him below 5 in 8 out of 8 areas.
The AIMSweb Spelling Benchmark uses two cut scores to identify at-risk students and those in need of intervention. Students who score below the Tier 1 cut score (which is the 45th percentile) are considered at moderate risk; those who score below the Tier 2 cut score (which is the 15th percentile) are considered at severe risk. For John’s third grade level, the Tier 1 cut score is 83 and the Tier 2 cut score is 55. John received a score of 56, placing him just above the Tier 2 cut score of 55, indicating risk for spelling difficulties and the need for intervention. John spelled two words correctly out of a total of 17 words, and he scored 56 out of 112 for correct letter sequences, determined by pairs of letters that are correctly sequenced within a word [22].
The AIMSweb Reading Maze Benchmark uses two cut scores to identify risk for reading comprehension deficits. Students who score below the Tier 1 cut score (which again corresponds to the 45th percentile) are considered at moderate risk, and those who score below the Tier 2 cut score (which again corresponds to the 15th percentile) are considered at severe risk. For John’s third grade level, the Tier 1 cut score is 11 and the Tier 2 cut score is 6. John received a score of 3.5, placing him below the Tier 2 cut score and indicating significant risk for reading comprehension difficulties and the need for intervention. John did not finish reading the passage within the time limit, leaving 31 mazes unanswered. It is possible that the cognitive challenge of decoding at the word level inhibited John’s reading rate and adversely affected his overall fluency and comprehension.
The Gray Oral Reading Test (GORT-5) assesses rate, accuracy, fluency, and comprehension. Fluency and comprehension are combined to provide an oral reading index score. For this assessment, John’s scaled scores of reading fluency (i.e., rate and accuracy) and comprehension were assessed. First, he was timed while reading short texts aloud, then each section of text was read out loud for John to answer questions [23].
He received a scaled score of 6 for fluency and 7 for comprehension. The mean for each scaled score is 10, with a standard deviation of 3. This indicates that John’s reading fluency is below average. John’s comprehension score fell at the borderline/low average range. His oral reading index was 81, placing him in the 10th percentile, indicative of a below average performance. More specifically, John did not attempt to sound out words (i.e., he did not attempt to decode) but instead skipped over words as the difficulty of the story increased.
Morphological awareness refers to the ability to identify morphemes (i.e., the base and any prefixes and suffixes) in words. Research shows that morphological awareness is related to word reading and spelling, vocabulary, and reading comprehension. Probes of morphological awareness often assess morphology and word order by asking for adding or removing word endings [28].
The SLP assessed John’s awareness of morphemes in words, relations between words that have common morphemes, and his ability to apply this knowledge when spelling words. Specifically, the examiner said a word and then a sentence with a missing word at the end. John was asked to complete the sentence by making a new word from the word provided at the beginning. For example, the examiner said, “Skip. As he crossed the street, Paul ____.” In this instance, the correct answer is “skipped.” John answered 90% of the items correctly.
Next, he was asked to spell the complex word (base + suffix). When shown the spelling of the base word, he spelled 40% of the complex words correctly. However, when he was not shown the base word, he did not spell any of the complex words correctly. The difference in spelling accuracy levels with and without the base indicates he can use the base to help him spell the complex words, but is unable to accurately generate the spelling of the base on his own.
Given his performance, morphological awareness would appear to be a strength of John’s oral language despite his difficulty in spelling when the base word was removed. John’s dichotomy in ability is not an uncommon finding. Researchers have found phonological challenges can limit the segmenting of affixes (i.e., word-endings) in students with dyslexia [29].
The examiners prompted John to write an expository text about his favorite sport. The length of the text John submitted was short. Given 10 minutes, he wrote a three-sentence, 29-word paragraph, with an average of 9.8 words per sentence. John’s sentence complexity was limited, including 1.3 clauses per sentence and only one compound sentence (using the conjunction “but”). John’s writing sample provided basic organization and content as well as some key writing mechanic skills for his grade level. He effectively communicated the basics of the topic he selected, but his explanation lacked supporting details. No errors occurred in subject-verb agreement, capitalization, or punctuation. Writing samples have been used to identify the specific strengths and weaknesses in persons with dyslexia and language impairment [30].
Frequent spelling errors were more common with complex words (base + affix) than simple words (base word only). For instance, he spelled “baskle” for basically. This demonstrates that this word may be in his lexicon, but he is not able to spell it correctly likely due to phonological processing and morphological awareness deficits. Additionally, he substituted “b” for “p” as in “bast” for pass.
Overall, John’s performance on the independent writing sample illustrated difficulties with syntax and spelling that are consistent with his performance on other tests. These difficulties at the sound, word, and sentence level may have contributed to briefness of the exposition, requiring increased cognitive load and appearing effortful.
Results of testing indicate that John presented with a language/literacy disorder. John’s profile is consistent with characteristics of dyslexia in that he tested significantly below average at the sound/word level, including on tests of phonological processing, word reading, and spelling.
The SLP recommended intensive and direct services for both oral and written language (literacy). Further, it was suggested that oral language services to be provided by an SLP, and written language services provided by an SLP and/or teacher or educator trained in evidence-based literacy intervention, with a focus on phonological and morphological, and orthographic abilities.
To date, our understanding of dyslexia hypothesizes that it is a literacy disorder involving deficits in use and understanding of phonological systems such as decoding and encoding [18]. The interconnection between speech sounds, language production skills, and dyslexia has been suggested in research and practical situations. Indeed, deficits in the phonological systems of students provide an explanation for many students with dyslexia, such as John. Challenges in phonological awareness and their representations also appear to manifest long after language develops, creating ongoing disruptions for students with dyslexia [31].
As previously noted, the sooner a student is identified with a language literacy disorder such as dyslexia, the better their long-term educational, mental, and emotional outcomes become. After dyslexia is suspected, a student is often referred by a teacher or learning specialist to an educational psychologist who can confirm a diagnosis of dyslexia. Because of the volume of students in the school systems, the chance for a student’s language literacy disorder to be missed or at very least, not be identified until later in their schooling, is a legitimate concern. The importance, then, of other skilled professionals such as SLPs to take an active role in assessing students at risk for language literacy disorders cannot be understated. With a background in language and literacy development, the SLP can serve as a valuable resource for students, parents, and educators alike. Such was the case for John, whose language literacy disorder was identified by an SLP well trained in assessment and treatment of students with language literacy disorders.
Based on phonological training and knowledge of all the subsystems of language, the SLP can serve as a valuable resource for identification and management of dyslexia in students. The use of formal assessments and information means (i.e., written and oral language samples), parent and teacher reports, and collaboration with reading specialists give insight into the unique needs of each student with dyslexia as well. Future research into the influence of other language subsystems such as semantics, syntax, and morphology may provide further insight into identification and treatment of dyslexia.
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