IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2717",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Analytical Chemistry",title:"Analytical Chemistry",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The current text deals with several, very important topics of modern, Analytical Chemistry, such as analytical method validation in biotechnology today, principal component analysis, kinetic methods of analysis using potentiometric and spectrophotometric detectors, the current status of Analytical Chemistry and where it may move in the future, peptide and amino acid separations and identification, and several other, related topics in this growing and increasingly important area of Chemistry, in general. 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\r\n\tThis book, it is aimed to find content related to all the processes from the cultivation of the olive, which is the most precious product of the Mediterranean region, to its serving to people as a product. Although olive is a product unique to the Mediterranean region, it is considered one of the most important food components of healthy life all over the world. Olive, which is widely consumed from table consumption to olive oil production, is even used as fuel in some countries. In addition, olive is a valuable product as an important raw material that can be used even in cosmetics. Due to the high phenolic content in its structure and the high salinity in some productions, olive production can also turn into a serious source of environmental pollution. In this book, these issues will be examined in detail and presented to you, the reader.
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1. Introduction
Actinobacteria are a group of Gram-positive bacteria with high guanine and cytosine content in their DNA, which can be terrestrial or aquatic. Though they are unicellular like bacteria, they do not have distinct cell wall, but they produce a mycelium that is nonseptate and more slender. Actinobacteria include some of the most common soil, freshwater, and marine type, playing an important role in decomposition of organic materials, such as cellulose and chitin, thereby playing a vital part in organic matter turnover and carbon cycle, replenishing the supply of nutrients in the soil, and is an important part of humus formation. Actinobacterial colonies show powdery consistency and stick firmly to agar surface, producing hyphae and conidia/sporangia-like fungi in culture media.
Actinobacteria produce a variety of secondary metabolites with high pharmacological and commercial interest. With the discovery of actinomycin, a number of antibiotics have been discovered from Actinobacteria, especially from the genus Streptomyces. They are widely distributed in soil with high sensitivity to acid and low pH. Actinobacteria have a number of important functions, including degradation/decomposition of all sorts of organic substances such as cellulose, polysaccharides, protein fats, organic acids, and so on. They are also responsible for subsequent decomposition of humus (resistant material) in soil and for the earthy smell of freshly ploughed soils, producing a number of antibiotics like streptomycin, terramycin, aureomycin, and so on. This chapter gives an overview about the types of Actinobacteria, their habitat, systematic classification and various biotechnological applications, and their ill effects on plants and animals.
2. Habitat of Actinobacteria
2.1. Terrestrial environment
Soil remains the most important habitat for Actinobacteria with streptomycetes existing as a major component of its population. According to numerous reports, Streptomyces was encountered to be the most abundant genus isolated in each of the study. Terrestrial Actinobacteria have various interesting antimicrobial potentials. Oskay et al [1] isolated Actinobacteria that had capability of producing novel antibiotics with high antibacterial activity. In anoxic mangrove rhizosphere, Actinobacterial species such as Streptomyces, Micromonospora, and Nocardioform were found to be abundant, which is 1000 to 10000 times smaller than arable lands because of tidal influence [2]. Similarly, Nocardia isolated from mangrove soil produced new cytotoxic metabolites that strongly inhibited human cell lines, such as gastric adenocarcinoma [3]. Dessert soil is also considered as an extreme terrestrial environment where only certain species, especially wherein Actinobacteria, often use Microcoleus as a source of food. There are several reports showing the distribution of Actinobacteria in various locations, such as sandy soil (Cario, Egypt; Falmouth, MA), black alkaline soil (Karnataka, India), sandy loam soil (Keffi Metropolis, Nigeria; Presque Isle, PA), alkaline dessert soil (Wadi El Natrun, Egypt; Wadi Araba, Egypt), and subtropical dessert soil (Thar, Rajasthan), where Streptomyces sp. were dominant followed by the other organisms, such as Nocardia, Nocardiopsis, and Actinomycetes [4]. In the study of Nithya et al [5], 134 morphologically distinguished culturable Actinobacteria were isolated from 10 different desert soil samples, and the isolates were found to have varying level of antibacterial activity against bacterial pathogens. Equally, Actinobacteria play a major part in rhizosphere microbial community in the turnover of recalcitrant plant organic matter, and thus the rhizosphere region is considered as one of the best habitats for isolation of these microorganisms. Priyadharsini et al [6] in her study isolated 45 morphologically distinct colonies from 12 different paddy field soils and observed their ability to inhibit the growth of Cyperus rotundus. The isolates include Streptomyces sp., Streptoverticillium sp., Actinomadura sp., Kitasatosporia sp., Nocardiopsis sp., Pseudonocardia sp., and Kibdelosporangium sp.
2.2. Aquatic environment
Actinobacteria are widely distributed in aquatic habitats, which may sometimes be washed in from surrounding terrestrial habitats. It is vitally important that the numbers and kinds of Actinobacteria are interpreted in the light of information on organisms, such as Thermoactinomyces and Rhodococcus coprophilus, which are known to be good indicators of the terrestrial component of Actinobacterial propagules in water and sediments. The resistant endospores of Thermoactinomyces are produced in self-heating composts, overheated fodders, and surface soil, but they can be washed into aquatic habitats where they are deposited in muds and sediments. It has been assumed that these thermophiles are unable to grow at ambient temperatures in most aquatic habitats. Similarly, the resting coccal stage of R. coprophilus passes into freshwater and marine habitats, where it can survive but probably does not grow.
2.2.1. Freshwater
Cross [7] in his study evidenced that Actinobacteria can readily be isolated from freshwater sites. Some of the major type of Actinobacteria dwelling in freshwater include Actinoplanes, Micromonospora, Rhodococcus, Streptomyces, and the endospore-forming Thermoactinomyces. Actinoplanes are commonly found in soils, rivers, and lakes, and the spore vesicles of these organisms have the ability to withstand prolonged desiccation, but they release their motile spores for dispersal when rehydrated [8]. The zoospores are motile by means of a tuft of flagella exhibiting chemotaxis and require an exogenous energy source. Micromonospora are also considered to be a common freshwater Actinobacteria and found to be indigenous to such habitats where they turnover cellulose, chitin, and lignin. Numerous reports confirmed the presence of Micromonospora in streams, rivers, and river sediments and considered them to be an integral part of the aquatic microflora. Johnston & Cross [9] found that streptomycetes failed to grow in a various lakes, notably in the deeper mud layers where micromonosporae were found to be predominant, whereas another study of AI-Diwany et al [10] showed a significant correlation between micromonosporae and thermoactinomycetes isolated from the River Wharfe in West Yorkshire, where increased number of micromonosporae was found in the adjoining soil. A study revealed that Micromonospora spores were washed into freshwater habitats where they can remain dormant for several years [7]. Though streptomycetes spores are also continually washed into freshwater and marine habitats, there is only little evidence that they can be active in such environments. The existence of aquatic streptomycetes has been claimed, but AI-Diwany et al [10] found a high degree of correlation between counts of streptomycetes, fecal Streptococci, and Rhodococci. Other inhabitants of freshwater include Actinomadura madurae, Mycobacterium kansasii, and Arthrobacter, Corynebacterium, and Nocardia species. The concentration of hydrophobic spores and hyphae at the water/air interface can increase the number of streptomycetes, micromonosporae, and Rhodococci in foam on river water. Evidence clearly shows that Actinobacteria can become active in freshwater ecosystem in the presence of suitable substrates and conditions for growth rather than specifically adapting themselves to live in such environment.
2.2.2. Marine
When comparing the Actinobacterial diversity in terrestrial environment, the greatest biodiversity lies in the oceans. The marine environment is an untapped source of novel Actinobacteria diversity and thus of new metabolites. Marine Actinobacteria dwelling in extremely different environment produce different types of bioactive compounds compared with terrestrial ones. Marine Actinobacteria had to adapt from extremely high pressure and anaerobic conditions at temperatures just below 0- 8 °C on the deep sea floor to high acidic conditions at temperatures of over 8- 100°C near hydrothermal vents at the mid-ocean ridges. Rhodococcus marinonascene, the first marine Actinomycete species to be characterized, supports the existence of marine Actinobacteria. Members of the genera Dietzia, Rhodococcus, Streptomyces, Salinispora, Marinophilus, Solwaraspora, Salinibacterium, Aeromicrobium marinum, Williamsia maris, and Verrucosispora have been designated as indigenous marine Actinobacteria [11–15]. Grossart et al [16] have illustrated that Actinobacteria account for approximately 10% of the bacteria colonizing marine organic aggregates and that their antagonistic activity might be highly significant in maintaining their presence, which affects the degradation and mineralization of organic matter. The presence of indigenous marine Actinobacteria in the oceans and the distribution of marine Actinobacteria in different marine environments and habitats are confirmed by various recent researches. Innagi et al [17] isolated various marine Actinobacteria, such as Dietzia maris, Rhodococcus erythropolis, and Kocuria erythromyxa, from a sub-seafloor sediment core collected at a depth of 1225 meters off Hokkaido. Jensen et al [14] isolated five new actinomycete phylotypes from marine sediments collected around the island of Guam. Similarly, Actinobacteria were also isolated from samples collected at the deepest abyss, the Challenger Deep off the Marianas, at a depth of 10,923 meters [15]. Unusual Actinobacteria, belonging to Micrococceae, Dermatophilaceae, and Gordoniaceae have been isolated from sponges. Dhanasekaran et al [18] isolated 17 Actinobacteria from soil samples belonging to the saltpan regions of Cuddalore, Parangipettai, and screened for primary antibacterial activity among which Streptomyces spp. and Saccharomonospora sp. collected showed promising antimicrobial activity against different bacteria. An antibacterial methyl-substituted β-lactam compound was isolated and characterized from Streptomyces noursei DPTD21 in saltpan soil of Parangipettai Porto Novo in Cuddalore district, Tamil Nadu, by Dhanasekaran et al [19]. In another study, soil and sediment samples were collected from different locations in Muthupet mangrove region, and Actinobacteria were isolated viz Streptomyces sp. CC17 and SM13, Streptosporangium sp. SH15, and Micropolyspora sp. S22, which showed highest larvicidal activity against Anopheles mosquito larvae [20]. All the above-stated Actinobacteria isolated from marine environments, such as the deep sea floor, marine invertebrates and marine snow, sea shore soil, and deep sea sediments, represent unique ecosystems that cannot be found anywhere else in the world. Equally, these isolates produce various novel metabolites, which are listed in Table 1. Even with the limited screening efforts that have been dedicated to date to marine Actinobacteria, the discovery rate of novel secondary metabolites from marine Actinobacteria has been recently exceeded terrestrial counterparts, as evident by the isolation of many new chemical entities from marine Actinobacteria.
3. General characteristics of Actinobacteria
Actinobacteria comprises a group of branching unicellular microorganisms, most of which are aerobic-forming mycelium known as substrate and aerial. They reproduce by binary fission or by producing spores or conidia, and sporulation of Actinobacteria is through fragmentation and segmentation or conidia formation. The morphological appearance of Actinobacteria (Figure 1) is compact, often leathery, giving a conical appearance with a dry surface on culture media and are frequently covered with aerial mycelium.
Figure 1.
Appearance of Actinobacteria isolates on Starch casein agar plate. a, c Plate view of the Actinobacterial isolates. b, d Morphology of individual colonies.
3.1. Aerial mycelium
The aerial mycelium is usually thicker than the substrate mycelium (Figure 2a). The aerial mycelium shows sufficient differentiation that a miscellaneous assortment of isolates can be segregated into a number of groups having similar morphological characteristics under fixed condition. This is designated as one of the most important criteria for the classification of the genus Streptomyces into species, comprising structure (cottony, velvety, or powdery), formation of rings or concentric zones, and pigmentation.
3.2. Substrate mycelium
The substrate mycelium of Actinobacteria varies in size, shape, and thickness (Figure 2b). Its color ranges from white or virtually colorless to yellow, brown, red, pink, orange, green, or black.
Figure 2.
Abundant growth of Actinobacterial isolate on starch casein agar medium. a. Aerial mycelium. b. Reverse side of plate showing substrate mycelium.
3.3. Morphological appearance
Morphology has been an important characteristic to identify Actinobacteria isolates, which was used in the first descriptions of Streptomyces species (Figure 3). This is made using various standard culture media, including International Streptomyces Project (ISP). For nonstreptomycetes or rare Actinobacteria, strains maintained on ATCC Medium No.172 (NZ-amine glucose starch agar) (American Type Culture Collection, 1982) were used. Various morphological observations, including germination of spores, elongation and branching of vegetative mycelium, formation of aerial mycelium, color of aerial and substrate mycelium, and pigment production, have been used to identify Actinobacteria [21]. Light microscopy was used to study the formation of aerial mycelium and substrate mycelium, and scanning electron microscopy (Figure 4) was used to study the spores, the spore surface, and spore structure.
Figure 3.
Type of spore-bearing structure in streptomycetes [22].
Figure 4.
Scanning electron photographs of various Actinobacterial isolates. a. Micromonospora sp. b. Streptosporangium sp. c. Saccharopolyspora sp. d. Actinosynnema sp. e. S. noursei DPTD21. f. Streptomyces sp. JD9.
4. Systematics of Actinobacteria
In the Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, Actinobacteria are included in several sections of volume four. All Actinobacteria are included under the order Actinomycetales. The order Actinomycetales is divided into four families—Streptomycetaceae, Actinomycetaceae, Actinoplanaceae, and Mycobacteriaceae [23]. The “Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology—2nd edition” for Actinobacteria classification has five volumes, which contain internationally recognized names and descriptions of bacterial species. Classification of Actinobacteria has been rearranged as follows:
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
The Archaea and the Deeply Branching and Phototrophic Bacteria
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tVolume 1\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
The Proteobacteria
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tVolume 2\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
The Firmicutes
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tVolume 3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
The Bacteroidetes, Spirochaetes, Tenericutes (Mollicutes), Acidobacteria, Fibrobacteres, Fusobacteria
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tVolume 4\n\t\t\t
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\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
The Actinobacteria
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In Volume 5, the phylum Actinobacteria is divided into six classes, namely Actinobacteria, Acidimicrobiia, Coriobacteriia, Nitriliruptoria, Rubrobacteria, and Thermoleophilia. The class Actinobacteria is further divided into 16 orders that are Actinomycetales, Actinopolysporales, Bifidobacteriales, Catenulisporales, Corynebacteriales, Frankiales, Glycomycetales, Jiangellales, Kineosporiales, Micrococcales, Micromonosporales, Propionibacteriales, Pseudonocardiales, Streptomycetales, Streptosporangiales, and Incertae sedis. In the order of abundance in soils, the common genera of Actinobacteria are Streptomyces (nearly 70%), Nocardia, and Micromonospora, although Actinoplanes, Micromonospora, and Streptosporangium are also generally encountered. At present, the molecular identification is based on 16S rDNA sequences, which is most significant for Actinobacteria identification [24].
5. Types of Actinobacteria
5.1. Thermophilic Actinobacteria
Number of studies has been carried out by the researchers to confirm the existence of extremophilic and extreme tolerant soil Actinobacteria (acid tolerant and alkali tolerant, psychrotolerant and thermotolerant, and halotolerant and haloalkalitolerant or xerophilic). Mesophilic Actinobacteria can grow at an optimal temperature from 20°С to 42°С, among which thermotolerant species exist, which can survive at 50°С. Moderately thermophilic Actinobacteria have an optimum growth at 45°С–55°C [29], whereas strictly thermophilic Actinobacteria grow at 37°С–65°C with the optimum temperature at 55°С–60°C [25]. Incubation temperatures of 28°С, 37°С, and 45°C are considered optimal for isolation of soil mesophilic, thermotolerant, and moderately thermophilic Actinobacteria. Thermoactinomyces, which is presently excluded from the order Actinomycetales, are described as thermophilic forms depending on its phenotypic and molecular genetic characteristics, as well as among some species of Thermomonospora, Microbispora, Saccharopolyspora, Saccharomonospora, and Streptomyces.
5.2. Acidophilic Actinobacteria
Acidophilic Actinobacteria, which are common in terrestrial habitats such as acidic forest and mine drainage soil, grow in the pH range from about 3.5 to 6.5, with optimum rates at pH 4.5 to 5.5 [26, 27]. It has been shown that acidophilic Actinobacteria consistently form two distinct aggregate taxa (namely, the neutrotolerant acidophilic and strictly acidophilic cluster groups) based on numerical phenetic data; members of the two groups share common morphological and chemotaxonomic properties [26]. Also some members of the strictly acidophilic group form a distinct taxon, such as the genus Streptacidiphilus, which has been assigned to the revised family Streptomycetaceae, together with the genera Kitasatospora and Streptomyces.
5.3. Halophilic Actinobacteria
Halophilic Actinobacteria are categorized into different types based on their growth in media containing different concentrations of salt. Extreme halophiles grow best in media containing 2.5–5.2 M salt, whereas borderline extreme halophiles grow best in media containing 1.5–4.0 M salt, moderate halophiles grow best in media containing 0.5–2.5 M salt, and finally halotolerants that do not show an absolute requirement to salt for growth but grow well up to often very high salt concentrations and tolerate 100 g/l salt (equivalent to 1.7 M NaCl) at least. Seawater, saline soils, salt lakes, brines, and alkaline saline habitats are considered as the best habitats for isolating halophilic Actinobacteria. Generally, most of the halophilic Actinobacteria have been isolated from saline soils. Halophilic Actinobacteria isolated from marine environments are assigned to a few genera, including Micromonospora, Rhodococcus, and Streptomyces [28]. The other group includes Dietzia, Salinispora, Marinophilus, Solwaraspora, Salinibacterium, Aeromicrobium, Gordonia, Microbacterium, Mycobacterium, Nocardiopsis, Pseudonocardia, Actinomadura, Saccharopolyspora, Streptosporangium, Nonomuraea, Williamsia, and Verrucosispora [28–31].
5.4. Endophytic Actinobacteria
Endophytic Actinobacteria are defined as those that inhabit the internal part of plants, causing apparently no visible changes to their hosts. These Actinobacteria play specific roles, for instance, protecting the host plants against insects and diseases. Endophytic Actinobacteria constitute a large part of the rhizosphere, which are also found inside plants in which the extensively studied species are from the genus Frankia, nitrogen-fixing bacteria of nonleguminous plants [32], and a few species of the genus Streptomyces that are phytopathogens. Generally, the endophytic Actinobacteria include Streptomyces, but the genera Streptoverticillium, Nocardia, Micromonospora, Kitasatospora, Pseudonocardia, Microbispora, Kibdelosporangium, Actinopolyspora, Nocardioides, Brevibacterium, Actinomadura, GlycomycesPlantactinospora, Polymorphospora, Promicromonospora, and Streptosporangium are also found in the plants, such as Palicourea longifolia, Calycophyllum acreanum, Monstera spruceana, Croton lechleri, Cantua buxifolia, Siparuna crassifolia, and Eucharis cyaneosperma.
5.5. Symbiotic Actinobacteria
About 15% of the world’s nitrogen is fixed naturally by the symbiotic relationships between various species of the Frankia belonging to the family of Actinobacteria. The plants that form symbiotic relationships with Frankia are called actinorhizal plants. Researchers have found over 160 plants that have Actinobacteria as their host, including alders, Russian olive, bayberry, sweet fern, bitterbrush, and cliff rose. The Frankia have the ability to provide most or all of the host plant’s nitrogen needs. Numerous Frankia species including Casuarina isolates form nitrogen-reducing (NIR) vesicles in vitro and in planta [33]. These nitrogen-fixing bacteria and their host plants are often pioneer species on young nitrogen-deficient and disturbed soils such as moraines, volcanic flows, and sand dunes.
5.6. Endosymbiontic Actinobacteria
An endosymbiont is any organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism. Endosymbiosis process is sometimes obligate, that is, either the endosymbiont or the host cannot survive without the other. Members of the phylum Actinobacteria have been identified as abundant members of sponge-associated microbial communities. Mycobacterium along with Micrococcus, Micromonospora, Microbacterium, Brevibacterium, Kocuria, Corynebacterium, Rhodococcus, Brachybacterium, Rubrobacter, Streptomyces, Dietzia, Salinispora, Actinokineospora, Gordonia, Arthrobacter, Nocardiopsis, and Rothia species were found to live as endosymbionts in marine sponges Callyspongia aff. Implexa,Aplysina aerophoba, Spheciospongia vagabunda, Hemimycale culumella, Hyrtios erecta, Dysidea tupha, Callyspongia sp., Dysidea avara, Amphimedon sp., and Negombata magnifica. However, the Actinobacterial endosymbionts have also been reported in other group of animals, such as Hylobates hoolock, Rhinopithecus roxellanae, Rhinopithecus bieti, Panthera tigris altaica, Panthera tigris tigris, Panthera tigris amoyensis, Ailurus fulgens, Cavnlvara zlrsidae, Ursus thibetanus, Cervus elaphus, Elaphurus davidianus, and Vicugna pacos.
5.7. Gut Actinobacteria
Though Actinobacteria are found in various diverse habitats, some are also known to form intimate associations with invertebrates and vertebrates. Symbiotic interactions are essential mainly for the survival and reproduction because they play a crucial role in nutrition, detoxification of certain compounds, growth performance, and protection against pathogenic bacteria. Many studies have shown that some symbiotic Actinobacterial species, that is probiotics, control bacterial diseases in livestock, poultry, and aquaculture. They also take part in host health by converting the feedstuffs into microbial biomass and fermentation end products that can be utilized by the animal host. Tan et al [34] isolated Streptomyces, Nocardiopsis, and Oerskovia from healthy goat feces. Similarly, Latha and Dhanasekaran [35] isolated 87 Actinobacterial cultures from different feces of goat and chicken collected from various locations in Pudukkottai and Tiruchirappalli Districts, Tamil Nadu, among which 45 isolates were selected for the screening of antibacterial activity and extracellular digestive enzyme production. The ability of the probiont Streptomyces sp. JD9 from gut of chicken possesses all the characteristics needed to satisfy the indigenous Actinobacterial probiont for enhanced broiler production [36].
6. Applications of Actinobacteria
Actinobacteria are well recognized for their production of primary and secondary metabolites that have important applications in various fields. They are also a promising source of wide range of important enzymes, which are produced on an industrial scale. A large fraction of antibiotics in the market is obtained from Actinobacteria. They produce enzyme inhibitors useful for cancer treatment and immunomodifiers that enhance immune response. They have the ability to degrade a wide range of hydrocarbons, pesticides, and aliphatic and aromatic compounds. They perform microbial transformations of organic compounds, a field of great commercial value. Members of many genera of Actinobacteria can be potentially used in the bioconversion of underutilized agricultural and urban wastes into high-value chemical products. Actinobacteria are also important in plant biotechnology as strains with antagonistic activity against plant pathogens are useful in biocontrol. Their metabolic potential offers a strong area for research. Here, we have a brief description about important applications of Actinobacteria (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Biotechnological applications of Actinobacteria.
6.1. Antimicrobials
Actinobacteria hold a significant role in producing variety of drugs that are extremely important to our health and nutrition. Recently, diseases due to multidrug-resistant pathogenic bacteria are sturdily increasing, and thus search for new antibiotics is effective against the multidrug-resistant pathogens. Natural products having novel structures have been observed to possess useful biological activities [37]. Nature always remains the richest and the most versatile propitious source for new antibiotics, though there is considerable progress within the fields of chemical synthesis and engineered biosynthesis of antibacterial compounds. Toxic nature of certain antibiotics led to their limited usage although thousands of antibiotics have been discovered till date. To get through this problem, search of new antibiotics that are more effective and that do not have any toxic side effects is in progress. As already mentioned, one of the major healthcare problems is the antibiotic resistance. One approach to solve this problem is to search for new antibiotics with new mechanism of action. Figure 6 shows that a majority of antibiotics are derived from microorganisms, especially from the species Actinobacteria. Almost 80% of the world’s antibiotics are known to be derived from Actinobacteria, mostly from the genera Streptomyces and Micromonospora [38, 39].
Figure 6.
Antibiotics from Actinobacteria.
Particularly, Streptomyces species produce around 7600 compounds, many of which are secondary metabolites that are potent antibiotics, which has made streptomycetes the primary antibiotic-producing organisms exploited by the pharmaceutical industry [40, 41]. The reason behind the ability of the genus Streptomyces to produce commercially significant compounds remains supreme because of the extra large DNA complement of these bacteria [42]. It has been estimated that the last five decades have seen the discovery of more than 12,000 antibiotics, out of which the Actinobacteria yielded about 70% of them and the remaining 30% are products of filamentous fungi and nonActinobacteria. The antibiotics from Actinobacteria are differentiated into several major structural classes, such as aminoglycosides (e.g., streptomycin and kanamycin), ansamycins (e.g., rifampin), anthracyclines (e.g., doxorubicin), β-lactam (cephalosporins), macrolides (e.g., erythromycin), and tetracycline. Streptomyces strains have produced many of the antibiotics known to humans, which appears that these organisms produce antibiotics to kill off potential competitors [43]. One of the first antibiotics used is streptomycin produced by Streptomyces griseus [44]. Indeed, different Streptomyces species produce about 75% of commercially and medically useful antibiotics. In the course of screening for new antibiotics, several studies are oriented toward isolation of streptomycetes from different habitats. Different conditions of nutrition and culturing may affect the ability of Streptomyces cultures to form antibiotics, and hence the medium constitution together with the metabolic capacity of the producing organism greatly affects antibiotic biosynthesis.
Antagonistic Actinobacteria produce a variety of antibiotics that vary in chemical nature, in antimicrobial action, in toxicity to animals, and in their chemotherapeutic potentialities. Some of the antibiotics that have been isolated so far from Actinobacteria are crude preparations, whereas others have been crystallized, and considerable information has been gained concerning their chemical nature, which includes lysozyme, actinomycin, micromonosporin, streptothricin, streptomycin, and mycetin. Some Actinobacteria produce more than one antibiotic substance (e.g., S. griseus), as well as the same antibiotic may be produced by different species of Actinobacteria (e.g, actinomycin, streptothricin). A given antibiotic may, therefore, be identical, even when produced by different Actinobacteria, as shown by its chemical composition and antibiotic spectrum. Table 1 represents the list of antibiotics produced by various Actinobacteria with excellent antimicrobial application (Table 1).
A wide variety of biologically active enzymes are produced by both marine and terrestrial Actinobacteria (Figure 7; Table 2). They secrete amylases to the outside of the cells, which helps them to carry out extracellular digestion. This enzyme is of great significance in biotechnological applications such as food industry, fermentation, and textile to paper industries because of their ability to degrade starch [45]. Another important aspect of Actinobacteria is the production of cellulases, which are a collection of hydrolytic enzymes that hydrolyze the glucosidic bonds of cellulose and related cello-digosaccharide derivatives. Lipase is produced from various Actinobacteria, bacteria, and fungi and is used in detergent industries, foodstuff, oleochemical, diagnostic settings, and also in industries of pharmaceutical fields [46]. Many Actinobacteria have been isolated from various natural sources, as well as in plant tissues and rhizospheric soil. Biological functions of Actinobacteria mainly depend on sources from which the bacteria are isolated. Actinobacteria, particularly streptomycetes, are known to secrete multiple proteases in the culture medium [47]. Similarly, Actinobacteria have been revealed to be an excellent resource for L-asparaginase, which is produced by a range of Actinobacteria, mainly those isolated from soils, such as S. griseus, Streptomyces karnatakensis, Streptomyces albidoflavus, and Nocardia sp. [48, 49]. The roots and rhizomes of several Thai medicinal plants such as lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus) and ginger (Zingiber officinale) have long been used in Thai traditional medicine for stomach ache and asthma treatment. Rhizosphere soil of these plants may be an attractive Actinobacterial source, which has the ability to produce novel secondary metabolites. Enzymes such as catalase, chitinase, and urease are also produced from Actinobacteria. Interestingly, keratinase, an enzyme that degrades the poultry chicken feather, has been successfully produced from Nocradiopsis sp. SD5 isolated from feather waste in Tamil Nadu, India [50]. Similarly, Actinobacteria isolated from chicken and goat gut showed the presence of various enzymes such as amylase, protease, phytase, and lipase [35].
Figure 7.
Different types of enzymes produced by Actinobacteria. a. Amylase. b. Protease. c. Lipase. The zone of inhibition around the inoculated Actinobacteria confirms the production of particular enzyme.
Another interesting application of the Actinobacteria is the use of their secondary metabolites as herbicides against unwanted herbs and weeds. Streptomyces saganonensis produce herbicidines and herbimycins that controls monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous weeds. Anisomycin, which is produced by Streptomyces sp., is a type of growth inhibitor for annual grassy weeds such as barnyardness and common crabgrass and broad-leaved weeds; anisomycin can destroy the ability of the plants to synthesize chlorophyll. Similarly, bialaphos, a metabolite of Streptomyces viridochromogenes, is widely used to control annual and perennial grassy weeds and broad-leaved weeds by inhibiting glutamine synthesis. Anisomycin can make small seedlings of barnyardness and common crabgrass die above 50 ppm and inhibit radicle growth below 12.5 ppm. Its synthetase may accumulate ammonia and control photosynthetic phosphorylation, causing plant death [51]. S. hygroscopicus produce carbocyclic coformycin and hydantocidin, which can decrease synthetase of aclenylosuccinate by increasing the content of ATP and hold back the synthesis of protein [52]. In addition, phthoxazolin, hydantocidin, and homoalanosin from Streptomyces sp. can control several weeds [53]. Dhanasekaran et al [54] reported that Streptomyces sp. had the ability to inhibit the growth of Echinochilora crusgalli. Similarly, Streptomyces sp. KA1-3, KA1-4, KA1-7, and KA23A were found highly effective against C. rotundus [55]. Herbicidal activity of the bioactive compounds N-phenylpropanamide and N (naphthalene-1-yl) propanamide from Streptomyces sp. KA1-3 [56, 57] was also evaluated.
6.4. Probiotics
Probiotics are the live microbial adjunct that has a beneficial effect on the host by various means, such as modifying the host associated or ambient microbial community, by ensuring the improved use of the feed or enhancing its nutritional value, by enhancing the host response towards disease, or by improving the quality of its ambient environment. Despite several other important applications, marine Actinobacteria have been given its attention for their use as probiotics. The potential of Actinobacteria against shrimp pathogenic Vibrio spp. made marine Actinobacteria as potential probiotic strains due to their ability to degrade macromolecules, such as starch and protein, in culture pond water; the production of antimicrobial agents; and the formation of heat- and desiccation-resistant spores [58]. Recently, a few studies were made on the possible use of marine Actinobacteria in disease prevention against aquatic pathogens. Das et al [59] in their preliminary study reported the use of Streptomyces sp. on the growth of black tiger shrimp. An antibiotic product extracted from marine Actinobacteria was incorporated into feed to observe the in vivo effect on white spot syndrome virus in black tiger shrimp. Again, You et al [58] reported the activity of marine actinomycete as a potential organism against biofilms produced by Vibrio spp. and recommended the use of Actinobacteria to prevent the disease caused by Vibrio spp. In another study, Latha et al [36] screened 18 of the Actinobacteria isolated from chicken for probiotic properties, and the results revealed that Streptomyces sp. JD9 was the potent isolate with well-distinct probiotic properties.
6.4.1. Aggregative peptide pheromones
Aggregation is one of the most important criteria for the selection of a good probiotic candidate, which is the process of reversible accumulation of cells with one or more strains. For this aggregating process to take place, pheromone production is one of the main criteria that involves defense against predators, mate selection, and in overcoming host resistance by mass attack. In particular, sex pheromone peptides in culture supernatants have been shown to promote aggregation not only with the same species but also with related species [60–62]. Thus, the auto-aggregating ability of a probiotic is a prerequisite for colonization of the gastrointestinal tract, whereas coaggregation provides a close interaction with pathogenic bacteria. Though there are a number of studies in accordance with peptide pheromone–mediated signaling, it is lacking in the case of Actinobacteria, and thus a novel report on isolation and purification of diffusible aggregation promoting factor, that is, pheromones from potent Actinobacterial probiont Streptomyces werraensis LD22 isolated from the gut region of goat, were described by Muthu Selvam et al [63].The results clearly portray that Actinobacterial strain S. werraensis LD22 secretes a heat-stable, acidic pH–resistant, low molecular weight peptide pheromone that promotes the aggregation propensity and enhances the biofilm forming ability of other Actinobacterial isolates.
6.5. Biosurfactants
Biosurfactants are the microbially derived compounds that share hydrophilic and hydrophobic moieties that are surface active. When compared with chemically derived surfactants, biosurfactants are independent of mineral oil as a feedstock; they are readily biodegradable and can be produced at low temperatures. Biosurfactants can be applied in various areas, such as the nutrient, cosmetic, textile, varnish, pharmaceutical, mining, and oil recovery industries [64–66]. The lipopeptide antibiotic daptomycin is an Actinobacterial biosurfactant that has already entered the market and is used in the treatment of diseases caused by Gram-positive pathogens and has been marketed as Cubicin by Cubist Pharmaceuticals. Diverse types of biosurfactants or bioemulsifiers have been described to be produced within the class Actinobacteria. Among the best described biosurfactants are glucose-based glycolipids, most of which have a hydrophilic backbone consisting of glycosidic-linked glucose units forming a trehalose moiety.
6.6. Vitamins
Vitamin B12 as it exists in nature may be produced by bacteria or Actinobacteria [67]. Isolation of vitamin B12 from Actinobacteria fermentations [68, 69] stirred up considerable interest in possible production of vitamin by microbial fermentations. Addition of cobalt salts to the media apparently acts as a precursor for all Actinobacteria to produce vitamin. As cobalt is a rather effective bactericidal agent, this precursor must be added carefully. The fermentations producing the antibiotics streptomycin, aureomycin, grisein, and neomycin will produce some vitamin B12 as well if the medium is supplemented with cobalt without apparently affecting the yields of antibiotic substances. Several other studies suggested that some Actinobacteria that are non–antibiotic-producing cultures produce more of this vitamin than those producing antibiotics. Actinobacteria have been shown to produce other water soluble vitamins, with special studies on production of thiamine and the pteroylglutamic acid derivative that is active in promoting the growth of certain strains of Leuconostoc citrovorum and coenzyme A.
6.7. Pigments
As synthetic dyes have some limitations such as usage of hazardous chemicals for their production, creating worker safety concerns and generation of hazardous wastes, microbe-oriented pigments are of great concern. Specially, Actinobacteria are characterized by the production of various pigments on natural or synthetic media (Figure 8) and are considered as an important cultural characteristic in describing the organisms. Any phenotypic changes induced by environmental influences will help Actinobacteria as they boast distinctive colony morphologies and produce variety of pigments and aerial branching filaments called hyphae, which give them a characteristic fuzzy appearance. These pigments usually comes in various shades of blue, violet, red, rose, yellow, green, brown, and black, which may be dissolved into the medium or it may be retained in the mycelium. The pigments produced by Streptomyces may be either endopigments (bound to certain cell structures) or exopigments (excreated into the surrounding medium). Sometimes different antibiotics produced by the Actinobacteria are considered as pigments. Since the formation of pigment is influenced by the pH of the medium, aeration, temperature of the growth, and carbon and nitrogen sources, only a little is known about the exact chemical nature of pigments. Its formation is also linked to respiratory mechanisms, defense mechanisms, and ultraviolet protection. These microbes also have the ability to synthesize and excrete dark pigments, melanin or melanoid, which are considered to be a useful criterion for taxonomical studies. The textile industry produces and uses approximately 1.3 million tonnes of dyes, pigments, and dye precursors, valued at around $23 billion, almost all of which are manufactured synthetically. Table 3 provides a list of pigments from different Actinobacteria.
Figure 8.
Diffusible pigment produced by various Actinobacteria in starch casein agar medium.
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\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tPigment\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tClass\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tActinobacteria\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Rhodomycin
\n\t\t\t
Anthracycline glycoside
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSynodontis violaceus DSM 40704
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Actinomycin
\n\t\t\t
Phenoxazinone
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStreptomyces sp.\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
III Undecylprodigiosin IV Metacycloprodigiosin
\n\t\t\t
Prodigiosin
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStreptomyces longispororuber DSM 40599
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Granaticin
\n\t\t\t
Naphthoquinone
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStreptomyces litmocidin DSM 40164
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\n\t
Table 3.
Pigments from Actinobacteria
6.8. Nanoparticle synthesis
Nanoparticles are of great scientific interest as they bridge the gap between bulk materials and atomic or molecular structures. Generally, the chemical methods are low cost for high volume; however, their drawbacks include contamination from precursor chemicals, use of toxic solvents, and generation of hazardous byproducts. Hence, there is an increasing need to develop high-yield, low-cost, nontoxic, and environmentally benign procedures for synthesis of metallic nanoparticles. Therefore, the biological approach for synthesis of nanoparticles becomes important. In fact, Actinobacteria are efficient producers of nanoparticles, which show a range of biological properties, namely antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, antibiofouling, antimalarial, antiparasitic, and antioxidant. Streptomyces and Arthrobacter genera have been studied as possible “nanofactories” for the development of clean and nontoxic methods of the synthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles. A recent example of silver nanoparticle synthesis from an Actinobacteria Streptomyces sp. GRD was performed by Gopinath et al [70]. Ranjani et al [71] observed the diversity of silver nanoparticle synthesizing Actinobacteria from marine environment and showed that 25 isolates of 49 synthesized silver nanoparticles, the genus of which includes Streptomyces sp., Nocardiopsis sp., Kitasatosporia sp., Actinopolyspora sp., Thermoactinomyces sp., Actinomadura sp., Kibdelosporangium sp., Saccharopolyspora sp., and Thermomonospora sp. Table 4 shows the synthesis of nanoparticles using various genera.
List of nanoparticles synthesized using Actinobacteria
6.9. Bioremediation
Actinobacteria possess many properties that make them good candidates for application in bioremediation of soils contaminated with organic pollutants. In some contaminated sites, Actinobacteria represent the dominant group among the degraders [72]. They play an important role in the recycling of organic carbon and are able to degrade complex polymers. Sanscartier et al [73] reported that the greater use of petroleum hydrocarbons that are widely used in our daily life as chemical compounds and fuel has become one of the most common contaminants of large soil surfaces and eventually is considered as a major environmental problem. Some reports suggests that Streptomyces flora could play a very important role in degradation of hydrocarbons [74, 75]. Many Actinobacterial strains have the ability to solubilize lignin and degrade lignin-related compounds by producing cellulose- and hemicellulose-degrading enzymes and extracellular peroxidase [76]. Actinobacteria species have the ability to live in an oily environment and thus they can be used in bioremediation to reduce oil pollutants. Nocradiopsis sp. SD5 degraded feather waste by producing keratinase enzyme [50].
6.10. Control of plant diseases
The worldwide efforts in the search of natural products for the crop protection market have progressed significantly, and Actinobacteria, especially genus Streptomyces, appear to be good candidates in finding new approaches to control plant diseases. The agroindustry shows a marked interest for Actinobacteria as a source of agroactive compounds of plant growth–promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and of biocontrol tools [77, 78]. About 60% of the new insecticides and herbicides reported in the past 5 years originate from Streptomyces [78]. Kasugamycin is a bactericidal and fungicidal metabolite discovered in Streptomyces kasugaensis [79], which acts as an inhibitor of protein biosynthesis in microorganisms but not in mammals, and its toxicological properties are excellent. To market the systemically active kasugamycin for control of rice blast Pyricularia oryzae and bacterial Pseudomonas diseases in several crops, Hokko Chemical Industries developed a production process. Polyoxin B and D were isolated as metabolites of Streptomyces cacaoi var. asoensis in 1965 by Isono et al [80] as a new class of natural fungicides. The ability of the polyoxins to interfere with the fungal cell wall synthesis by specifically inhibiting chitin synthase [81] makes them acceptable with regard to environmental considerations. Polyoxin B found application against a number of fungal pathogens in fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals. Polyoxin D is marketed by several companies to control rice sheath blight caused by Rhizoctonia solani. The validamycin family was detected by Takeda researchers in 1968 in a greenhouse assay when screening streptomycete extracts for activity against rice sheath blight. Validamycin A was found to be a prodrug, which is converted within the fungal cell to validoxylamine A, an extremely strong inhibitor of trehalase [82]. This mode of action gives validamycin A a favorable biological selectivity because vertebrates do not depend on the hydrolysis of the disaccharide trehalose for their metabolism. Inhibition of plant pathogenic Rhizoctonia solani under in vitro condition was assessed with the culture supernatant of Streptomyces sp., which showed that the tested Actinobacteria had the ability to reduce damping off severity in tomato plants. Table 5 represents some of the antibiotics produced by the Actinobacteria that suppresses various plant diseases.
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\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tDisease\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tActinobacteria\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAntibiotic produced\n\t\t\t
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\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Potato scab
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStreptomyces melanosporofaciens\n\t\t\t\t EF-76 and FP-54
\n\t\t\t
Geldanamycin
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Grass seedling disease
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStreptomyces violaceusniger YCED9
\n\t\t\t
Nigericin and guanidylfungin A
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Root rot of Pea
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStreptomyces hygroscopicus var. geldanus\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStreptomyces hygroscopicus var. limoneus No. T-7545
\n\t\t\t
Validamycin
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Brown rust of wheat
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStreptomyces hygroscopicus\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Gopalamycin
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Phytophthora blight of pepper
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStreptomyces violaceusniger\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Tubercidin
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Phytophthora blight of pepper
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStreptomyces humidus\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Phenylacetic Acid
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Damping-off of cabbage
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStreptomyces padanus\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Fungichromin
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Rice sheath blight
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStreptomyces cacaoi var. asoensis\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Polyoxin B and D
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Powdery mildew
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStreptoverticillium rimofaciens\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Mildiomycin
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Rice root disease
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMicromonospora sp. SF-1917
\n\t\t\t
Dapiramicin
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Rice blast
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMicromonospora sp. M39
\n\t\t\t
2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid, phenylacetic acid, cervinomycin A1 and A2
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Blotch of wheat
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStreptomyces malaysiensis\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Malayamycin
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Powdery mildew of cucumber
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStreptomyces sp. KNF2047
\n\t\t\t
Neopeptin A and B
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 5.
Plant disease suppression by antibiotics produced by Actinobacteria
6.11. Nematode control
It has been known for decades that effective control of plant-parasitic nematodes is dependent on chemical nematicides. Due to its ill effects with respect to the environmental hazards, hazardous nematicides have emphasized the need for new methods to control nematodes. Today, numerous microorganisms are recognized as antagonists of plant-parasitic nematodes. Especially, Actinobacteria have potential for use in biological control as they are known to produce antibiotics. The production of avermectins by a species of Streptomyces shows that soil-borne organisms can produce highly nematicidal compounds. S. avermitilis produces ivermectin, which has an excellent activity against Wucheria bancroftii [83]. Similarly various other antiparasitic compounds are produced from different Streptomyces sp., Salinispora sp., and Marinactinospora sp., which includes Milbemycin, Antimycin A9, Fervenulin, bafilolides, Valinomycin, Salinosporamide A, Kalafungin, Thiamycins, and Axenomycins.
6.12. Enhancement of plant growth
Despite the well-documented history of Streptomyces in biocontrol and preliminary evidence of their capacity to enhance plant growth [84], Streptomyces species have been poorly investigated specifically for their potential as PGPR. While the beneficial effect of some strains of PGPR on particular crops is certain, the mechanisms employed by PGPR are unclear [85]. PGPR can affect plant growth in two general ways, either directly or indirectly. Indirect promotion occurs when PGPR lessen or prevent the harmful effects of one or more deleterious microorganisms. This is chiefly attained through biocontrol or the antagonism of soil plant pathogens. Specifically, colonization or the biosynthesis of antibiotics and other secondary metabolites can prevent pathogen invasion and establishment. Direct promotion of plant growth by PGPR occurs when the plant is supplied with a compound that is synthesized by the bacteria, or when PGPR otherwise facilitates plant uptake of soil nutrients. Merriman et al [86] reported the use of S. griseus for seed treatment of barley, oat, wheat, and carrot to increase their growth. The isolate was originally selected for the biological control of Rhizoctonia solani. Though the S. griseus isolate did increase the average grain yield, dry foliage weight, tiller number, and advanced head emergence for both wheat and oat over controls, the differences were not statistically significant. As a seed treatment for carrot, the isolate was more successful. Marketable yields were increased over controls by 17% and 15% in two separate field trials. Specifically, both trials also indicated an increased yield of large and very large grade carrots over controls [86]. El-Abyad et al [87] described the use of three Streptomyces spp. in the control of bacterial, Fusarium and Verticillium wilts, early blight, and bacterial canker of tomato. The isolates used were Streptomyces pulcher, Streptomyces canescens, and Streptomyces citreofluorescens. In addition, tomato growth was observed to be significantly improved with the antagonistic Streptomyces spp. as a seed coating. An increased availability of growth regulators produced by the inoculum was the reason proposed for the improvement in tomato growth, although this was not formally tested. The information available on streptomycetes as plant growth promoters is limited, so is the information describing the possibility of their direct growth promotion mechanisms. Like most rhizobacteria, it seems highly probable that streptomycetes are capable of directly enhancing plant growth.
6.13. Phytohormone production
The production of the plant hormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and the pathways of its synthesis by various Streptomyces sp., including S. violaceus, Streptomyces scabies, S. griseus, Streptomyces exfoliatus, S. coelicolor, and S. lividans, were described by Manulis et al [88]. While prior works had reported IAA synthesis in Streptomyces spp., this was the first confirmation of its production using modem analytical methods, such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography (GC)–mass spectrometry (MS), and Manulis et al [88] provided a detailed description of the IAA biosynthetic pathways in Streptomyces. Aldesuquy et al [84] studied the effect of streptomycete culture filtrates on the growth of wheat plants that showed significant increase in shoot fresh mass, dry mass, length, and diameter, displayed statistically with certain strains at varying sample times. Streptomyces olivaceoviridis had a pronounced effect on yield components (spikelet number, spike length, and fresh and dry mass of the developing grain) of wheat plants. This activity may be due to, at least in part, an increase in bioavailable phytohormones that are PGPR produced since ail PGPR strains (Streptomyces rimosus, Streptomyces rochei and S. olivaceoviridis) produced substantial amounts of exogenous auxins (IAA), as well as gibberellins and cytokinins.
6.14. Biolarvicides
Extensive use of chemical insecticides for controlling malaria, filaria, dengue, chickungunya, Japanese encephalitis, and other mosquitoes have resulted in hazards to the environment and caused development of resistance in vector mosquitoes. Accordingly, various biological control agents have gained importance with innumerable advantages over the chemical insecticides. At very low doses, these biolarvicides are highly effective against mosquito larvae and are completely safe to other nontarget organisms, environment, man, and wild life. Several varieties of microorganisms, including fungi, bacteria, and nematodes have been reported as strategies to biologically control the vectors. Specifically, Actinobacteria produce many important bioactive compounds of high commercial value and continue to be routinely screened for new bioactive substances. In a study made by Vijayan and Balaraman [89], extracellular secondary metabolites were produced from 35 different Actinobacterial isolates that showed high larvicidal activity against Culex and Anopheles mosquitoes. Dhanasekaran et al [20] reported that the isolates Streptomyces sp., Streptosporangium sp., and Micropolyspora sp. had high larvicidal activity against Anopheles mosquito larvae. Rajesh et al [90] synthesized silver nanoparticles from Streptomyces sp. GRD cell filtrate and observed larvicidal activity against Aedes and Culex vectors, which are responsible for the transmission of dengue and filariasis. Yet again, Rajesh et al [91] studied the larvicidal effect of Actinobacterial extracts against Culex larvae and found that 1000 ppm concentration of the isolate Streptomyces sp. KA13-3 showed 100% mortality and Streptomyces sp. KA25-A showed 90% mortality. Variety of other secondary metabolites from Actinobacteria, namely tetranectin [92], avermectins [93], macrotetrolides [94], and flavonoids [95] were found to be toxic to mosquitoes.
6.15. Odor and flavor compounds production
Actinomycetes have long been associated with musty odors in water but their actual contribution to odor in freshwater was unknown. But in late 1960s, secondary metabolites, geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), were identified from actinomycete cultures [96] after which actinomycetes have gained considerable importance throughout the water industry as major sources of drinking water taste and odor. Gaines and Collins [97] studied the metabolites of Streptomyces odorifer and concluded that the earthy odor might be due to the production of a combination of trivial compounds, such as acetic acid, acetaldehyde, ethyl alcohol, isobutyl alcohol, isobutyl acetate, and ammonia. They emphasized that the other constituents contributing to the odor might also be produced. A number of odor-producing compounds have been identified from Actinobacteria (Table 6). Earthy odors in adequately treated water supplies cause concern among consumers, who may think water with these odors is unsafe to drink. These odors are the second most common cause of odor problems recorded by water utilities, behind chlorine.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tActinobacteria\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSecondary metabolite\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tOdor type\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tStreptomyces sp. \n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Trans-1,10-dimethyl-trans-9-decalol (Geosmin) 1,2,7,7-tetramethyl-2-norbornanol 6-ethyl-3-isobutyl-2-pyrone (mucidone) 2-isobutyl-3-methoxypyrazine or 2-isopropyl-3-methoxypyrazine
A number of significant plant diseases are caused by Actinobacteria. Actinobacteria currently assigned to the genus Corynebacterium [98] cause a variety of diseases (Table 7). Serodiagnosis has been used to detect and identify Corynebacterium insidiosum and Corynebacterium sependonicum, but most of these Corynebacteria are still identified by inoculation tests in host plants. Most phytopathogenic Corynebacteria are considered to produce their antagonistic effects by the production of hormones, polysaccharides, and toxins, whereas the potential of some strains to form biosurfactants may help in attachment to the host. The taxonomy of the phytopathogenic Corynebacteria is unsettled, though some prefer to retain these organisms in the genus Corynebacterium [99]. Others accept that there is an overwhelming case for restricting Corynebacterium for animal pathogenic Corynebacteria and related strains and a consequent need to reclassify the plant pathogens. Corynebacterium betae, Corynebacterium oortii, and Corynebacterium poinsettiae are genetically identified with Corynebacterium flaccumfaciens [100] and have many properties in common with the genus Curtobacterium [100], which would serve as a suitable niche for them. C. insidiosum and Corynebacterium michiganense, also fell into a single genospecies, were recovered in a loose DNA homology group with Corynebacterium nebraskense and Corynebacterium sepedonicum and together with the latter probably from the nucleus of a new genus.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tArthrobacter ilicis\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
B light of holly (flex opaca)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tC. betae\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Wilt and leaf spot of red beet (Beta vulgaris)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tC. flaccumfaciens\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Wilt of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tC. insidiosum\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Wilt and stunting of alfalfa (Medicago sativum)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tC. michiganense\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Canker of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) and some other solanaceous plants
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tC. nebraskense\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Wilt and blight of corn
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tC. oortii\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Spot of tulip leaves and bulbs
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tCorynebacterium Poinselliae\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Stem canker and leaf spot of poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tCorynebacterium rathayi\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Gumming of cereals
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tC. sepedonicum\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Wilt and tuber rot of potato (Solanum tuberosum)\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tNocardia vaccinii\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Galls and bud proliferation in blueberry plants (Vaccinium)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tRhodococcus fascians\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Leaf gall in many plants, fasciation of sweet pea
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tS. aureofaciens S. flaveolus. S. griseus\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Common scab of potato
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tS. ipomoeae\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Sweet potato scab
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tS. scabies, Streptomyces sp.\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Common and russet scab of potatoes, sugar beet, etc
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 7.
Plant diseases caused by Actinobacteria
7.2. Actinobacterial human and animal diseases
Actinobacteria have proved to be the causal agents of many human and animal infections, which include a number of common and intensively studied diseases, such as diphtheria, tuberculosis, and leprosy. There is also a wide range of infections that are less well known; some, like actinomycosis and nocardiosis, are proving to be more clinically significant than previously thought. In addition, it is becoming increasingly evident that Actinomyces play a role in the etiology of caries and periodontal disease. Following are the human and animal diseases caused by Actinobacteria (Table 8).
Abscess formation in various organs (brain, spinal cord, and joints)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pyelonephritis in cattle \n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tCorynebacterium renale\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Kidney
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Tuberculosis
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMycobacterium tuberculosis\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Lung
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 8.
Human and animal diseases caused by Actinobacteria
8. Conclusion
Actinobacteria is one of the dominant groups of microorganisms that produce industrially important secondary metabolites. A wide range of antibiotics in the market is obtained from Actinobacteria. Products such as enzymes, herbicides, vitamins, pigments, larvicides, phytohormones, and surfactants are produced by these several genera of Actinobacteria, which are of great commercial value. They are capable of degrading a wide range of hydrocarbons, pesticides, and feather waste, and their metabolic potential offers a strong area for research. However, many of the rare genera of Actinobacteria have been neither discovered from unexplored locations nor employed for their biotechnological and industrial potential. Thus, studies on unique ecological environments could yield molecules that could become future harbingers of green technology.
\n',keywords:"Actinobacteria, Characteristics, Habitat, Types, Secondary metabolites, Applications, Pathogens",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/49873.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/49873.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49873",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49873",totalDownloads:7970,totalViews:4112,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:97,totalAltmetricsMentions:102,impactScore:30,impactScorePercentile:100,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"January 14th 2016",dateReviewed:"February 1st 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 11th 2016",dateFinished:"February 4th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Actinobacteria, which share the characteristics of both bacteria and fungi, are widely distributed in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, mainly in soil, where they play an essential role in recycling refractory biomaterials by decomposing complex mixtures of polymers in dead plants and animals and fungal materials. They are considered as the biotechnologically valuable bacteria that are exploited for its secondary metabolite production. Approximately, 10,000 bioactive metabolites are produced by Actinobacteria, which is 45% of all bioactive microbial metabolites discovered. Especially Streptomyces species produce industrially important microorganisms as they are a rich source of several useful bioactive natural products with potential applications. Though it has various applications, some Actinobacteria have its own negative effect against plants, animals, and humans. On this context, this chapter summarizes the general characteristics of Actinobacteria, its habitat, systematic classification, various biotechnological applications, and negative impact on plants and animals.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/49873",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/49873",book:{id:"5056",slug:"actinobacteria-basics-and-biotechnological-applications"},signatures:"Ranjani Anandan, Dhanasekaran Dharumadurai and Gopinath\nPonnusamy Manogaran",authors:[{id:"48914",title:"Dr.",name:"Dharumadurai",middleName:null,surname:"Dhanasekaran",fullName:"Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran",slug:"dharumadurai-dhanasekaran",email:"dhansdd@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/48914/images/224_n.jpg",institution:{name:"Bharathidasan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Habitat of Actinobacteria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Terrestrial environment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Aquatic environment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1. Freshwater",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2. Marine",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. General characteristics of Actinobacteria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1. Aerial mycelium",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2. Substrate mycelium",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.3. Morphological appearance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Systematics of Actinobacteria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. Types of Actinobacteria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.1. Thermophilic Actinobacteria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.2. Acidophilic Actinobacteria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.3. Halophilic Actinobacteria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.4. Endophytic Actinobacteria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"5.5. Symbiotic Actinobacteria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"5.6. Endosymbiontic Actinobacteria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"5.7. Gut Actinobacteria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"6. Applications of Actinobacteria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"6.1. Antimicrobials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"6.2. Enzymes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"6.3. Bioherbicides",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"6.4. Probiotics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"6.4.1. Aggregative peptide pheromones",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"6.5. Biosurfactants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"6.6. Vitamins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"6.7. Pigments",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"6.8. Nanoparticle synthesis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"6.9. Bioremediation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30_2",title:"6.10. Control of plant diseases",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31_2",title:"6.11. Nematode control",level:"2"},{id:"sec_32_2",title:"6.12. Enhancement of plant growth",level:"2"},{id:"sec_33_2",title:"6.13. Phytohormone production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_34_2",title:"6.14. Biolarvicides",level:"2"},{id:"sec_35_2",title:"6.15. Odor and flavor compounds production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_37",title:"7. Harmful effects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_37_2",title:"7.1. Actinobacterial plant diseases",level:"2"},{id:"sec_38_2",title:"7.2. Actinobacterial human and animal diseases",level:"2"},{id:"sec_40",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Oskay AM, Usame T, Cem A. Antibacterial activity of some actinomycetes isolated from farming soils of Turkey. Afr J Biotechnol. 2005; 3(9):441-446.'},{id:"B2",body:'Tan H, Deng Z, Cao L. Isolation and characterization of actinomycetes from healthy goat faeces. Lett Appl Microbiol. 2009; 49(2):248-253.'},{id:"B3",body:'Schneider K, Nicholson G, Strobele M, Baur S, Niehaus J, Fiedler HP, Sussmuth RD. The structures of fluostatins C, D and E, novel members of the fluostatin family. J Antibiot. 2006; 59(2):105.'},{id:"B4",body:'Cundell DR and Piechoski MP. Potentially novel Actinobacteria derived antibiotics from unique microenvironments. 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Cell aggregating propensity of probiotic Actinobacterial isolates: isolation and characterization of the aggregation inducing peptide pheromone. Biofouling. 2016; 32(1): 71-80.'},{id:"B64",body:'Henkel M, Muller MM, Kugler JH, Lovaglio RB, Contiero J, Syldatk C, Hausmann R. Rhamnolipids as biosurfactants from renewable resources: concepts for next-generation rhamnolipid production. Process Biochem. 2012; 47(8):1207-1219.'},{id:"B65",body:'Muller MM, Kugler JH, Henkel M, Gerlitzki M, Hormann B, Pohnlein M, Syldatk C, Hausmann R. Rhamnolipids—next generation surfactants. J Biotechnol. 2012; 162(4):366-380.'},{id:"B66",body:'Marchant R, Banat IM. Microbial biosurfactants: challenges and opportunities for future exploitation. Trends Biotechnol. 2012; 30(11):558-565.'},{id:"B67",body:'Robbins WJ, Hervey A, Stebbins ME. Studies on Euglena and vitamin B12. Bull Torrey Bot Club. 1950:423-441.'},{id:"B68",body:'Rickes EL, Brink NG, Koniuszy FR, Wood TR, Folkers K. Crystalline vitamin B12. 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Bioremediation of diesel-contaminated soil by heated and humidified biopile system in cold climates. Cold Reg Sci Technol. 2009; 55(1):167-173.'},{id:"B74",body:'Radwan SS, Barabás G, Sorkhoh NA, Damjanovich S, Szabo I, Szollosi J, Matko J, Penyige A, Hirano T, Szabo IM. Hydrocarbon uptake by Streptomyces. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 1998; 169(1):87-94.'},{id:"B75",body:'Barabas G, Vargha G, Szabo IM, Penyige A, Damjanovich S, Szollosi J, MatkoJ, Hirano T, Matyus A, Szabo I. n-Alkane uptake and utilisation by Streptomyces strains. A Van Leeuw. 2001; 79(3-4):269-276.'},{id:"B76",body:'Mason MG, Ball AS, Reeder BJ, Silkstone G, Nicholls P, Wilson MT. Extracellular heme peroxidases in actinomycetes: a case of mistaken identity. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2001; 67(10):4512-4519.'},{id:"B77",body:'Behal V. Bioactive products from Streptomyces. Adv Appl Microbiol. 2000; 47:113-156.'},{id:"B78",body:'Tanaka Y, Omura S. Agroactive compounds of microbial origin. Annu Rev Microbiol. 1993; 47(1):57-87.'},{id:"B79",body:'Umezawa H, Okami Y, Hashimoto T, Suhara Y, Hamada M, Takeuchi T. A new antibiotic, kasugsmycin. J antibiot. 1965; 18:101-103.'},{id:"B80",body:'Isono K, Nagatsu J, Kawashima Y, Suzuki S. Studies on polyoxins, antifungal antibiotics: Part I. isolation and characterization of polyoxins A and B. Agric Biol Chem. 1965; 29(9):848-854.'},{id:"B81",body:'Endo A, Misato T. Polyoxin D, a competitive inhibitor of UDP-N-acetylglucosamine: chitin N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase in Neurospora crassa. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1969; 37(4):718-722.'},{id:"B82",body:'Kameda K, Takaku T, Okuda H, Kimura Y, Okuda T, Hatano T, Agata I, Arichi S. Inhibitory effects of various flavonoids isolated from leaves of persimmon on angiotensin-converting enzyme activity. J Nat Prod. 1987; 50(4):680-683.'},{id:"B83",body:'Ikeda H, Omura S. Control of avermectin biosynthesis in Streptomyces avermitilis for the selective production of a useful component. J Antibiot. 1995; 48(7):549-562.'},{id:"B84",body:'Aldesuquy HS, Mansour FA, Abo-Hamed SA. Effect of the culture filtrates of Streptomyces on growth and productivity of wheat plants. Folia Microbiol. 1998; 43(5):465-470.'},{id:"B85",body:'Glick BR. The enhancement of plant growth by free-living bacteria. Cand J Microbiol. 1995; 41(2):109-117.'},{id:"B86",body:'Merriman PR, Price RD, Kollmorgen JF, Piggott T, Ridge EH. Effect of seed inoculation with Bacillus subtilis and Streptomyces griseus on the growth of cereals and carrots. Crop Pasture Sci. 1974; 25(2):219-226.'},{id:"B87",body:'El-Abyad MS, El-Sayed MA, El-Shanshoury AR, El-Sabbagh SM. Towards the biological control of fungal and bacterial diseases of tomato using antagonistic Streptomyces spp. Plant Soil. 1993; 149(2):185-195.'},{id:"B88",body:'Manulis S, Shafrir H, Epstein E, Lichter A, Barash I. Biosynthesis of indole-3-acetic acid via the indole-3-acetamide pathway in Streptomyces spp. Microbiol. 1994; 140(5):1045-1050.'},{id:"B89",body:'Vijayan V, Balaraman K. Metabolites of fungi & actinomycetes active against mosquito larvae. Indian J Med Res. 1991; 93:115-117.'},{id:"B90",body:'Rajesh K, Padmavathi KC, Ranjani A, Gopinath PM, Dhanasekaran D, Archunan G. Green Synthesis, characterization and larvicidal activity of AgNps against Culex quinquefasciatus and Aedes aegypti Larvae. Am J Drug Disc Develop. 2013; 3(4):245-253.'},{id:"B91",body:'Rajesh K, Dhanasekaran D, Tyagi BK. Mosquito survey and larvicidal activity of Actinobacterial isolates against Culex larvae (Diptera: Culicidae). J Saudi Soc Agr Sci. 2013; 14(2):116-122.'},{id:"B92",body:'Ando K. How to discover new antibiotics for insecticidal use. In: Natural Products: Proceedings of the 5th International Congress of Pesticide Chemistry (Takahashi et al., Eds), 1982, pp. 253, Elsevier, Kyoto, Japan.'},{id:"B93",body:'Pampiglione S, Majori G, Petrangeli G, Romi R. Avermectins, MK-933 and MK-936, for mosquito control. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1985; 79(6):797-799.'},{id:"B94",body:'Zizka Z, Weiser J, Blumauerova M, Jizba J. Ultrastructural effects of macrotetrolides of Streptomyces griseus LKS-1 in tissues of Culex pipiens larvae. Cytobios. 1988; 233:85-91.'},{id:"B95",body:'Rao KV, Chattopadhyay SK, Reddy GC. Flavonoids with mosquito larval toxicity. J Agr Food Chem. 1990; 38(6):1427-1430.'},{id:"B96",body:'Gerber NN, Lechevalier HA. Geosmin, an earthy-smelling substance isolated from actinomycetes. Appl microbiol. 1965; 13(6):935-938.'},{id:"B97",body:'Gaines HD, Collins RP. Volatile substances produced by Streptomyces odorifer. Lloydia. 1963; 26(4):247.'},{id:"B98",body:'Rogosa M, Cummins CS, Lelliott RA, Keddie RM. Actinomycetes and related organisms. Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology. 1974; 8:599-881.'},{id:"B99",body:'Dopfer H, Stackebrandt E, Fiedler F. Nucleic acid hybridization studies on Microbacterium, Curtobacterium, Agromyces and related taxa. J Gen Microbiol. 1982; 128(8):1697-1708.'},{id:"B100",body:'Dye DW, Kemp WJ. A taxonomic study of plant pathogenic Corynebacterium species. New Zeal J Agr Res. 1977; 20(4):563-582.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Ranjani Anandan",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Microbiology, School of Life Science, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
Department of Microbiology, School of Life Science, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
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\n
1. Introduction
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The concept of self-healing concrete came from the principle of the self-healing properties of the skin, a form of natural defense mechanism. Nature plays an active role in this process by the development of clots to seal the break. This is the first process of skin healing. Self-healing technology is a novel branch of engineering aimed at the protection of concrete infrastructure from developing minor and major cracks. In a bid to improve the strength and durability of concrete which, is one of the most pervasive material in the world in terms of infrastructural construction, self-healing technology was adopted. The use of concrete has been adopted in the design and construction of major infrastructure for national growth. Globally, concrete is widely used for the construction of structural and pavement elements [1]. The first usage of concrete in the world was in the Roman Empire, for the construction of the Pantheon, which is a very great structure and still in a functional state till date [2]. Concrete microstructure consists of a multiphase nanostructured material in the composite form which ages over time. The structural strength of concrete to a large extent depends on the micro- and nanoscale structural properties of the constituent element.
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Despite the uniqueness of concrete infrastructures using these innovative materials, they are still prone to cracks. The research of [3] as reported in [4] revealed that concrete crack is a result of shrinkage, weather action, thermal stresses, and so on. Using self-healing technology, the strength and durability of concrete can be improved using biotechnological method by adopting the calcite precipitation principle. Self-healing technology seems to be very effective if the crack size is not more than 0.8 mm at the early age. However, the research of [4] revealed that hydro-gel encapsulation, vascular systems, and capsules are also good methods of self-healing concrete structures. Recent research focuses on the use of biotechnology and nanomaterial and the use of autogenous principle in self-healing technology which is espoused in this review.
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1.1 Self-healing technology
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The concept of self-healing was birthed some few decades due to the crack induced in some water retaining structures [5]. One of the major causes of concrete structural failure is the crack that can occur both in the plastic and hardened states [6–9]. The effect of crack may not be pronounced at the early stage, but it affects the mechanical strength at the late age which involves a lot of money for repair. The research of [7] showed that the active treatment of cracks seems to be an effective method as compared with the passive method of crack treatment.
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The main concept was to make sure that this concrete structure affected by crack regained its mechanical strength by the hydration of the cement particles present in it [10, 11]. The concept of autogenic healing was used in this approach. According to [11], autogenous healing is a procedure where materials self-heal by nature. The same author avowed that this self-healing may be due to the formation of the carbonate or the hydroxide of carbon (calcium carbonate and calcium hydroxide). Additionally, the sedimentation of particles and swelling of the cement matrix in the concrete proved to be likely causative factors [12]. Asserted the problem of sedimentation and swelling can be averted and corrected using the self-healing capacity of the material composition of concrete.
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Self-healing is an example of the active process of crack treatment. This method can operate independently in different conditions regardless of the crack position. The design of materials with healing properties is now gaining acceptance in concrete technology due to its numerous advantages.
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1.2 Sustainable materials used in self-healing concrete
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Sustainable structures provide environmentally friendly infrastructure, add long-term value to facilities, and improve the structural stability of structures. In concrete technology, different materials have been used in self-healing technology through three main strategies as shown in Table 1.
Autogenous healing
Encapsulation of polymeric material
Microbial production of calcium-carbonate (biotechnological approaches)
Materials used in encapsulation method of self-healing.
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1.2.1 Autogenous healing
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This process of healing occurs when the continuity of two sides of cracks is restored without any external repair [25]. The same author avowed that water passing through concrete dissolve the calcium present in the cement mortar of concrete. The passage of water oftentimes is through the presence of cracks either in the hardened or plastic state. The calcium is transported in the insoluble form in the voids which eventually seal the crack without any external approach. The cracks did not only heal, but the mechanical properties were also restored. Additionally, the healed concrete becomes impermeable to water, thereby improving the mechanical strength. The principle of sealing cracks with calcium carbonate crystals from carbon dioxide in the surrounding soil, air, or water is the autogenous healing process. This reaction with the free calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide from the hydration of tricalcium silicate of the cement helps in crack healing also. However the main product that fills the void is the calcium carbonate [25].
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Furthermore, the research of [26] showed that calcium carbonate is a versatile material that can be used in crack healing for the filling of voids and improved porosity. The research of [13, 14] showed that the presence of unhydrated cement in the concrete composition can affect autogenous healing. Additionally, the presence of water and humidity are also critical factors. The improvement of this approach of crack treatment depends on the water-cement ratio used in the concrete design. The lower the water-cement ratio, the better the autogenous healing process. Moreover, the success of this approach depends on the diameter of the crack induced in the concrete structure. The research of [18] showed that only cracks ranging from 0.1 to 0.3 can be filled using this approach.
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1.2.2 Encapsulation of polymeric material
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This process involves coating of the hydrophobic nanoparticles with an additional polymer layer. This process involves the foaming of the healing agent in the presence of moisture. It also involves the use of fibers in concrete. Encapsulation also uses capsules that can survive in concrete matrix. The addition of this capsule must not interfere with rheology and mechanical properties of the concrete both in the plastic and hardened states [27]; this factor according to the research of [19] as stated in [28] makes this method difficult. The research of [19, 28] stated that encapsulation involves the use of liquid, gas, or fine solid particles incorporating synthetic polymer in concrete technology. The research of [19] stated that to provide protection to the constituents of the healing agent, the healing process begins when the capsule is opened to crack and the applied load breaks the capsule which invariably opens the healing agent [4]. This method can be categorized into the following:
Bacterial precipitation
Encapsulated chemical healing agents
\n\n
The materials used in this method are as shown in Table 2.
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The drawback of this approach is the tendency to repeat itself over time, and this invariably leads to repeated healing. Moreover, the moisture content required is high to make the healing process effective. Research of [42–44] showed that insufficient capillary action could render the method ineffective. The cost of production is another shortcoming of adopting this method.
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1.3 Biotechnological approaches
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Biotechnology involves the use of biomineralization in concrete technology. It is a process of mineral formation by living organism in nature. According to the same author, the process can be accomplished by inducing biological mineralization in an open environment as a result of uncontrolled microbial metabolic activity [21]. This process occurs in an anaerobic environment or at toxic-anoxic boundary as avowed by [22]. This is as a result of photosynthesis from bicarbonate solutions which results in carbonate production [45]. Besides, the use of this method is feasible when carbon dioxide is present in the surrounding. It can be inferred from this that photosynthesis pathway can be applied when concrete infrastructure is exposed to carbon dioxide in the presence of light.
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Furthermore, the heterotrophic growth of different types of bacteria such as Arthrobacter, Bacillus, and Rhodococcus leads to the production of organic salt and carbonate minerals through urea analysis [46–48]. It also results in the increase in the pH consequently increasing the concentration of carbonate. This process is achieved by the conversion of carbon dioxide to carbonate [13, 49, 50]. Invariably, this aids the calcium carbonate precipitation which plays an active role in the blockage of cracks [51, 52]. Other bacteria used in self-healing technology are shown in Table 3.
The major drawback of this approach is the production of ammonium ions (NH4+) through ureolytic activity which results in nitrogen oxide emission into the atmosphere. It is estimated that the remediation of 1 m2 of concrete needs 10 g/L of urea which produces 4.7 g of nitrogen. This amount is about one third of the nitrogen that is produced by each person everyday [52]. Furthermore, the presence of excessive ammonium in the concrete matrix increases the risk of salt damage by converting to nitric acid. Hence, an optimization to find the required amount of urea is beneficial to avoid excessive ammonium emission.
\n
For cement-based materials, different methods can be found in literature (Table 4); the first breakthrough involves the use of encapsulated sealant or adhesive [19]. These are stored in fibers [39, 40] or in longer tubes [60]. Filling of the voids and cracks with expansive material can propel carbonation when water percolates [61, 62]. The use of bacteria to stimulate the self-healing mechanism is also a promising alternative [63–65]. Nanotechnology is a unique branch of science that uses nanomaterial in the design, construction, repair, and protection of infrastructures. It deals with the application of the physical world in a small scale by assessing the atom, molar molecule, and similar molecule of material [66–68]. With the increasing development of nanotechnology, the use of tiny nanoparticles and nanomaterial also increased in modern technologies [69].
This review assessed the use of self-healing technology for sustainable infrastructural development. Relevant literatures on the use of self-healing technology in concrete technology were assessed. The main concept was to make sure that concrete structure affected by crack regained its mechanical strength by the hydration of the cement particles present in it. Self-healing mechanism using the autogenous healing, encapsulation of polymeric material, and microbial production of calcium carbonate (biotechnological approaches) was studied. The review revealed that:
The major shortcoming using capsulation method is its repeatability over a long time which can also lead to repeated healing over a long time.
Capsulation method requires high amount of moisture to make it effective.
The cost of production of capsules for large concrete structures is also a major flaw of this approach.
Insufficient capillary force of the crack causes lower than expected amount of healing agent being released into the matrix using capsulation method.
Heterotrophic growth of different genera of bacteria results in the production of carbonate minerals; invariably, this aids the calcium carbonate precipitation which plays an active role in the blockage of cracks.
The activities of these bacteria lead to an increase in the pH of the medium, thereby increasing the carbonate concentration.
Excessive production of ammonium in the concrete matrix using biotechnological approach increases the risk of salt damage by conversion to nitric acid.
The effectiveness of autogenous healing of crack depends on the water-cement ratio used in the concrete design. The success of this approach depends on the diameter of the crack induced in the concrete structure.
\n\n
\n
\n
3. Recommendations
\n
\n
Future studies should focus on the production of some of these self-healing materials in large quantity.
Future studies should also focus on the effect of this technology on corrosion considering the versatile usage of reinforced concrete for infrastructural construction.
It is also recommended that the use of biotechnology in self-healing should be done with caution and the right technology should be used because of its effect on durability.
\n\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The authors are grateful to the management of Covenant University for the access to the articles used for this review.
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"self-healing, sustainability, concrete, asphalt, infrastructure",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71041.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71041.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71041",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71041",totalDownloads:767,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"January 14th 2019",dateReviewed:"May 10th 2019",datePrePublished:"February 12th 2020",datePublished:"March 25th 2020",dateFinished:"February 11th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Vulnerability to cracks is one of the major flaws of concrete infrastructure. The need to reduce the repair cost of this defect birthed the need for self-healing concrete. The incidence of cracks on concrete structures is a big threat to the stability of bridges, concrete roads, and other concrete infrastructures. This review assessed the use of self-healing technology on concrete using sustainable material as an active method of healing crack. This was done with the view of improving the stability, strength, and sustainability of infrastructure for national growth. The outcome of the review showed three prominent methods used in self-healing technology, which include autogenous healing, encapsulation of polymeric material, and microbial production of calcium-carbonate (biotechnological approaches). The review also revealed that calcium carbonate is a versatile material that can be used in crack healing for the filling of voids and improves the porosity of the concrete. The success of using the autogenous healing method depends on the diameter of the crack induced in the concrete structure. Additionally, this method can operate independently in different conditions regardless of the crack position. Correspondingly, lowering the water-cement ratio improves the autogenous healing process. The use of encapsulation of polymeric material and microbial production of calcium-carbonate methods showed that the presence of water and humidity is a critical factor to be considered. However, biotechnology using microbial action is prone to the production of ammonium ions (NH4+) through ureolytic activity, which results in nitrogen oxide emission into the atmosphere. Congruently, this may affect the durability of the concrete. Based on the uniqueness of this technology, it is recommended for the construction of sustainable infrastructure now and in the foreseeable future.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71041",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71041",signatures:"Busari Ayobami Adebola, Kupolati Williams Kehinde, Loto Tolulope Roland, Sadiku Rotimi Emmanuel, Jacques Snyman and Ndambuki Julius",book:{id:"9265",type:"book",title:"Strength of Materials",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Strength of Materials",slug:"strength-of-materials",publishedDate:"March 25th 2020",bookSignature:"Héctor Jaramillo S., Julian Arnaldo Avila and Can Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9265.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78985-994-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-993-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-143-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"255849",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hector",middleName:"Enrique",surname:"Jaramillo S.",slug:"hector-jaramillo-s.",fullName:"Hector Jaramillo S."}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"291558",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayobami",middleName:null,surname:"Busari",fullName:"Ayobami Busari",slug:"ayobami-busari",email:"ayobami.busari@covenantuniversity.edu.ng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Covenant University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"292541",title:"Prof.",name:"Williams",middleName:null,surname:"Kupolati",fullName:"Williams Kupolati",slug:"williams-kupolati",email:"KupolatiWK@tut.ac.za",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"319446",title:"Dr.",name:"Loto",middleName:null,surname:"Tolulope Roland",fullName:"Loto Tolulope Roland",slug:"loto-tolulope-roland",email:"jhsebfigrfoiqgb@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"319447",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadiku",middleName:null,surname:"Rotimi Emmanuel",fullName:"Sadiku Rotimi Emmanuel",slug:"sadiku-rotimi-emmanuel",email:"iruiwfruhg@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"319448",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacques",middleName:null,surname:"Snyman",fullName:"Jacques Snyman",slug:"jacques-snyman",email:"hfiffrgog@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"319449",title:"Dr.",name:"Ndambuki",middleName:null,surname:"Julius",fullName:"Ndambuki Julius",slug:"ndambuki-julius",email:"jhfhwohghjfg@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Self-healing technology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Sustainable materials used in self-healing concrete",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"1.2.1 Autogenous healing",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"1.2.2 Encapsulation of polymeric material",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"1.3 Biotechnological approaches",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"2. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Recommendations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nOloyede SA. Tackling causes of frequent building collapse in Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development. 2010;7(3):127-132\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nDelatte NJ. Lessons from roman cement and concrete. ASCE Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice. 2008;127(3):109-115\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nACI (American Concrete Institute). 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Biodegradation. 2006;17:357-367\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nMuynck W, Belie N, Verstraete W. Improvement of concrete durability with the aid of bacteria. In: Proceedings of the First International Conference on Self Healing Materials; Noordwijk aan zee, The Netherlands; 2007\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nSiddique R, Singh K, Kunal M, Corinaldesi Singh V, Rajor A. Properties of bacterial rice husk ash concrete. Construction and Building Materials. 2016;121:112-119\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nAndalib R, Majid MZA, Hussin MW, Ponraj M, Keyvanfar A, Mirza J. et al. Optimum concentration of Bacillus megaterium for strengthening structural concrete. Construction and Building Materials. 2016;118:180-193\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nChahal N, Siddique R, Rajor A. Influence of bacteria on the compressive strength, water absorption and rapid chloride permeability of fly ash concrete. Construction and Building Materials. 2012;28:351-356\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nChahal N, Siddique R, Rajor A. Influence of bacteria on the compressive strength, water absorption and rapid chloride permeability of concrete incorporating silica fume. Construction and Building Materials. 2012;37(1):645-651\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nSiddique R, Kaur N. Effect of ureolytic bacteria on concrete properties. Construction and Building Materials. 2011;25(10):3791-3801\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nGosh SK, editor. Self-Healing Materials; Fundamentals, Design Strategies and Applications. USA: Wiley Blackwell; 2008\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nKhaliq W, Ehsan MB. Crack healing in concrete using various bio influenced self-healing techniques. Construction and Building Materials. 2016;102:349-357\n'},{id:"B60",body:'\nNishiwaki T, Mihashi H, Jang B-K, Miura K. Development of self-healing system for concrete with selective heating around crack. Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology. 2006;4(2):267-275\n'},{id:"B61",body:'\nHosoda A, Kishi T, Arita H, Takakuwa Y. Self healing of crack and water permeability of expansive concrete. In: 1st International Conference on Self-Healing Materials; Noordwijk, Holland; 2007\n'},{id:"B62",body:'\nSisomphon K, Çopuroğlu O, Fraaij ALA. Durability of blast-furnace slag mortars subjected to sodium monofluorophosphate solution curing. In: Proceedings 4th International Conference on Construction Materials: Performance, Innovations and Structural Implications; (24) (PDF) Autogenous self-healing of cement with expansive minerals-I: Impact in early age crack healing; Nagoya, Japan; 2009\n'},{id:"B63",body:'\nBang SS, Galinat JK, Ramakrishnan V. Calcite precipitation induced by polyurethane-immobilized Bacillus pasteurii. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 2001;28:404-409\n'},{id:"B64",body:'\nJonkers H, Schlangen E. In: Schmets AJM, van der Zwaag S. editors, Proceedings of the First International Conference on Self Healing Materials; 18-20 April 2007; Noordwijk aan Zee, The Netherlands: Springer; 2007\n'},{id:"B65",body:'\nDe Muynck W, Debrouwer D, De Belie N, Verstraete W. Bacterial carbonate precipitation improves the durability of cementitious materials. Cement and Concrete Research. 2008;38:1005-1014\n'},{id:"B66",body:'\nMansour NM, Zohre D. Nanotechnology’s role in optimization of energy consumption in buildings. In: 5th Conference of Fuel Consumption Optimization of the Country; 2006\n'},{id:"B67",body:'\nKhandve PV. Nanotechnology for building material. International Journal of Basic and Applied Research. 2014;4:146-151\n'},{id:"B68",body:'\nBASF. Nanotechnology for Simple, Successful Concrete Repair—A Specifiers’ Guide. Germany: BASF Company; 2008. pp. 1-24\n'},{id:"B69",body:'\nSeaton A. Nanotechnology and the occupational physician. Occupational Medicine. 2006;56:312-316\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Busari Ayobami Adebola",address:"ayobami.busari@covenantuniversity.edu.ng",affiliation:'
Department of Civil Engineering, Covenant University, Nigeria
Department of Civil Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Kupolati Williams Kehinde",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Civil Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa
Department of Civil Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa
Institute of Nano Engineering Research (INER) and Department of Chemical, Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa
Department of Civil Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9265",type:"book",title:"Strength of Materials",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Strength of Materials",slug:"strength-of-materials",publishedDate:"March 25th 2020",bookSignature:"Héctor Jaramillo S., Julian Arnaldo Avila and Can Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9265.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78985-994-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-993-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-143-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"255849",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hector",middleName:"Enrique",surname:"Jaramillo S.",slug:"hector-jaramillo-s.",fullName:"Hector Jaramillo S."}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"297586",title:"Dr.",name:"Frank",middleName:null,surname:"Maulana",email:"fmaulana@noble.org",fullName:"Frank Maulana",slug:"frank-maulana",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"67182",title:"Improving Dual-Purpose Winter Wheat in the Southern Great Plains of the United States",slug:"improving-dual-purpose-winter-wheat-in-the-southern-great-plains-of-the-united-states",abstract:"This chapter covers the production and breeding status of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) used for early-season animal grazing and late-season grain production in the Southern Great Plains of the United States. Besides, in the chapter, the current production status and needs, the drawbacks of current cultivars, breeding strategies of the crop, novel genomics tools, and sensor technologies that can be used to improve dual-purpose winter wheat cultivars were presented. We will focus on traits that are, in general, not required by cultivars used for grain-only production but are critical for cool-season forage production.",signatures:"Frank Maulana, Joshua D. Anderson, Twain J. Butler and Xue-Feng Ma",authors:[{id:"284944",title:"Prof.",name:"Xue-Feng",surname:"Ma",fullName:"Xue-Feng Ma",slug:"xue-feng-ma",email:"xma@noble.org"},{id:"297586",title:"Dr.",name:"Frank",surname:"Maulana",fullName:"Frank Maulana",slug:"frank-maulana",email:"fmaulana@noble.org"},{id:"297587",title:"Mr.",name:"Joshua D.",surname:"Anderson",fullName:"Joshua D. Anderson",slug:"joshua-d.-anderson",email:"jdanderson@noble.org"},{id:"297588",title:"Dr.",name:"Twain J.",surname:"Butler",fullName:"Twain J. 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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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Rocon, J.C. Moreno, J.A. Gallego and J.L. Pons",authors:null},{id:"62000",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77320",title:"Biomarkers in Breast Cancer",slug:"biomarkers-in-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:1671,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women and its incidence experienced an important increase, thanks to the introduction of a systematic screening. The increased incidence of early breast cancer has led to debates on its over-treatment, which may cause unnecessary harm to patients with favorable prognosis. Therefore, modern research is in the quest of finding the perfect prognostic marker to avoid overtreatment in patients with a favorable prognosis. In this perspective, many molecular markers have been studied in the last decades in order to provide both a useful prognostic tool, able to determine whether the cancer is likely to be indolent or aggressive, and a possible therapeutic target. In this chapter, we review the current knowledge about the principal biomarkers, which are usually immunohistochemically tested on breast surgical specimens, including ER and PR, Mib1/Ki-67 and HER2/neu expression. Furthermore, we will analyze other possible prognostic markers which may have in the future a key role in breast cancer management, such as several multigene panels (OncotypeDX, Mammaprint, NanoString Prosigma). Finally, we will discuss the role of genetic tests for some know genetic mutations associated with higher breast cancer susceptibility (BRCA1 and 2 genes).",book:{id:"6566",slug:"biomarker-indicator-of-abnormal-physiological-process",title:"Biomarker",fullTitle:"Biomarker - Indicator of Abnormal Physiological Process"},signatures:"Serena Bertozzi, Ambrogio P Londero, Luca Seriau, Roberta Di Vora,\nCarla Cedolini and Laura Mariuzzi",authors:[{id:"74447",title:"Dr.",name:"Ambrogio P",middleName:null,surname:"Londero",slug:"ambrogio-p-londero",fullName:"Ambrogio P Londero"},{id:"167094",title:"Dr.",name:"Serena",middleName:null,surname:"Bertozzi",slug:"serena-bertozzi",fullName:"Serena Bertozzi"},{id:"234965",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberta",middleName:null,surname:"Di Vora",slug:"roberta-di-vora",fullName:"Roberta Di Vora"},{id:"234970",title:"Prof.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Mariuzzi",slug:"laura-mariuzzi",fullName:"Laura Mariuzzi"},{id:"234971",title:"Dr.",name:"Carla",middleName:null,surname:"Cedolini",slug:"carla-cedolini",fullName:"Carla Cedolini"},{id:"235400",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Seriau",slug:"luca-seriau",fullName:"Luca Seriau"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59880",title:"Molecular Diagnostics of Pulmonary Diseases Based on Analysis of Exhaled Breath Condensate",slug:"molecular-diagnostics-of-pulmonary-diseases-based-on-analysis-of-exhaled-breath-condensate",totalDownloads:1702,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Measurements of biomarkers in exhaled breath condensate (EBC) extend a novel route for monitoring lung physiology and provide a beneficial insight into the pathophysiology of a specific disease. From the medicinal point of view, biomarkers present in EBC depict rather the processes occurring in lungs than those in the entire system. Therefore, particular profiles of exhaled biomarkers (e.g. cys-LTs, LTB4, 8-isoprostane, etc.) apparently reveal information exclusively applicable to differential lung disease diagnoses. This chapter describes the developed analytical method being applied to a clinical study for differential diagnostics of various phenotypes of asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, etc. In particular, having determined cys-LTs and LXs by the described method, and having applied them as biomarkers of bronchial asthma, their distinctive potential was demonstrated to differentially diagnose the specific disease, clearly suggesting this method to be reckoned as a beneficial alternative to existing diagnostic methods. Consecutively, the developed method was expanded to other asthma markers as aldehydes, nitrotyrosine, 8-isoprostane, PGE2, adenosine and finally, a supplementary study was carried out, engaging in detecting serotonin. The multi-marker screening and importance in the diagnostics of pulmonary diseases are referenced in the text as well.",book:{id:"6566",slug:"biomarker-indicator-of-abnormal-physiological-process",title:"Biomarker",fullTitle:"Biomarker - Indicator of Abnormal Physiological Process"},signatures:"Tereza Kačerová, Petr Novotný, Ján Boroň and Petr Kačer",authors:[{id:"190932",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Kačer",slug:"petr-kacer",fullName:"Petr Kačer"},{id:"197652",title:"Ms.",name:"Tereza",middleName:null,surname:"Kacerova",slug:"tereza-kacerova",fullName:"Tereza Kacerova"},{id:"207204",title:"Dr.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Novotný",slug:"petr-novotny",fullName:"Petr Novotný"},{id:"207205",title:"Dr.",name:"Ján",middleName:null,surname:"Boroň",slug:"jan-boron",fullName:"Ján Boroň"}]},{id:"61381",title:"Internet of Things in Emergency Medical Care and Services",slug:"internet-of-things-in-emergency-medical-care-and-services",totalDownloads:1920,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Emergency care is a critical area of medicine whose outcomes are influenced by the time, availability, and accuracy of contextual information. In addition, the success of emergency care depends on the quality and accuracy of the information received during the emergency call and data collected during the emergency transportation. The success of a follow medical treatment at an emergency care unit depends too on data collected during the two phases: emergency call and transport. However, most information received during an emergency-call is inaccurate and the process of information collection, storage, processing, and retrieval, during an emergency-transportation, is remaining manual and time-consuming. Emergency doctors mostly lack patient’s health records and base the medical treatment on a set of collected information including information provided by the patient or his relatives. Hence, the emergency care delivery is more patient-centered than patient-centric information. Wireless body area network and Internet of Technology (IoT) enable accurate collection of data and are increasingly used in medical applications. This chapter discusses the challenges facing the emergency medical care services delivery, especially in the developing countries. It presents and discusses an IoT platform for a patient-centric-information-based emergency care services delivery. The study is focused on a case of road traffic injury. Results of conducted experiments are discussed.",book:{id:"6655",slug:"medical-internet-of-things-m-iot-enabling-technologies-and-emerging-applications",title:"Medical Internet of Things (m-IoT)",fullTitle:"Medical Internet of Things (m-IoT) - Enabling Technologies and Emerging Applications"},signatures:"Thierry Edoh",authors:[{id:"234682",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Thierry",middleName:null,surname:"Edoh",slug:"thierry-edoh",fullName:"Thierry Edoh"}]},{id:"60889",title:"Biomarkers Utility for Sepsis Patients Management",slug:"biomarkers-utility-for-sepsis-patients-management",totalDownloads:1446,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Sepsis is a global problem in either developing or developed countries and it is expected that the number of patients with sepsis and septic shock will tremendously increase in next decades also because of the antibiotic resistance growing issue worldwide. Criteria for sepsis diagnosis and prognosis have been recently established, but still a further understanding of the role of biomarkers in this setting is needed. Better utilization of biomarkers such as white blood cell count, CRP, lactate, procalcitonin, presepsin and bioadrenomedullin in sepsis patients, a state of the art on how to use them is needed. This review will focus on the actual recognized role of sepsis biomarkers not only for diagnosis purpose but also to improve patients treatment results in order to reduce mortality, hospital length of stay and cost related.",book:{id:"6566",slug:"biomarker-indicator-of-abnormal-physiological-process",title:"Biomarker",fullTitle:"Biomarker - Indicator of Abnormal Physiological Process"},signatures:"Agustin Iskandar, Hani Susianti, Muhammad Anshory and Salvatore\nDi Somma",authors:[{id:"187348",title:"Prof.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Somma",slug:"salvatore-di-somma",fullName:"Salvatore Di Somma"},{id:"230421",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Anshory",slug:"muhammad-anshory",fullName:"Muhammad Anshory"},{id:"230444",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Agustin",middleName:null,surname:"Iskandar",slug:"agustin-iskandar",fullName:"Agustin Iskandar"},{id:"230467",title:"Dr.",name:"Hani",middleName:null,surname:"Susianti",slug:"hani-susianti",fullName:"Hani Susianti"}]},{id:"62000",title:"Biomarkers in Breast Cancer",slug:"biomarkers-in-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:1673,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women and its incidence experienced an important increase, thanks to the introduction of a systematic screening. The increased incidence of early breast cancer has led to debates on its over-treatment, which may cause unnecessary harm to patients with favorable prognosis. Therefore, modern research is in the quest of finding the perfect prognostic marker to avoid overtreatment in patients with a favorable prognosis. In this perspective, many molecular markers have been studied in the last decades in order to provide both a useful prognostic tool, able to determine whether the cancer is likely to be indolent or aggressive, and a possible therapeutic target. In this chapter, we review the current knowledge about the principal biomarkers, which are usually immunohistochemically tested on breast surgical specimens, including ER and PR, Mib1/Ki-67 and HER2/neu expression. Furthermore, we will analyze other possible prognostic markers which may have in the future a key role in breast cancer management, such as several multigene panels (OncotypeDX, Mammaprint, NanoString Prosigma). Finally, we will discuss the role of genetic tests for some know genetic mutations associated with higher breast cancer susceptibility (BRCA1 and 2 genes).",book:{id:"6566",slug:"biomarker-indicator-of-abnormal-physiological-process",title:"Biomarker",fullTitle:"Biomarker - Indicator of Abnormal Physiological Process"},signatures:"Serena Bertozzi, Ambrogio P Londero, Luca Seriau, Roberta Di Vora,\nCarla Cedolini and Laura Mariuzzi",authors:[{id:"74447",title:"Dr.",name:"Ambrogio P",middleName:null,surname:"Londero",slug:"ambrogio-p-londero",fullName:"Ambrogio P Londero"},{id:"167094",title:"Dr.",name:"Serena",middleName:null,surname:"Bertozzi",slug:"serena-bertozzi",fullName:"Serena Bertozzi"},{id:"234965",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberta",middleName:null,surname:"Di Vora",slug:"roberta-di-vora",fullName:"Roberta Di Vora"},{id:"234970",title:"Prof.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Mariuzzi",slug:"laura-mariuzzi",fullName:"Laura Mariuzzi"},{id:"234971",title:"Dr.",name:"Carla",middleName:null,surname:"Cedolini",slug:"carla-cedolini",fullName:"Carla Cedolini"},{id:"235400",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Seriau",slug:"luca-seriau",fullName:"Luca Seriau"}]},{id:"60624",title:"Neutrophil/Lymphocyte Ratio, Platelet/Lymphocyte Ratio, and Mean Platelet Volume for Detection of Resectable Pancreas Cancer",slug:"neutrophil-lymphocyte-ratio-platelet-lymphocyte-ratio-and-mean-platelet-volume-for-detection-of-rese",totalDownloads:960,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Several biomarkers have been preferred for the early diagnosis of pancreatic adenocancer (PAC), but most are not ready to be included as part of the routine diagnostic algorithm because they still lack sensitivity, specificity or reproducibility. CA19-9 is the most widely used serum-based marker for the diagnosis and follow-up of pancreatic cancer. However, CA19-9 lacks sensitivity for early or small-diameter pancreatic cancers. For more than 3 decades, information on neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio (NLR), platelet/lymphocyte ratio (PLR), mean platelet volume (MPV) has been widely available to health care practitioners, as part of the data provided in the full blood count. However, these biomarkers have more than used in the routine. The present chapter shares the prognostic significance of the hematological parameters in the light of our own findings and recent studies in the literature.",book:{id:"6566",slug:"biomarker-indicator-of-abnormal-physiological-process",title:"Biomarker",fullTitle:"Biomarker - Indicator of Abnormal Physiological Process"},signatures:"Kemal Turker Ulutas, Inanc Samil Sarici and Ozgul Duzgun",authors:[{id:"213868",title:"Dr.",name:"Samil",middleName:null,surname:"Sarici",slug:"samil-sarici",fullName:"Samil Sarici"},{id:"214666",title:"Dr.",name:"Ozgul",middleName:null,surname:"Duzgun",slug:"ozgul-duzgun",fullName:"Ozgul Duzgun"},{id:"226644",title:"M.D.",name:"Kemal Turker",middleName:null,surname:"Ulutas",slug:"kemal-turker-ulutas",fullName:"Kemal Turker Ulutas"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1016",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/297586",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"297586"},fullPath:"/profiles/297586",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()