Biometric characteristics of bamboo and other natural fibers.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83969-558-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-557-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-559-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"97b6de623f15598880112f6bafedc3e1",bookSignature:"Dr. Robert M.X. Wu",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11916.jpg",keywords:"Business Models, E-commerce Marketing Strategy, E-commerce Business Models, Digital Transformation, Business Intelligence, E-business Applications, Research, Information System Management, Marketing Management, Electronic Commerce, Internet Marketing, Information Systems",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 26th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 24th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 23rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 11th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 10th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:'Dr. Wu holds a Ph.D. in e-Commerce, lectures at the School of Engineering and Technology in Australia, and is a Distinguished Professor at Shanxi Normal University, China. In 2011, Dr. Wu was recognized as a ‘Top 100 Outstanding Academic Leader for China’s Informatics’ by the China Informatics Society. He was awarded "Outstanding Contribution in Reviewing" by Q1 Journals such as Electronic Commerce Research and Applications (Elsevier).',coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"190913",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert M.X.",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"robert-m.x.-wu",fullName:"Robert M.X. Wu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190913/images/system/190913.jpg",biography:"Robert M.X. Wu has a diploma in Computer Science, a bachelor’s degree in Economics, and master’s and doctorate degrees in e-Commerce. He is currently lecturing e-commerce / Information Systems at Central Queensland University Australia (CQU). He has led more than ten industry-based research projects since 2012 and contributes to reviewing five A-level Australian Business Deans Council (ABDC) journals and Q1 journals.\r\nIn July 2011, Dr. Wu was recognized as a ‘Top 100 Outstanding Academic Leader for China’s Informatics’ by the China Informatics Society. In 2017 he was appointed Distinguished Professor at Shanxi Normal University, China. He was also awarded ‘Outstanding Contribution in Reviewing’ in 2016 and 2018 by the Electronic Commerce Research and Applications journal (Elsevier) and ‘Student Voice Commendation – EDUCATORS of THE YEAR 2020’ for Emerging Technologies in E-Business, CQU.",institutionString:"Central Queensland University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Central Queensland University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440204",firstName:"Ana",lastName:"Cink",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440204/images/20006_n.jpg",email:"ana.c@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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The recent trend of packaging that is gaining consumer’s attraction is the emergence of paper and paperboard packaging due to its effective solutions in food and beverages, healthcare, manufacturing, personal care and other industries [1]. The demand of innovative and convenient packaging features is synonymous to the changing lifestyle of people. Conversely, the growth of the pulp and paper industries has been hindered since the major raw material for pulp and paper manufacturing is wood, which is drastically depleting. The industries are saddled with various challenges from ecological protocols, energy consumption and economic survival; therefore, modified technologies that are environmentally benign and economically viable are being sought to enhance the survival of the industries through the twenty-first century and beyond. Various researchers have reported the replacement of wood with non-wood as the immediate panacea to the challenges in the pulp and paper industries. In the array of these non-woods is bamboo, which is a fast-growing monocotyledon plant found in temperate, subtropical and tropical areas with diverse groups of plant in the grass family with 75 genera and 1250 species of bamboo worldwide [2]. Conventionally, bamboo has gained commercial usage in the field of construction (poultry cages, shade blinds,), furniture and handicrafts (vegetable baskets, incense sticks, tooth picks, chopsticks, skewers, barbeque sticks and joss paper) [3].
Traditionally, being one of the oldest materials used worldwide with wide applicability, bamboo industry is a flourishing business especially at the small-scale level. Since the engine that drives the growth of any economy is the small-scale industries, bamboo business plays a very significant role in the overall growth of an economy. Statistics revealed that of all forests in the world, bamboos occupy approximately 36 million hectares at the rate of present expansion of 3.2% of total forest area [4]. Bamboo can be divided into four regions based on supply chain in various continents of the world and this include Asia-Pacific bamboo region (India, China, Indonesia, Myanmar and Malaysia) [5, 6], which contributes about 65% global supply of bamboo. This is closely followed by American bamboo region (North American and Latin American countries) which contributes about 28% and African bamboo region which contributes about 7% supply. Asia-Pacific bamboo region is expected to continue to dominate the global bamboo market both in terms of value and volume by 2027. Consequently, the cumulative average growth rate (CAGR) of bamboo is projected at 11.8% CAGR. Hence by the end of 2027, nearly three-fourth of global bamboo revenue will be accounted by the region [7]. This projection is based on the versatility of bamboo entrepreneurship, which ramifies wood and furniture (timber substitute, plywood, mat boards, flooring, furniture, outdoor decking), construction (scaffolding, housing, roads), food (bamboo shoots), pulp and paper, textile, agriculture, charcoal and handicrafts, regarded as being one of the key instruments in uplifting the socio-economic status of the poor and underprivileged people in a community. Being the largest consumer of lignocellulose biomass, pulp, paper and paper packaging industries are expected to benefit from this wide availability of bamboo.
Amid the collection of non-wood natural fibers, bamboo has gained wide applicability in pulp and paper industry. Several reports on the potential of bamboo revealed its potential as a better raw material for pulp and paper packaging because of its long fiber, since the fiber length is an important factor in paper making. The fiber length is similar with what is obtained in softwood fiber properties, hence making bamboo as an ideal replacement in pulp and paper manufacture. For instance, the fiber length has impacts on the physical and mechanical properties of paper such as tear strength and folding endurance. These spectra of properties make bamboo very economical in terms of management and can easily be transported to the pulp and paper mills [8].
The large lumen width and fiber diameter characteristic of bamboo contribute positively to the effective beating process [9]. Like other wood species bamboo fibers have many similar benefits than wood such as: (1) bamboo can be chipped in a similar manner to wood, (2) bamboo is a low-cost crop due to low maintenance, (3) bamboo chips can be blended with wood chips and (4) bamboo is a fast-growing fiber source. Almost all studies suggested that papers made from bamboo are relatively stronger than those made from softwood. Successful development of bamboo pulping requires a technology which is able to exploit the full potential of this raw material. Specifically, this means that selectivity in pulping and bleaching has to be on a high level resulting in pulps with high yield and good strength properties.
Table 1 shows the biometric characterization of the studied bamboo (
Biometric parameters | Type of fibers | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cotton stalk | Spruce | ||||
FL (μm) | 1980 ± 3.3 | 1890 | 840 | 810 | 19 |
FD (μm) | 17.27 ± 3.7 | 3.45 | 10.1 | 16.75 | 10 |
LD (μm) | 8.66 ± 2.3 | 6.78 | 4.4 | 4.12 | 4.5 |
CWT (μm) | 0.86 ± 0.20 | 3.93 | 0.87 | 0.49 | 0.9 |
Runkel ratio | 50.14 ± 3.6 | 20.29 | 53.15 | 67.05 | 52.63 |
Flexibility ratio | 114.64 ± 3.6 | 111.2 | 44.21 | 32.42 | 152.63 |
Slenderness ratio | This study | [10] | [11] | [12] | [13] |
Biometric characteristics of bamboo and other natural fibers.
FL = fiber length, FD = fiber diameter, LD = lumen diameter, CWT = cell wall thickness, Runkel ratio = (2 × CWT)/LD, Flexibility ratio = (LD/FD) × 100, Slenderness ratio = (FL/FD).
Many studies have reported that the fiber length of bamboo is generally greater than hardwood and is similar to softwood [14]. Fiber length may actually be a detriment to good strength properties, as in the case of certain non-wood fibers, such as bamboo, bagasse and cotton. In such a case, fibers are longer than 2 μm [15]. The long fibers are covered with fibrils, fines, and the large fibrils effectively serve to bridge the gaps between the naturally rough surfaces of adjacent fibers. In this way, long fibers have an effect on the strength of a bond and especially its toughness, which is characteristic of the bonds between natural paper making fibers and which is completely lacking with bonds between smooth viscose fibers. On the other hand, water drains from long fiber pulps more rapidly, and this is a point in their favor. Therefore, for pulp and paper production, species with higher fiber lengths are preferred since a better fiber net can be achieved, resulting in a paper with high resistance. The biometric characteristic of
The average fiber diameter of
The chemical compositions of
Composition % | Natural fibers | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Rice straw | ||||
Holocellulose | 68.33 ± 3.7 | 70.50 | 70.90 | 74.46 |
Cellulose | 47. 67 ± 3.4 | 43.30 | 48.20 | 44.31 |
Lignin | 26. 00 ± 2.3 | 24. 50 | 17.20 | 25.20 |
Solvent extraction | 3.64 ± 3.2 | 3.90 | 3.50 | 3.40 |
1% NaOH | 19.82 ± 3.5 | 25.10 | 49.20 | 10.26 |
HWS | 5.53 ± 1.2 | 6.50 | 16. 20 | 2. 81 |
CWS | 4. 61 ± 1.4 | — | 10.70 | 1.47 |
Ash | 1.98 ± 0.33 | 1.40 | 16.60 | 0.32 |
Silica | 1.56 ± 0.25 | — | 14.90 | — |
Reference | Present study | [17] | [18] | [19] |
Comparison of the chemical compositions of bamboo with other natural fibers.
SE = solvent extractives (ethanol-benzene), HWS = hot water solubility, CWS = cold water solubility, and 1% NaOH = 1% sodium hydroxide solubility.
The mechanical properties of final paper are related to the amount of hemicellulose and cellulose contents of raw materials. In addition, polysaccharides such as cellulose and hemicellulose have a positive effect on pulp yield of alkaline pulping process [21]. Raw material with more than 34% of cellulose content can be used for pulp and paper production [22]. The cellulose content of
The lignin content of
Traditionally, kraft pulping has been the most commonly reported pulping milieu for bamboo species [33]. This is due to its strong bundle sheathes, impenetrable epidermis, a complete absence of ray cells and limited area of conducting tissues. As good as this pulping technique is, it is saddled with a lot of environmental legislative issues. The present paradigm shift in the pulp and paper making toward environmental benign pulping has informed the search for better pulping method for bamboo species.
The conventional commercial pulping procedures of annual plants include both kraft and soda pulping. The major drawback of these pulping protocols is that in the case of alkaline cooking liquors, apart from the delignification process, significant decomposition of carbohydrates portion of the lignocellulose biomass is observed by peeling-off reactions and alkaline hydrolysis. Optimum alkaline cooking condition is pertinent as excess alkaline loading could result in lowering of the ISO brightness due to the concept of alkaline darkening. Furthermore, sodium hydroxide easily dissolves phenolic lignin structures; besides, lignin undergoes condensation reactions under strong alkaline conditions which reduce the reactivity of residual lignin. In the like manner, strong alkaline cooking liquors dissolve high silica content of annual plants and precipitates evaporation problems in soda recovery boilers and in the causticizing plant [34].
In contrast, conventional kraft pulping has been used commercially for paper packaging from annual plants such as wood and some bamboo species, due to good paper properties. Kraft pulping has been found suitable for all ranges of fiber sources. It gives paper of high tensile strength and also high efficiency of the recovery of cooking chemicals [35]. In non-phenolic lignin moieties only β-ethers are cleaved. This has also an impact on bleaching. Among the disadvantages of kraft pulping process, low yield pulp, high consumption of bleaching chemicals, emission of obnoxious odor from the pulping process and large mill size require a tremendous capital investment.
Compared to soda pulps, soda/anthraquinone (soda/AQ) pulps have slightly better bleaching ability, higher yield and sometimes better strength. Similarly, alkali sulfite pulping had been known to give good strength properties and significantly higher yields than kraft process [36]. The addition of anthraquinone helped to reduce Kappa number from the unbleached pulp.
In order to overcome the abovementioned challenges, Patt and Kordsachia [37] discovered that the addition of methanol or ethanol extended delignification to levels below kraft or sulfite pulps. They named their process as alkali-sulfite-anthraquinone methanol (ASAM). Unlike the conventional pulping protocols, ASAM pulping process has dual advantages of paper properties and higher pulp brightness. In addition, ASAM pulping results in pulp with high pulp yield, low Kappa number and high paper strength. Furthermore, the obnoxious odor from methyl mercaptan that is generated during kraft pulping is completely absent in ASAM pulping.
Alkaline sulfite anthraquinone with methanol pulping known as the ASAM process was developed by Patt and Kordsachia in 1986 as an alternative cooking process option for soda and kraft pulping processes. According to the authors, the chemical materials that make up the ASAM process are sodium sulfite (Na2SO3), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), anthraquinone (AQ) and methanol (CH3OH). These materials play a unique role in the pulping milieu because, sodium sulfite and sodium hydroxide are the major ingredients of the alkaline sulfite process while the anthraquinone and methanol act as catalysts to enhance the chemical penetration delignification of the lignocellulose biomass. Table 3 shows the characteristics of cooking parameters in the ASAM pulping process, while Table 4 gives a summary of the key role of each chemical constituent in ASAM blend.
Cooking parameters | Value |
---|---|
Total alkali (NaOH) | 20–25 o.d |
Alkali ratio (Na2SO3/NaOH) or (Na2CO3/NaOH) | 80/20–70/30 |
Anthraquinone (AQ) | 0.075–0.1% |
Methanol | 10–15 by vol |
Temperature | 175–180°C |
Cooking time at maximum temperature | 120–180 min |
Cooking parameters | Significance |
---|---|
Total alkali (NaOH) | Accelerant delignification Increases the cooking PH |
Alkali ratio (Na2SO3/NaOH) or (Na2CO3/NaOH) | Sodium hydroxide accelerant delignification in comparison with sodium carbonate Sodium sulfite changed lignin to solvable material Sodium carbonate generates pulp with the strongest tensile index, highest pulp yield, and highest brightness than sodium hydroxide |
Anthraquinone (AQ) | Enhances the delignification rate Act as effective stabilizer in both wood and non-wood polysaccharides |
Methanol | Enhances chemical penetration into the woody chips Methanol improves the solubility of the AQ |
ASAM cooking parameters and their role.
Raw material | Pulping parameters | Total yield | Kappa no. | Tensile index (Nm/g) | Burst index (kPa.m2/g) | Tear index (mN.m2/g) | Brightness (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bamboo ( | NaOH: 16%; AQ: 0.1% Methanol: 15% Na2SO3/NaOH: 80/20 T: 90 min; Temp: 170°C | 49.06 | 14.17 | 20.86 | 10.83–9.27 | 20.86 | 39.32 | Present Study |
NaOH: 17%; AQ: 0.1% Na2SO3/NaOH: 70/30 T: 120 min; Temp: 175°C | 52.6 | 15.5 | 101.9 | 7.4 | 9.4 | 41.9 | [54] | |
Whole jute plant | NaOH: 22%; AQ: 0.1% Na2SO3/NaOH: 80/20 Methanol: 25% T: 60 min; Temp: 170°C | 56.6 | 39.2 | — | 3.2 | 11.2 | 45 | [55] |
NaOH: 22.5%; AQ: 0.1% Methanol: 25% Na2SO3/NaOH: 80/20 T: 135 min; Temp: 180°C | 56.7 | 16.6 | 53.8 | — | 4.2 | 56.6 | [56] | |
0.1%; Methanol: 10% Na2SO3/NaOH: 80/20 T: 120 min; Temp: 170°C | 51 | — | 59.4 | 4.8 | 3.8 | 45.9 | [57] | |
NaOH: 25%; AQ: 0.1% Methanol: 30% Na2SO3/NaOH: 70/30 T: 90 min; Temp: 170°C | 53.4 | 17 | — | — | — | 36 | [58] | |
NaOH: 17%; AQ: 0.1% Methanol: 20% Na2SO3/NaOH: 80/20 T: 120 min; Temp: 180°C | 52.8 | 13.4 | 47.4 | 4.8 | 10.7 | — | [59] |
Effects of ASAM pulping parameters on pulp and paper properties of various types of lignocellulosic materials.
AQ = anthraquinone, T = time, Temp = temperature.
The mechanism of ASAM pulping process can be viewed with respect to the cooking parameters.
Sodium sulfite and sodium hydroxide are two major active constituents in ASAM pulping process playing the dual role of delignification and increasing pulp brightness. Several research trials toward the effect of replacement of sodium hydroxide with sodium carbonate or sodium peroxide in the ASAM pulping process have been reported. The advantage of sodium hydroxide in ASAM pulping is that NaOH tends to accelerant delignification than sodium carbonate; furthermore, by applying NaOH as a source of alkali charge, the initial pH of the white cooking liquor enhances leading to the dissolution of more lignin and carbohydrates (hemicellulose) [38].
Apart from the substitution of sodium hydroxide with sodium carbonate in ASAM pulping, attempt has been made with the use of sodium peroxide. It was reported that sodium carbonate substitution gave better pulp products due to the fact that the sodium carbonate-substituted ASAM mixture gave pulp with the stronger tensile index, higher pulp yield and higher brightness [39] due to greater delignification process. This results from the fact that solution of acid soluble lignin contributed to lignin dissolution. The relatively low pH of spent liquor at high temperature results in the partial cleavage of α-ether bonds in lignin [40, 41]. On the other hand, the use of alkaline sodium sulfite as an additive in the ASAM process produces a low Kappa number, high pulp yield and high brightness. In addition, the production cost is also significantly reduced and the total alkalinity consumption becomes less [38].
The addition of anthraquinone (AQ) in white cooking liquor increases the delignification rate due to the rate of decrease in the lignin content of wood or non-wood as the alkali consumption during the alkaline pulping process progresses. This can be divided into three phases: (1) initial reaction, (2) bulk delignification and (3) residual delignification.
In the initial reaction phase, alkali is consumed in deacetylation reaction, in neutralization of wood or non-wood acids and in dissolution of readily soluble wood or non-wood carbohydrate components (hemicellulose, tannins, etc.); hence, very little actual delignification occurs. More lignin is eliminated in the period of bulk delignification phase. This elimination occurs much more quickly than the third stage (residual delignification) [41, 42]. As a result, the proportion of lignin removal in polysaccharides happens slowly. Thus, this is only true when a sufficient amount of alkali charge is available. Thereupon, by adding AQ to the cooking liquid, more alkalinity can be stored for the bulk delignification volume and more lignin can be removed [38, 42]. On the other hand, AQ has the role of an effective stabilizer in both wood and non-wood polysaccharides. AQ is effective at extremely lower dosage levels of 0.05–0.1% on oven-dry wood, giving good results in most cases [43].
The addition of methanol at the initial pulping stage enhances chemical penetration into the woody chips by increasing the solubility of lignin, subsequently, producing a uniform (homogeneous) chemical performance in the cooking time and also suppresses the dissociation of the inorganic pulping chemicals. The trapped air from the woody cells could be removed by raising the pressure of the digester, thus accelerating the penetration of chemicals into the wood cells [44, 45].
In ASAM pulping, it is important to ensure that alkali has penetrated into the center of the chip prior to rising the temperature above 140°C, since undesirable lignin condensation reactions can occur at high temperatures in the absence of alkali [46, 47]. The use of methanol is preferred over ethanol in ASAM pulping protocol because of the lower boiling point that results in lower energy consumption for recovery. In addition, compared to ethanol, methanol has less viscosity, polarity and surface tension. The low surface tension and increased pressure, together with the ability of methanol to dissolve resins, have a positive impact on the penetration of chemicals into the chips [48, 49].
Apart from enhancing chemical penetration during pulping, Sridach [50] discovered that methanol also improves the cellulose stability in the ASAM pulping, hence producing pulp with higher viscosity. This was achieved by suppressing, stopping the reaction or slowing down the transformation of the cellulose aldehydic functional groups into keto groups that initiate the peeling reaction. Due to the use of methanol in the cooking liquor, more penetration of chemicals into the chips occurs. Raising pressure of the digester and more air removal of chips are the two main ways of improving the penetration of chemical materials into wood or non-wood chips. Therefore, adding methanol while an ASAM cooking liquor is in the process of penetrating the chips leads to a higher pressure of the digester. As a result, the entrapped air of the chips is displaced, and chemical materials can penetrate into both wood and non-wood chips. Consequently, more delignification happens and fibers can be easily separated [51].
In comparison with kraft pulping process, the ASAM pulping process has a higher digester pressure of 1.3–1.4 MPa and the cooking temperature of 5–10° [42]. Several studies have considered the application of ASAM in the cooking process of both hard and soft wood. Moradbak et al. [42] reported that E
Several reports have shown some of the unique advantages of ASAM pulping process. These include (i) prevention of air pollution, (ii) high delignification rate, (iii) high brightness of pulp, (iv) high pulp yield and (v) ease of pulp bleaching [53].
A review of the reactivity of alkaline sulfite anthraquinone and methanol (ASAM) pulping process shows that the information available is relatively scarce, fragmented and yet to gain adequate commercial applications. Previous studies have focused on either sodium-anthraquinone (Soda/AQ) pulping or alkaline sulfite-anthraquinone (AS/AQ) pulping. In pulping process, the parameters that are of most significance with respect to delignification and polysaccharide removal are alkali charge and cooking time [42, 47]. In addition, ASAM pulping process has better selectivity in comparison to kraft or soda pulping processes in terms of delignification, which leads to low Kappa number and high viscosity. Few studies have considered the application of ASAM in the cooking process of both hard and soft wood. Table 5 gives the summary of the reported pulping of lignocellulose biomass using ASAM pulping process on different lignocellulose biomass compared with the ASAM pulped bamboo (
The tear, tensile and burst indices of unbleached bamboo ASAM paper were within the range of 26.33–18.64 mN.m2/g, 24.8–17.87 Nm/g and 10.83–9.27 kPa.m2/g, respectively, which is suitable for packaging paper. The study revealed that the optimum ASAM pulping parameters were at 16% NaOH and 90 min cooking time, resulting in paper having tensile index of 20.86 Nm/g, tear index of 22.64 mN.m2/g and brightness of 39.32%. Another advantage of this pulping process is to produce pulp with a low proportion of rejected material. Aldonic acid, which is present as a result of isolation from pulp hydrolyzates, indicates that stabilization takes place through conversion of the end group to the acid out of an oxidation reaction [42, 60]. Therefore, according to role of AQ and methanol in ASAM pulping process, one can expect high yields of ASAM bamboo unbleached pulp.
The study determined the technical feasibility of bamboo culms (
The authors are thankful to the Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), and the Higher Institution Centre of Excellence (HICoE) Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia, Grant No. 6369107. Additional thanks are extended to the School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) and the Federal Institute of Industrial Research Oshoidi Nigeria for technical support.
The Millennial generation (born 1982–2003), whose dominating presence will make its behaviors the major motif of corporate life in the next decade, are quickly taking on leadership roles [1, 2]. The research indicates that this generation of emergent leaders lack managerial experience, thus their leadership skills are not fully developed. This means that Millennials are being promoted into managerial roles before they are ready and there is a need for ongoing mentorship and coaching to deepen their leadership skills [3, 4, 5].
Learning and development opportunities are one of the top things Millennials are looking for in an organization. They want to work for an organization that offers enough development opportunities that will allow them to grow and improve their skills [6, 7]. Besides, they do not see development and training programs offered to them as a sign of weakness, but rather a path to greatness, so to offer them leadership development training will not only make them better managers but will also excite them [4]. However while this generation has different preferences from prior generations; in terms of how they prefer to learn and how they view the programs they are offered, the organizations who would like to retain millennial talent cater to their unique needs rather than forcing them to fit into pre-existing patterns and practices. Millennials have been taught a postmodern worldview, which makes them have very different ideas about leadership and may lead to some disruption to traditional leadership. They also have different expectations of leadership development programs. Thus, the organizations should create innovative approaches to effective leadership development and offer adequate leadership development for these leaders. This will help their transition into leadership roles so that they are better positioned for success and they will provide long-term value to their organization [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15].
While leadership learning and development initiatives are increasingly becoming complex in nature, organizations are using innovative and unusual approaches [16]. Innovative leadership development programs are effective, efficient, and establish true leaders because they focus on the stepwise completion of objective assignments that align with business strategy [17]. The present study aims to confirm that leadership development is a continuous process that can take place anywhere [18] and constitutes an answer to the call of Hamilton and Bean [19] who suggest further systematic study of leadership development that will lead to a better understanding of how to create shared meaning in context. Thus it suggests to move away from traditional leadership development courses and develops the core learning experiences from a diverse domain namely marathon running. Leadership and marathon running together provide a knowledge base that integrates understandings from diverse domains with closely linked field experiences to bridge theory and practice. As several authors have established that marathon running and leadership development share experiential commons (e.g. [20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34]), this paper introduces marathon running as an opportunity for human resources executives to facilitate leadership development for the millennial leaders and builds a theoretical foundation for academic studies.
This chapter consists of two main headings. In “Theoretical Background” section, first, the relevant literature on constructivist learning theory, learning transfer and learning transfer from the perspective of constructivist theory are explained. Then leadership development for the millennial generation and how marathon running is handled as a leadership development strategy in the literature are determined. The “Conclusion” section summarizes the results of the investigation and the results of different studies that support the present investigation’s results. At the end of the paper, practical implications for leaders and organizations are suggested.
The contemporary movements in the philosophy of science converge on the idea that knowledge must not be considered an objective representation of an external observer-independent environment ([35], p. 135). Constructivism is a philosophical view on how people come to understand or know ([36], p. 31). Constructivism generally casts learners in an active role. Instead of just listening, reading and working through routine exercises, they discuss, debate, hypothesize, investigate and take viewpoints ([37], p. 7). In this way, they are encouraged to constantly assess how the activity is helping them gain understanding. In ideally becoming “expert learners” by questioning themselves and their strategies, they obtain ever-broadening tools to keep learning [38].
Currently, many organizations are replacing the traditional classroom-teaching style of training with the constructivist problem-based learning style in professional training. Professional trainers prefer the problem-based learning system, because it facilitates learner autonomy and easier curriculum negotiation. Furthermore, when it is combined with small group work, it includes communication and collaborative skills that are missing in traditional professional education [39].
Learning is a process of acquiring ideas, applying these ideas, embodying the ideas, reflecting on our experiences, and refining ourselves and our practice (Yeomans as cited in [40], p. 10). A central and enduring goal of training is to provide learning experiences that are useful beyond the specific conditions of initial learning ([41], p. 431). Transfer of learning refers to the use of past learning when learning something new and the application of that learning to both similar and new situations ([42], p. xiii). In the organizational training and development programs, learning transfer occurs when the learned behavior is generalized to the job context and maintained over a period of time on the job ([43], p. 63). As Fogarty et al. [44] claim, real transfer happens when people carry over something they learned in one context to a significantly different context.
While transfer of learning is the very foundation of learning, thinking, and problem solving ([42], p. xiii) and while transfer is theoretically indistinguishable from learning ([45], p. 109), there is no more important topic in the whole psychology of learning than transfer of learning ([46], p. 2).
Transfer of learning enables the application of knowledge learned in one setting or for one purpose to another setting and/or purpose ([47], p. 235). According to constructivist learning theory, the learner is extremely open to new knowledge and reconstructs the information he/she acquired in his/her mind by comparing with the old information and thus begins to understand the world around him/her better ([48], p. 44). Several authors consider learning transfer from a constructivist perspective, where it is highly dependent on how a learner is able to personally integrate and apply lessons learned ([49], p. 86). Thus, it can be asserted that the aim of research on learning transfer is identical to the aim of constructivist approaches that deal with the problem of flexible applicability of knowledge ([50], p. 316). The principles of constructivist theory are also important in the context of adult approaches to learning and have important implications for learning transfer ([51], p. 9).
Although an important characteristic of learning transfer is that it does not necessarily require content overlap between the different domains [52], when the knowledge transfer in human intelligence is examined, it can be found that the individuals do not rely on low-level relatedness to transfer knowledge across domains. They are able to make analogy across different domains by resolving the high level structural similarities even when the learning domains are seemingly irrelevant. Understanding of these structural similarities helps to abstract away the details specific to the domains, and build a mapping between the abstractions. The mapping builds on the high level structural relatedness of the two domains, instead of their low level literal similarities ([53], p. 513).
Millennial professionals are one of the most discussed and researched subjects of recent times ([54], p. 148). While they represent the majority of the workforce and about half of the manager population, they are the leaders of today [55]. Research reveals that these generation of leaders will need to be equipped to take leadership positions in organizations sooner than any other generation in history [56] thus training them for leadership is a business necessity now [57].
Leadership was always regarded as a challenge [58]. While the workplace has changed tremendously over the years, the need to develop strong, capable leaders to succeed in this fast-paced organizational environment has remained the same ([59], p. 10). Leadership learning and development is the critical priority in many of today’s large, global organizations. As the degree to which an organization’s leaders are effective critically affects all aspects of the business, today a more strategic and integrated approach which broadens the traditional view of leadership development and training is an absolute must ([60], p. 4; [61, 62]).
Leadership development is a highly personal learning experience that can provide new and relevant insights into one’s strengths as a leader as well as the key areas to work on for further development [63]. As previous research on generational cohorts suggests that managerial practices, human resource management practices, and development strategies should be generation-appropriate [64, 65, 66], the human resources executives should architect millennial specific development avenues that accelerate professional growth and streamline success [67].
As millennials are aces at discovering information and they do not value a piece of information for its own sake, rather for its relevance to their lives [68], they are characterized as active learners, sharing the active learning style [69, 70, 71]. Research reveals that millennial leaders want experiences, not training. Rather than traditional classroom lectures, they prefer to take action and practice in the context of their real work. They find the traditional leadership development strategies too slow and believe that there is a need to redesign the leadership strategies [72]. Maybe this is because that the Millennials never accept how things were done before and always seek a new way of doing things. Innovation is one of their most attractive stereotypes [73]. The research also revealed that they believe that their organization’s leadership development programs were aligned with its business needs. They stated that “poor content, insufficient thinking and expertise from outside sources, and a failure to make a compelling return-on-investment case” were the biggest barriers to training program effectiveness [13]. These findings reveal that the organizations require innovative solutions to create leadership development programs that the employees want and need. Focusing on what participants want is very important to designing any type of learning environment, so researchers and human resource executives need to design contemporary learning methods for the new generation leaders. Traditional leadership development programs generally offer classroom-based instruction pertaining to the theories, attributes, and behaviors of leaders ([74], p. 69). However millennials quickly tire of such training methods, especially if they do not see clear connections between the content and their day-to-day responsibilities. The classroom oriented training is now seen as obsolete, while the modern view is that the new design of training should be personalized, learner-directed, collaborative, interdisciplinary, offering strong connections to business and setting the stage for lifelong learning. Millennials are a cohort that constantly seeks inspiration and want to have fun [75, 76]. Besides, many of them are driven by competition. Thus the idea of incorporating game elements into training may keep them motivated and engaged in their continuous development. The organizations should consider offering this generation of leaders more diverse and engaging programs which will lead to an evolution in the leadership training and development approaches over time. These programs will not only make them better leaders, but will also excite them [4, 11]. These findings are consistent with the findings of the research which revealed that leadership development should not be simply an exercise in information download but the facilitation of a more self-directed learning process [63] and these programs need an update to reflect today’s working world [77]. Research also revealed that 80 percent of business leaders believe that greater innovation was needed in learning techniques used in leadership development programs [13]. While today’s world of the millennial leaders calls for a renewed focus on what constitutes genuine leadership development programs aiming to develop leaders ready to get ahead of tomorrow’s challenges, it is time to challenge the status quo and push the leadership development efforts to the next level [78]. It is a fact that a leadership development program is only as good as its practical applications [79] and effective leaders learn from significant life experiences, such as inspirational experiences. The strategy of reflection used by leaders in significant life experiences can be utilized as an effective learning tool in leadership development [80].
The organizations should respond to these issues with the enhancement of existing leadership development programs that aim to develop this new generation of leaders. In light of the above discussion and following the notion of thinking about new and creative methods to reach the hearts and minds of the millennial leaders, the present study proposes a novel approach to alleviate the problem of the traditional classroom leadership development programs. More specifically, it aims to integrate the leadership and the learning research and make a contemporary approach to learning transfer from the perspective of constructivist theory in articulating the variety of leadership behaviors desired and clarifying the way learning by an inspirational experience such as marathon running influence those behaviors.
A marathon is not just a 26.2 mile endurance race to run. In fact the marathon journey is a lot longer than that and it involves a lot more than just running [81].
Leadership is in many ways like marathon running. Numerous characteristics are adequate for both. From boardrooms to meetings, successful leaders often have many marathons against them when it comes to running, literally. Running a marathon which is seen as one of the greatest feats of human endurance [82] and the ultimate human challenge ([83], p. 348), requires continuous learning as does leadership [84]. As leadership development is a process that occurs in contexts, which are value-laden environments ([19, 85], p. 344; [86]), determinants of marathon running success may apply to leaders and offer them parameters of a life-long training regimen for success in this challenging profession of leading. Thus marathon running may constitute 26.2 miles of leadership lessons.
The most fundamental ideal required to understand learning transfer is that two tasks may differ yet share some common components, which provide the basis for intertask transfer ([87], pp. 15–16). Based on this claim, the present study offers a comprehensive list of leadership lessons one can learn by training for and completing a marathon, as well as commentary on the reasons of learning and living those lessons are a requirement for anyone who wants to be a leader.
A marathon is not just running 26.2 miles on race day. It is about putting in roughly 600 miles over a four to six month training period leading up to race day [33]. Crossing the finish line of a marathon is a great feeling. But for many, the journey of getting to the start line is more important than crossing the finish line. If a runner has decided to take up running or signed up for a marathon, he/she has completed the first step to becoming a marathon runner. A runner should not shy away from taking that first step because he/she is afraid he/she will not be able to achieve his/her goal exactly how he/she pictures it. The first step to goal setting is to have absolute belief and faith in the process [88, 89]. A runner, who gets to the start line, will get to the finish line. While we all are capable of more than we think we are, although to take the first step is also the hardest one for the leaders, a leader should not wait for the moment when everything is in perfect alignment. Once a start is made, the following steps will be slightly easier, and there begins the journey towards achieving the goal. The leader shall align with his/her leadership goal and reach forward by placing one foot in front of the other. Before he/she knows it, he/she will gain momentum and move to the next phase called “second wind”. Thus, a leader should focus a lot on getting the projects to the start line. With the support of his/her team, he/she will get it to the finish line [81, 90, 91, 92].
Running a marathon is a major commitment. It requires long periods of meticulous planning and a strict physiological and mental training regime [93]. This means several months of arduous, painstaking preparation which includes a careful diet and a regimented program of progressively longer runs [82, 94]. This is a must for the runners so that they know where they are going and that they are focused on establishing and reaching their goal. Aside from focus, it is also important for runners to have a race-day strategy which is based on training data such as total mileage, average pace and races completed during the training period. A solid strategy, careful planning, a strong focus and the ability to stay on the course are keys to success not only in running but also in leadership [95]. Goals do not only maintain motivation and desire to meet targets, but they also give the individual something tangible to aspire for and create a blueprint to stay focused and disciplined [32, 96]. Leadership involves skills, competencies and strategies that focus on collective action to achieve common goals [97, 98]. To achieve these goals, leaders should make plans so that they do not go in numerous directions, trying to figure out what to do next [34, 99]. The leaders focus their own attention because attention is the basis of the most essential of leadership skills - emotional, organizational, and strategic intelligence [100]. They also focus on ensuring the sustainable productivity of the ones in their organizations [101, 102]. By being able to remain focused at work and by careful planning, the leader gets connected to his/her sense of purpose and values.
To rise to the challenge of the marathon and complete the 26.2 mile can require speed and endurance, but most of all; it requires a huge expenditure of effort and determination [25, 95, 103]. Leadership is not different. Research shows that self-determination is essential to effective leadership based on the frequency with which attributes of self-determination are identified as elements of effective leadership [98, 104]. Leaders should have abundant passion and high intentionality. For leaders it takes steadfastness to stay determined in the face of challenges and successes ([105, 106], p. 235; [107]).
Experienced runners advise the beginners to expect the unexpected and to be prepared for it when it comes to running a marathon. Most unexpected things that happen during a marathon are like; breaking a shoelace, a heart rate monitor that will not stay on, messing up the GPS watch, chafing, wearing too little or too many clothes, cold symptoms or heat exhaustion, potty problems, blisters and black toenails, getting tripped by another runner or getting to a water station only to find out that they are out of liquid. When the unexpected occurs during a race, the runner should try not to get too upset and keep running [32, 108, 109, 110]. It is also possible that the worst happens on marathon day and the runner has to pull out, or gets injured. In such a case, he/she should try to think positively and focus on what he/she has achieved and not on what he/she has not. Top performers look at these things as learning experiences and let it be a motivation to get themselves in shape for the next opportunity. This is the time to start questioning “If I were going to do it again, what would I learn from that? What would I do differently?” and look for areas of improvement. That fires the brain towards a newer goal rather than away from it [111]. This happens also in leadership. Even the most experienced and skillful leaders have been confounded and frustrated by the inconsistent outcomes of careful planning [112]. Leaders need to keep an open mind and adjust their plan if necessary. It is the key to react to external changes, such as competition, customer feedback and new technologies [34]. A leader should also acknowledge that there will be setbacks. It is important to keep in mind that there are lessons learned from each failure [20, 113].
Although running is considered as an individual sport [114, 115] and not a team sport, no one gets to the finish line without support. Even though the runners compete individually, they often train with a training partner or in a team environment and often in opposition to their partner or teammates [116, 117]. By drawing inspiration and energy from each other, they push each other in order to achieve greater levels of performance. Furthermore, the training regimen of a runner includes gym trainers, masseurs to keep supple, pilates instructors, nutritionists, coaches and podiatrists. On the day of the marathon, there is a large psychological and small drafting advantage to running in a group, so it is better to stay with other runners [113, 118]. Besides, the committed individuals from fellow runners to friends, volunteers and spectators cheering on the marathon runner, lift the runner’s spirits and her/his chances of success by their engagement. It would have been much harder to cross the finish line without all this support [26]. Leadership is also not a solo mission; it is a team sport. Leading an organization is so complex and multi-faceted that it is dangerously misguided to believe that one person has all the superhuman qualities that some may often claim they possess. The essence of leadership is accomplishing worthy goals through the combined effort of others [24, 119, 120, 121]. Without a diverse team and broad support, the victories can be somewhat hollow [21, 122].
A key requirement for optimal marathon performance is optimal pacing. A runner needs to become a master at pacing himself/herself in order to maximize his/her potential on the marathon day [118, 123]. To avoid getting burned out he/she should not go too fast on running or should not push himself/herself too fast in the beginning or for too long [24]. Pace also matters for long-term performance in an organization. A leader should recognize that everyone in the organization is not working at exactly the same speed and while achieving results he/she should vary the pace. In order not to use his/her own individual work pace as the standard which may usually lead to unrealistic expectations and frustrated co-workers, he/she should sometimes pause the action and create some space in the intervals between major events. In this way, energy may be conserved across the organization to lead high levels of performance for the long haul [124, 125, 126].
Marathon runners are not born. They are made. They train to become marathon runners. When a runner starts training for a marathon, unless he/she regularly runs that kind of distance (26.2 miles), he/she starts off being unable to run it. As capabilities build over time; the body transforms slowly to handle more running at faster speeds. That is the way of becoming a better runner [113, 127, 128, 129]. What makes runners and leaders is their willingness to learn and push themselves. Leadership also takes practice. The effective leaders grow in their roles. Through continuous learning and practicing, they enhance their strength, stamina and effectiveness as a leader. As they practice and develop their leadership endurance, they can run a bit longer than their last time [22, 28, 34, 84, 130].
Running a marathon requires a set of principles regarding physiology, psychology, nutrition and training [131, 132]. Like marathon runners, leaders require a set of principles that guide their actions and activities. This set of principles can be referred to as leadership ethics [84]. As ethics is the heart of leadership ([133, 134], p. 14), leading without ethics is no leadership at all [135].
Many spectators will see runners hunched over throughout the marathon, but even more so near the end. The reason is the increase in the amount of lactate in their muscles, which results in cramps. Lactate builds up when a runner burns glucose at a faster rate than he takes in oxygen, for instance, during the final sprint. Towards the end of a marathon is also when the effects of tissue damage on the muscles and joints really start to be felt, too. Unfortunately this damage is unavoidable. Resilient runners can cope with adversity and complete the marathon because they have the psychological ability to cope with both physical and mental fatigue. As the mind has great influence over the body, if the mind does not give up, the body will follow no matter how tired. Once the runner hits her/his stride, those thoughts will go away and he/she will experience a “runner’s high” ([21, 136, 137], p. 23; [138, 139]). Like marathon running, leadership will also empty one’s tank. At some point, the leaders’ natural energy which keeps them running, influencing, stable and encouraged diminishes. As a result they need to make a lot of effort with all their resources and they burn out. In order to be able to respond to challenges and finally not burn out, a leader should keep in mind that they have unused reserves and push themselves, often one mile at a time. Otherwise, they will not realize or experience the depths of those reserves [28, 33, 140, 141].
A marathon is a massive physical challenge for the body. Recovery and self-renewal are absolutely essential and as important as activity [20, 142, 143]. Thus, following the marathon training cycle, a runner needs to spend a fair amount of time not running and instead resting, recovering and recuperating, both mentally and physically. Furthermore he/she should prevent injury and maintain hard-earned fitness by slowly and gradually building back up. Muscles need time off to heal and strengthen themselves. More rest and recovery is better than less, and a recurring theme is to listen to the body and back off until it says it is ready to go. This is the time to celebrate the past success and plan for future ones. Although similarly, leaders cannot attempt to be active all the time, recovery and renewal are often ignored in business. The research shows that working long hours on a continuous basis reduces overall effectiveness [144, 145, 146]. As the leaders cannot deal effectively with challenges and cannot manage stressful situations without a baseline level of emotional well-being, they need to give themselves time to relax and recharge [130, 141, 147, 148].
The glory of the most recent run remains with the runner only for a short time. Then comes the time to do it once again. The finish line of a marathon is the start of a new one. After the recovery is over, it is time to start the next season or cycle to set new goals and build on the strengths and weaknesses of past training. As goals are made to be achieved, either for a runner or a leader, it is suggested to decide on a greater and longer term goal. For a marathon runner, this may be to run another marathon or do one in a new and exciting location. For the leader, this may be a new project or a greater organizational success. New goals are set and the cycle of “challenge and accomplish” is repeated [149].
This review reveals that there is no one trait that will guarantee the runner a marathon success, but several rules of thumb that come together to give him/her the best chance. Likewise, many studies were conducted in the area of leadership trait theories to discover a list of physical and psychological traits or qualities that account for leadership effectiveness. However, none of them has come up with a universal list of traits that all successful leaders possess, or traits that will guarantee leadership success. Although there is no list of traits that guarantees leadership success, traits that are related to leadership success have been identified ([150, 151], p. 16; [152, 153]).
This research deals with the leadership development concept from the perspective of constructivist theory from a viewpoint of learning transfer and reveals that the participants of a marathon which is regarded as one of the greatest feats of human endurance [82] and the ultimate human challenge ([83], p. 348) can develop their leadership skills which can directly be applied to today’s organizations.
Marathon running has become a popular sport globally in recent years. This can be partially reflected by the rapid growing number of marathon participants all over the world [154]. Although marathon running is one of the most demanding sports in the world, highly successful people enjoy this sport. While they have character traits such as focus and persistence, they can achieve success both in a marathon and in the business world [155]. Several studies revealed that a character trait of the millennial generation is also a desire to succeed [156, 157] and being a runner is part of their identity [158]. Thus, it is no wonder that they have been dubbed “the running generation” [159].
Sport, as a sphere of human life which is dominated by the continuous competition, naturally creates and shapes leaders [160]. Business leaders are keen to understand the athletes’ passion for excellence and translate this formula for success into the corporate world [121]. While leadership is a lifelong marathon that one must endeavor to run with distinction so that he/she may get his/her due reward [161], the leaders know that they have a long distance to run and it is not speed but other traits like stamina and endurance that will carry them through [113].
In today’s rapid-paced organizations, dynamic leaders are needed more than ever. The qualities that one has to replicate to thrive as a leader and to run a marathon are the same and marathon running has a structure similar to today’s business environment with its compelling and dynamic conditions. Today the companies are looking for ways to offer their millennial leaders enough opportunities to develop and grow in ways that fit their preferences and styles. This study provides guidance on how marathons constitute more experiential while less didactic and thus unique learning environments for the millennial leaders to develop new perceptions of what they are trying to accomplish, what are the obstacles that stand in their way, and what they can do to overcome them and thus observe the challenges they will face. Today organizations seek to extend training beyond the basics. The present study wants to encourage them to break the traditional mold in their leadership development processes to open up to new and innovative ideas on these programs by the development of a methodology of marathon running to be translated into a mindset that will improve leadership performance.
Today leaders have to go through various learning processes which have both cognitive and behavioral complexity [162]. Previous research has emphasized the value of leadership development, offered insights on leadership preparation and revealed that leadership encompasses a learned set of knowledge, skills and attitudes [163, 164]. Leadership training and development programs which include a process of learning for problem solving, decision making and strategy formulation, have become a popular technique [165, 166]. As Covey [167] claims: “No person can persuade another to change. Each of us guards a gate that can only be opened from the inside.” To ensure a positive learning transfer, a leadership development program must create the appropriate learning environment by providing learning experiences that are applied beyond the specific conditions of initial learning and make learners learn by observation, interpretation, analysis and questioning.
Running a marathon helps to build the mental skills and attitude necessary for traversing the challenges of the business. It does not only have profound benefits for mental health [168] but it also helps the individuals to develop mental toughness [169] which is a skill that the magnitude of the success of a leader depends on [170]. Furthermore, it offers a dynamic, experiential course for leadership development and opportunities to develop one’s personal leadership style to inspire his/her team, motivate the staff and transform the organization. As learning environments with strong applicability to future experiences have greater potential for a more positive transfer of learning ([171], p. 230) marathons have a positive effect on the leadership skills of the participants and contributes to leadership development. Runners also claim that marathons provide vivid leadership development lessons [23, 33]. The findings of the present study suggest the Millennial professionals, the next generation of leaders who were raised by the concept of “team dynamics” and “everyone’s a winner” in the school classroom [172], to take on new athletic challenges and run a marathon in order to make it a part of their leadership development. Although running a marathon is not on everyone’s bucket list, it is a fact that the ones in leadership roles are (metaphorically) training for marathons every day they turn up for work.
The present paper presents a contemporary approach to leadership development and suggests the organizations to design leadership programs that will benefit from the learning transfer that identifies the common factors between marathon running and leadership. Marathon running may be a brilliant idea for the leaders to undertake leadership exercises in order to stretch their leadership skills. When coupled with training classes for developing leadership competencies and specific development goals, such an assignment may constitute a wonderful platform for leadership development and a rich growth opportunity that yields many benefits to the leader as a learner. Although scholars claim that it is difficult to predict whether transfer of learning will be positive or negative in particular cases because of incomplete knowledge of what was learned originally and how the transfer task is represented ([173], p. 4), the findings of the present study support the idea that the implementing of descriptive processes of marathon running programs in leadership development programs possesses relevance to leadership development issues with elements of valuable context. The results of this study, therefore, may help break new ground in comparing the effectiveness of traditional approach versus constructivist approach in leadership development programs.
The particular frame presented in the present study supports the experiences of several others (e.g. [20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34]) that marathon running and leadership development share experiential commons. Regarding the findings of the present study, it is suggested to the human resource executives who will decide to organize such leadership development programs, to choose running programs which have levels of difficulty that suits the participants’ athletic levels and to encourage the individuals to participate these programs, even a marathon. As training for a marathon, takes planning, discipline and serious preparation, the challenge will be incredible and deliver several lessons for a leader. The leadership development programs which will combine traditional corporate classroom lessons with marathon training sessions will make the corporate leaders develop their leadership skills with their constructivist sessions. This approach also helps to eliminate the transferability issues that are typically present in leadership development programs in the corporate world and in academic settings.
There has been a considerable increase in the number of participants running marathons over the past several years [174]. Many leaders believe that a motivation to keep running is that it leads to business success by reducing stress, creating a balance in their lives and fostering a mental toughness that can bring rewards in the boardroom [175]. They are also running marathons because they are very success-oriented people and the marathons make them experience an even greater sense of achievement [176]. Previous research revealed that there is a positive relationship between leader fitness and firm value [177] and participation in sport influences leadership skills, style and career development and constitutes a powerful motivator for executives [178]. Previous research also revealed that despite the negative stigma associated with burnout resulting from marathon training, 85.7 percent of marathon runners believe that training did not negatively impact their ability to do their job. As the dedication and commitment involved in training can actually equip participants with a whole range of transferable skills that they can apply in the workplace, it can have a positive impact on overall career success. This makes marathon runners possibly even better employees [93]. These findings are consistent with the findings of the present study which reveal that marathon runners become better leaders. Despite the pain of it, running a marathon and testing the limits of the body and mind helps the leaders build the mental skills and attitude necessary for beating leadership challenges.
Written in 1908, the Olympic Creed states “The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part, just as the most important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle. The essential thing is not to have conquered but to have fought well.” [179]. True leaders understand that leadership development is a journey that never ends. And they keep in mind that success is not about finishing on top or making the most money. They are in a learning journey of constant growth, evolving and developing creative thinking capabilities and competencies. As the one who runs a marathon, runs against the distance, not against the other runners, it is more important for the leaders to learn from the journey and reach their potential [33, 180, 181, 182].
Previous research suggests that leader development programmes should be realistic and challenging while providing an opportunity for growth in knowledge and skills through self-reflections and external assessments [104, 183]. Leadership development programmes which are poorly matched to participants’ expectations can be harmful and create negative experiences ([184], p. 435). The researchers should suggest a new paradigm of leadership that will operate for the new generation leaders of the 21st century, not the old paradigm of leadership that has dominated the literature for years. Taken together, the findings of this study have significant implications for the understanding of how marathon running promotes leadership development.
Regarding the findings of the present study, the corporate marathon running programs are expected to demonstrate the ability to produce beneficial outcomes in critical areas of leadership development. However, some scholars and human resources executives may question whether these programs truly benefit leaders and their respective organizations. While the findings of the present study may speak favorably for these programs, how these changes are affected by differing cultures and organizations remains unclear. The future research should focus on the lack of clarity around these variables as well as the effectiveness of certain facilitation practices in achieving desired leadership development objectives for the organizations.
As the primary purpose of the present study is to offer new insights into leadership development of millennial leaders, the researcher hopes that the findings could help the design of these programs to become more effective in leaders of the new generation leaders.
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Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:100,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence"},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",scope:"Computational neuroscience focuses on biologically realistic abstractions and models validated and solved through computational simulations to understand principles for the development, structure, physiology, and ability of the nervous system. This topic is dedicated to biologically plausible descriptions and computational models - at various abstraction levels - of neurons and neural systems. This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",keywords:"Single-Neuron Modeling, Sensory Processing, Motor Control, Memory and Synaptic Pasticity, Attention, Identification, Categorization, Discrimination, Learning, Development, Axonal Patterning and Guidance, Neural Architecture, Behaviours and Dynamics of Networks, Cognition and the Neuroscientific Basis of Consciousness"},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Artificial Intelligence",id:"14"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 7th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:96,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/29706",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"29706"},fullPath:"/profiles/29706",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()