Green inhibitors used for corrosion inhibition of steel, steel alloys, aluminum, aluminum alloys, and other metals and alloys.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6378",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainable Buildings - Interaction Between a Holistic Conceptual Act and Materials Properties",title:"Sustainable Buildings",subtitle:"Interaction Between a Holistic Conceptual Act and Materials Properties",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'This book has been written to represent the efficient applications of sustainability upon building designs. The book intends to illustrate various techniques of action of sustainability on building conceptions. The book is divided into four parts and eight chapters. Part I "Introduction into Target Theme" includes a chapter with title "Introductory Chapter." It makes an overview of the meaning and the target of sustainable building and sustainable building material. Part II "Sustainable Building Design, Process, and Management" discusses many forms and concepts of sustainable building and includes three chapters. Part III "Sustainable Building by Using Energy Efficiency in Building Design" includes one chapter. Part IV "Sustainability in Building Materials: Study Cases" includes three chapters.',isbn:"978-1-78923-403-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-402-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-441-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69917",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"sustainable-buildings-interaction-between-a-holistic-conceptual-act-and-materials-properties",numberOfPages:180,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1bc977aee58593c6aeecb1941cae1a0e",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed and Asaad Almssad",publishedDate:"July 18th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6378.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8136,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:15,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:30,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 14th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 5th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 1st 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 30th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 28th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Prof.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110471/images/system/110471.png",biography:"Prof. Amjad Almusaed has a Ph.D. in Architecture (Environmental Design) from Ion Mincu University, Bucharest, Romania. He completed postdoctoral research in 2004 on sustainable and bioclimatic houses at the School of Architecture, Aarhus, Denmark. His research expertise is sustainability in architecture and urban planning and design. He has carried out a great deal of research and technical survey work and has performed several studies in these areas. He has edited many international books and is an active member of many worldwide architectural associations. He has published more than 170 international academic works (papers, research, books, and book chapters) in different languages.",institutionString:"Jönköping University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"10",institution:{name:"Jönköping University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"194040",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Asaad",middleName:null,surname:"Almssad",slug:"asaad-almssad",fullName:"Asaad Almssad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194040/images/system/194040.jpg",biography:"Associate Prof. Asaad Almssad has more than thirty years of experience in industry, academia, and research at Umeå University, Sweden; Karlstad University, Sweden; and various European and non-European institutions. His research focuses on building structures, materials, sustainable building, and energy efficiency in building systems. He has authored and co-authored more than fifty research papers and many books. Currently, he is employed as a docent at Karlstad University.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"705",title:"Construction Engineering",slug:"construction-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"61634",title:"Introductory Chapter: Overview of a Competent Sustainable Building",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77176",slug:"introductory-chapter-overview-of-a-competent-sustainable-building",totalDownloads:1028,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Amjad Almusaed and Asaad Almssad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61634",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61634",authors:[{id:"110471",title:"Prof.",name:"Amjad",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],corrections:null},{id:"59267",title:"A Holistic Conceptual Scheme for Sustainable Building Design in the Context of Environmental, Economic and Social Dimensions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74031",slug:"a-holistic-conceptual-scheme-for-sustainable-building-design-in-the-context-of-environmental-economi",totalDownloads:1132,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sustainable building design concept, which has emerged in the construction sector in recent years, has appeared as a response to environmental pollution caused by the construction sector. In the context of sustainable building design, it is intended to create built environment sensitive to environmental, economic, and social problems. Within the scope of this study, sustainable building design is contextualized by a holistic conceptual scheme considering aspects, strategies, criteria, and procedures of creating an environmental, economic, and social awareness by taking into account how to design sustainable buildings. According to the suggested scheme, strategies of environmentally sustainable building design aspect are classified as site efficiency, water efficiency, energy efficiency, and material efficiency; strategies of economically sustainable building design aspect are classified as resource efficiency and cost efficiency; and strategies of socially sustainable building design are classified as health and well-being and public awareness. Furthermore, related criteria for each strategy and related procedures for each criterion are determined. This scheme is intended to indicate the responsibilities of the construction sector in the context of environmental, economic, and social sustainability and to guide the actors of the construction sector and the researchers in this sense.",signatures:"Arzuhan Burcu Gültekin, Handan Yücel Yıldırım and Harun\nTanrıvermiş",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59267",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59267",authors:[{id:"143644",title:"Dr.",name:"Arzuhan",surname:"Gültekin",slug:"arzuhan-gultekin",fullName:"Arzuhan Gültekin"}],corrections:null},{id:"60689",title:"Risk Management in Construction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76341",slug:"risk-management-in-construction",totalDownloads:1649,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Construction industry have several different sectors producing heterogeneous products, which are immobile, unique, heavy and large, complex, durable and costly. Site conditions in a construction project can be unpredictable and unexpected natural events can negatively affect construction programs and schedules. Weather conditions constitute the most important and unpredictable handicap for the production process of construction. Construction projects usually executed over a long period and have large budgets. Because of this, demand for a construction project is volatile. Unpredictable site conditions and demand volatility bring high level of risk. Because of this, risk management is very important in construction. Construction insurance, surety bonds, contracts and subcontracting are the main affective solutions for the risk management. This study consists of two main sections. In the first section, characteristics of construction industry defined in detail. Secondly, the importance of risk management evaluated. In the second section, the focus of the study is the evaluation of risk management studies in construction with a broad literature review of previous researches.",signatures:"Esin Kasapoğlu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60689",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60689",authors:[{id:"189772",title:"Dr.",name:"Esin",surname:"Kasapoglu",slug:"esin-kasapoglu",fullName:"Esin Kasapoglu"}],corrections:null},{id:"58437",title:"Optimization of Building Facade Voids Design, Facade Voids Position and Ratios - Wind Condition Relation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72697",slug:"optimization-of-building-facade-voids-design-facade-voids-position-and-ratios-wind-condition-relatio",totalDownloads:782,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The air flow between building interior and the courtyard to form via natural convection in hot-dry climatic regions are achieved with the help of wind pressure in other warm-humid and hot-humid climatic areas. Therefore, it is necessary to take into consideration and to humid other openings of the building which might change the effectiveness of the air movement to form due to wind effect in courtyard buildings. Therefore, wind tunnel experimental ways were developed and examined first in this study for the purpose of gaining knowledge on the effect of the wind on the cooling load of the atrium and courtyard buildings, and information to allow pre-estimation of the air flow to take place at the surface openings of such structures. Since numerical methods would not be enough alone in particular with regard to the wind, the planned study on the models was realized via the experimental method in a wind tunnel; and also Computational Fluid Dynamics numerical analyses were realized. This is a wind tunnel experimental study for the investigation of various architectural solutions for better cooling and ventilation through examination of the air flow passing through the surface openings of courtyard structures and for revelation of the effects of those results on the cooling and ventilation load. In this context, a courtyard building model was made to experiment on. Example courtyard building models were acquired by modifying various parameters (courtyard and gap area rates) to assess the test data from the boundary layer wind tunnel of wind-supported natural ventilation event of the example model courtyard structure used in the study.",signatures:"Enes Yasa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58437",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58437",authors:[{id:"185967",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Enes",surname:"Yasa",slug:"enes-yasa",fullName:"Enes Yasa"}],corrections:null},{id:"58471",title:"Advanced Control Strategies with Simulations for a Typical District Heating System to Approaching Energy Efficiency Buildings",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72290",slug:"advanced-control-strategies-with-simulations-for-a-typical-district-heating-system-to-approaching-en",totalDownloads:657,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"District heating systems (DHSs) are very common and important in cold areas in the world not only because of the huge energy consumption including kinds of fuel, electricity and water but also due to thermal comfort of all customers. To increase the energy efficiency and improve heating quality within the operational period, suitable and optimal control strategy should be applied for the DHSs. Thus, in this chapter, a typical DHS is designed. Based on the DHS information, a dynamic model is developed by using thermodynamic principles and corrected according to the measured operational data from real systems. The DHS properties are simulated by utilizing the open-loop tests (OLTs) of the developed actual dynamic model. System performance of operation, energy consumption and zone air temperature are addressed for several control strategies. Based on the energy consumed and indoor air temperature response, average water temperature set point corrected by equivalent outside air temperature (Case 4) and indoor air temperature control directly (Case 5) are considered, which are the best cases of optimal operation in the DHS.",signatures:"Li Lian Zhong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58471",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58471",authors:[{id:"215355",title:"Dr.",name:"Lianzhong",surname:"Li",slug:"lianzhong-li",fullName:"Lianzhong Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"60126",title:"Development of Sustainable High-Strength Self-Consolidating Concrete Utilising Fly Ash, Shale Ash and Microsilica",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75508",slug:"development-of-sustainable-high-strength-self-consolidating-concrete-utilising-fly-ash-shale-ash-and",totalDownloads:815,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With high flowability and passing ability, self-consolidating concrete (SCC) does not require compaction during casting and can improve constructability. The favourable properties of SCC have enabled its widespread adoption in many parts of the world. However, there are two major issues associated with the SCC mixes commonly used in practice. First, the cement content is usually at the high side. Since the production of cement involves calcination at high temperature and is an energy-intensive process, the high cement content imparts high embodied energy and carbon footprint to the SCC mixes. Besides, the exothermic reaction of cement hydration would cause high heat generation and early thermal cracking problem that would impair structural integrity and necessitate repair. Second, the strength is usually limited to around grade 60, which is considered as medium strength in nowadays achievable norm. With a view to develop sustainable high-strength self-consolidating concrete (HS-SCC), experimental research utilising fly ash (FA), shale ash (SA), and microsilica (MS) in the production of SCC has been conducted, as reported herein.",signatures:"Pui-Lam Ng, Žymantas Rudžionis, Ivan Yu-Ting Ng and Albert Kwok-\nHung Kwan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60126",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60126",authors:[{id:"180582",title:"Dr.",name:"P.L.",surname:"Ng",slug:"p.l.-ng",fullName:"P.L. Ng"},{id:"219695",title:"Prof.",name:"Žymantas",surname:"Rudžionis",slug:"zymantas-rudzionis",fullName:"Žymantas Rudžionis"},{id:"219696",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan Y.T.",surname:"Ng",slug:"ivan-y.t.-ng",fullName:"Ivan Y.T. Ng"},{id:"219697",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert K.H.",surname:"Kwan",slug:"albert-k.h.-kwan",fullName:"Albert K.H. Kwan"}],corrections:null},{id:"59327",title:"Research on Strength, Alkali-Silica Reaction and Abrasion Resistance of Concrete with Cathode Ray Tube Glass Sand",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73873",slug:"research-on-strength-alkali-silica-reaction-and-abrasion-resistance-of-concrete-with-cathode-ray-tub",totalDownloads:1200,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, the effects on the mechanical and durability properties of concrete with cathode ray tube glass sand (CRTS) obtained by recycling the screens of cathode ray tubes (CRTs) were investigated. CRTS was used by the ratios of 5, 10, 15, and 20% in the concrete. The unit weight, workability, water absorption, compressive strength, flexural strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity, static and dynamic elastic moduli, abrasion resistance, and alkali-silica reaction (ASR) expansion tests on the concrete were examined. The use of CRTS improved specific properties of concrete according to the fraction of glass aggregate used between 0 and 20%. Plain concrete (P) and CRTS of 5% in concrete gave better results in terms of mechanical properties. Use of CRTS above 5% in concrete declined the mechanical properties but on the 90th day, CRTS concrete reduced the difference. CRTS up to 20% in concrete especially improved abrasion resistance in comparison to P without CRTS; furthermore, this addition did not increase ASR expansion to a deleterious level.",signatures:"Salih Taner Yildirim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59327",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59327",authors:[{id:"99289",title:"Dr.",name:"Salih",surname:"Yildirim",slug:"salih-yildirim",fullName:"Salih Yildirim"}],corrections:null},{id:"58636",title:"Development of Clay Plasters Containing Thermoregulating Microcapsules for Indoor Walls",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72410",slug:"development-of-clay-plasters-containing-thermoregulating-microcapsules-for-indoor-walls",totalDownloads:873,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This work shows the technical feasibility of incorporating phase change materials (PCMs) into clay plastering mortars to improve the thermal properties of the building envelopes. Due to the absence of regulated and internationally agreed-upon norms for clay mortars containing thermoregulating microcapsules (MPCMs), two tests following UNE-EN-998-1:2010 and UNE-EN-1015, were designed to provide the greatest similarity to its final application. Three different dosages 5, 10, and 15 wt% of MPCM relative to the dried mortar weight were used. Fresh mortars were physically characterized to determine its consistency, apparent density, period of workability and open time, and occluded air content. Physical and mechanical characteristics were determined for hardened mortar. The thermal characteristics of the specimens were analysed by using a differential scanning calorimetry, obtaining their apparent specific heat capacities and the enthalpy curves. Building simulation software is a fundamental tool for designing buildings with almost zero energy consumption. In this study, three identical architectural models were simulated. The reference building had inner coatings of clay-based mortar, mortar with 15% added material, and a conventional gypsum mortar. These buildings were subjected to the same exposure and radiation conditions, which allowed the result to be compared to evaluate the effect of incorporating the PCM.",signatures:"Ismael Sevilla, Francisco J. Castilla, David Sanz, José L. Serrano, Juan\nF. Rodríguez and Manuel Carmona",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58636",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58636",authors:[{id:"30881",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan",surname:"Rodriguez",slug:"juan-rodriguez",fullName:"Juan Rodriguez"},{id:"103560",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Sanz",slug:"david-sanz",fullName:"David Sanz"},{id:"208407",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",surname:"Carmona Franco",slug:"manuel-carmona-franco",fullName:"Manuel Carmona Franco"},{id:"226730",title:"Mr.",name:"Ismael",surname:"Sevilla",slug:"ismael-sevilla",fullName:"Ismael Sevilla"},{id:"226731",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",surname:"Castilla",slug:"francisco-javier-castilla",fullName:"Francisco Javier Castilla"},{id:"226733",title:"Mr.",name:"Jose Luis",surname:"Serrano",slug:"jose-luis-serrano",fullName:"Jose Luis Serrano"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited 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This makes a genuine inclination toward inbreeding. Inbreeding often results to decreased offspring wellness (e.g. more susceptible to diseases). With advance blooming, plantsare not able to utilizephrase different systems to prevent self-fertilization and thereby to generate and maintain genetic diversity within a species thus, the profoundly genuine and distinct plant kingdom, which is composed of >80% angiosperms would not exist [102, 110, 118].
Self-incompatibility (SI) is among the most important techniques utilized by many flowering crops to counteract self-fertilization and thus, generate and support genetic range inside a species. Common ancestral reports argue that SI virtually in most species may be managed by a simple polymorphic locus, the true self-incompatibility S-locus. At present, at the very least, there are two gene loci: pistil S and pollen S, therefore, the term haplotype is used to describe variants of the S-locus. Pollen inhibition occurs if the same S-haplotype is expressed equally by pollen and pistil [18].
Most
As fruit trees of the
Genetic base gametophytic self-incompatibility
In the last two years, genes for those two proteins controlling the real allele specificity of GSI acknowledgement in
The advancement of vegetable reproducing frameworks is often seen as the exchange involving the focal items and hindrances of selfing. Evolutionary professionals have since noted three favorable and crucial outcomes of selfing. To start with, there is usually a characteristic genetic transmission place of attention to selfing throughout light that the a vegetable gives a couple haploid sets of chromosomes to each one of these selfed seedling regardless may give dust to nonspecific [24]. Subsequently, selfing may cause regenerative affirmations when pollinators are rare (i.e. selfed descendants are better than no offspring) (e.g. Stebbins 1957; Schoen et al. 1996).Third, it often costs less, where vitality and various assets, to supply selfed seedling (e.g. less assets are utilized to pull and reward pollinators) [107, 108, 133].
Ribonuclease (RNase) and F-box genes were referred to as the pistil S and pollen S determinant genes, respectively (see review by [56]). Upon this discovery, the term ‘S haplotype’is used to describe the real variants in the S locus, while the term ‘allele’is used to describe the real variants in the S locus genes, pistil S and pollen S. On the real practical facet, these findings resulted to the advancement of new molecular approaches for S genotyping and SC screening process [120, 140, 141]. Molecular S genotyping and a number of marker-assisted SC offsprings are increasingly being successfully integrated in
Brewbaker (1959), in an expansive discussion of angiosperms, noted that SI has happened in no less than 71 families, and as of now, has been recorded all through around 250 to 600 genera that were explored; and the evaluation was that between 33% and another half off the blooming vegetation are self-contradictory. By and large, SI appears to have advanced no less than 21 exceptional times amid the development of blossoming vegetation [116] and a few one of a kind sorts may be recognized relying upon morphology, inherited genes, and molecular mechanism. In SI frameworks that are controlled by a single genetic locus, the locus has for every situation been termed the S-locus. It is obvious in any case, that various genes live inside of every S-locus, and the allelic complex of genes has been termed the S-haplotype.Nonetheless, it is apparent that many genes dwell within just about every S-locus, as well as the complicated allelic genes continue to be termed the real S-haplotype. Although in most of these methods, the ancestral locus has long been termed S, a variety of biochemically unique mechanisms are engaged, at very least at the degree of recognition of self- and non-self-pollen. Molecular information can be obtained for simply three types, the single-locus sporophytic and also two distinct types of single-locus gametophytic SI. In the actual sporophytic SI system of
To date, some valid inquiries on the development of stylar SRNases remain unanswered. The most pressing may be the clear originality in degrees of expansion affecting the Solanaceae and also Plantaginaceae regarding what exactly is seen inside Rosaceae. We review data concerning the structure, functions, and molecular physiology of S-RNases; attempt to integrate these results with evolutionary studies, provide new analyses of domain structure and conservation; and present new analyses of selection/recombination in S-RNases.
S-RNase-based SI genetically classified as gametophytic locus, the pistil differentiates between self and non-self-pollen based on the S-allele in the haploid pollen and meets either in the two S-alleles in the diploid pistil. The SI phenotype of pollen is determined by its own S-genotype. The rejection based on matching of S-alleles in pollen and pistil.
Pistil S-allele products were initially called basic polymorphic glycoproteins whose genetic abundance weight and isoelectric spot ranged from ~22 to 35 kDa and from ~8–10, respectively, and then further isolated together with S-alleles. These proteins are extracellular, largely confined to the upper third of the stylar transmitting tract-the site of self-pollen tube inhibition- and are developmentally correlated with the onset of SI, being absent 1 day prior to anthesis (immature pistil are self-compatible) and present at 1–10% of total protein at pollen release. S-RNase occurs at a truly high focus in completely created pistils and it has been approximated at 10–50 mg/ml inside the extracellular network of the stylar exchange tract with regard to the solanaceous type [51]. The primary quality encoding of one of these brilliant basic proteins has been cloned through
S-RNases are highly divergent, with allelic amino p sequence identities of about 30% to over 90% [125, 86]. Regardless of the excessive allelic string diversity, the real analysis of solanaceous S-RNase alleles exposed five conserved areas, from C1 to C5 (Fig. 2). C2 and C3 areas contain conserved catalytic histidine residues. Apart from C4, these regions are conserved throughout
S-RNase structure and positions of intron groupings in S-RNase DNA succession. Solanaceous and rosaceous S-RNase structures are schematically represented. Intron arrangements are ordinarily found amid the coding successions for HVa and RHV of solanaceous and rosaceous S-RNases, separately. Notwithstanding this intron, there is another intron in Prunus S-RNase, yet not in
Structural and phylogenetic analyses indicated that S-RNases in the three families share a typical origin, and so, the S-RNase-based GSI system evolved just once in eudicots [45, 131]. A single intron that is certainly common within the T2 form plant RNases is usually present inside the coding sequence in the hypervariable place of S-RNases of Solanaceae and
Gatekeeper and inhibitor models for the self-incompatibility reaction. The growth of S1 and S3 pollen tube in the S1S2 pistil is schematically described for the gatekeeper (A) and inhibitor (B) models [With permission of 118].
Several experiments of Solanaceae indicated that S-RNase exerts its cytotoxic effects inside the pollen tube through RNase action. Huang et al. (1994) confirmed that RNase action was essential for the pollen rejection response in
The gatekeeper design assumed any recognition mechanism that helped only cognate S-RNase to enter the pollen tube to to exert its cytotoxicity, while the inhibitor design assumed the real presence of an inhibitor that inactivated the cognate S-RNase. Since immunocytochemical studies with Solanum chacoense showed that S11-RNase entered pollen tubes of both compatible and incompatible S haplotypes [73], the inhibitor model and its modification, the general inhibitor model, have been generally accepted [74]. Upon real identification, the pollen S encodes an F-box protein that could be involved in proteolysis; the cytotoxic effect of the S-RNase has been considered to be evaded due to S-RNase degradation rather than inhibition of S-RNase activity [39, 127-129, 143] (Fig. 5). Even though it remains to be seen whether or not both self- and non-self-S-RNases enter the pollen tube of Rosaceae, a degradation model has been offered for pollen-pistil acknowledgement. Although as mentioned previously, S-RNases are highly polymorphic, sequence comparison in the 12 S-RNase sequences in 1991/1992 recognized five regions of conservation, known as C1 to C5 [123]. Of these, two (C2 and C3) share a high degree of sequence similarity while using corresponding regions of fungal RNases, RNase T2 [58], and RNase RH [38]. This similarity that led to the discovery that S-proteins are themselves RNases [83].
Discovery of a self-compatible S-allele in
S-RNases are glycoproteins with one or more N-connected glycan structures, increasing the likelihood that allelic specificity may be encoded with the sugar moieties inside glycan structures. This question was addressed by engineering an S-RNase gene in which the asparagine codon of the only N-glycosylation site of the protein was replaced with an aspartic codon; however, N-glycosylation site in the protein has been supplanted with the aspartic codon. Investigation of transgenic vegetation communicating this sort of mutant S-RNase indicated that non-glycosylated S-RNase has the capacity to act similarly and effectively as wild-type S-RNase by releasing dust containing exactly the same S-allele [57]. Henceforth, the advancement of S-specificity is not found inside glycan feature chains in the protein spine of S-RNases.
A set of hypervariable regions, termed HVa and HVb, was additionally uncovered by Ioerger et al. (1991). These are the numerous hydrophilic locales of the S-RNase, realizing the speculation that HVa and HVb are the prime candidates for the determinant of S-RNAse specificity [49, 124]. The crystal structure of SF11-RNase has recently been determined by X-ray diffraction [44], confirming that both HVa and HVb regions are where they might play a role in determining allelic specificity. Ishimizu et al. (1998) found four regions of rosaceous S-RNases that demonstrate a crucial abundance of non-synonymous substitution around synonymous substitution and appear to be under positive selection, of which two overlap with HVa and HVb. In an investigation of Scrophulariaceae, extremely variable HVa and HVb ranges were discovered; however, but did not find evidence of diversifying selection [131]. It can be fascinating to see that a large proportion of these proteins are communicated at abnormal states in an exceedingly short period of time in the genuine procurement of SI. To date no codon usage studies have been carried out for S-RNases from any family but is an area of research that may provide interesting results.
There are several reports of experiments employing transgenic methods to identify regions and amino acid residues involved in the encoding of allelic specificity. Chimeric S-RNase genes have been created and presented in transgenic plant life intended of the S-specificity displayed by hybrid S-RNases. Further, no gain of the new S-specificity of the donor allele was found, despite the fact that all hybrid S-RNases exhibited normal levels of RNase activity [55, 146].
A good but apparently contradictory result has been gained via a research employing a few very tightly related S-RNases (S11 and S13) of
These results seem to claim that HVa and HVb collectively are sufficient for S-haplotype specificity. However, any domain swapping experiment can only address the role of those amino acids which differ between the two proteins under study. If the outcomes of the specific three trials are obtained together, it would seem that proteins outside HVa and HVb (conserved S11-RNase and S13-RNase) are suitable to be engaged inside the allelic specificity of S-RNases [130]. Nevertheless, it is clear that the HVa and HVb areas play a vital role in encoding allelic specificity in S-RNases.
The physiology and mechanisms of GSI are actually most substantially studied in solanaceous vegetable species. The development of cDNA glycoproteins co-segregated together with S alleles was first cloned via
At one point when transgenic analyses with
As
The pollen S determinant in the S-RNase-based GSI in Rosaceae, Solanaceae, and Plantaginaceae was discovered decades after the real stylar determinant, S-RNase. The subcentromeric location in the solanaceous and plantaginaceous S locus experienced had long prevented chromosome walking [23, 142]. The first clue for the identification in the pollen S was from the S locus in the Plantaginaceae. Sequencing analysis in the
Even though it was speculated that the F-box protein gene encoded the real pollen S, only one particular allele has been cloned. The S locus of
Direct evidence that S locus F-box gene adjustments of allele specificity in the pollen was from a transgenic research in
Although transgenic analyses in
SFB has just a single intron inside 50 untranslated places, where zero intron was within solanaceous and plantaginaceous SLFs. Although intron dimension varies together with different alleles, the difference inside the intron dimension is too small to be detected the intron length polymorphism for for S genotyping. Hence, fluorescent primers and an automatic sequencer were used to detect the real intron period polymorphism of S genotyping depending on SFB alleles [128]. Nonetheless, because fairly large-scale recombinational research using 1022 meioses confirmed no recombination involving the Prunus S-RNase and SFB [46] and S-RNase genotyping is often much easier, SFB genotyping can be used as a supplementary research for S haplotype determination. SFB research, on the contrary, is usually a powerful tool as well as the sole way to detect SC pollen-part mutant (PPM) S haplotypes, where only the real pollen S continues to be mutated [47-48, 126].
Another essential auxiliary examination of SFB uncovered the event of a few variables (V1 and V2) and two hypervariable (HVa and HVb) territories [47]. These hypervariable regions appeared to be hydrophilic or at least not strongly hydrophobic, which suggests that these regions may be exposed on the surface and function in the allele specificity of the recognition response. The fact that positively selected sites appear to concentrate in the variable and hypervariable regions further supports the possibility that these regions could play an important role in the SC/SI recognition.
Phylogenetic analyses with F-box genes inside
Another difference is available in the allelic string diversity in SFB of
The point that an acknowledgement event occurs involving the pollen and pistil inside operation of gametophytic self-incompatibility (GSI) dictates that recognition molecules have to be present in both tissues. For the real pistil and pollen components for being encoded by different body\'s genes raises many interesting conceptual issues both inside generation of new allelic specificities and inside maintenance in the genes to be a genetically associated unit. Therefore, many early types of the mechanism of gametophytic SI were relying on an individual gene, with inhibition occurring by using a dimerization event from the pollen tube or due to differential processing of a single gene as well as operon to create pistil and S-gene products [69]. There is a lot of evidence that pollen and pistil S-components are, in reality, separate body genes.
The expression of S-RNases throughout transgenic plants while using endogenous supporter causes a big difference in the pistil, but not pollen S-specificity [67].
The expression of S-RNases in transgenic plants employing a pollen particular promoter will not alter the real SI behavior in the pollen [21].
Through a phenomenon known as ‘‘competitive connection,’’ SI in time breaks down in pollen grains that carry a couple of different alleles. Plants holding duplication in the S-locus are actually generated by X-ray mutagenesis and these duplications are brought on the pollen to shed S specificity, presumably through the possession of two pollen S-specificities and in many of these self-compatible mutants, the real S-RNase is not present around the duplicated fragment [27-29].
A self-compatible mutant of
Major effort continues to be directed to the identification of the pollen S-gene and product. It must have a number of characteristics, such as ancestral linkage to S-RNase, allele particular polymorphism, and gene solution interaction in some way with S-RNases—either together with self-S-RNase, cross- S-RNases or both (but in many ways). Pollen meats that connect to S-RNases are actually identified such as calcium-dependent protein kinases, which phosphorylate S-RNases at the very least in vitro, however, not in an allele specific manner [63], and more recently, any protein comprising a RING-HC domain, which potentially may be mixed up in ubiquitin ligase-mediated protein degradation pathway, but again will not interact within an S-allele in a particular way [112].
Several studies have focused on mapping the position of the pollen S gene. Golz et al. (2001) determined the order of these marker genes for the S3-haplotype of
A study on this region via genomic the particular the southern part of subject of blotting prompted that 70 kb in the region quickly flanking the particular real S-RNase generally may seem to comprise sequences that demonstrate S-haplotype certain diversity. It will infer the particular plant pollen S-gene in this haplotype can be found by way of this kind of 70 kb place. It is actually established the real S-locus could be sub-contract centromeric interior Solanaceae with the knowledge that polymorphism of alleles generally appears to be improved with more than just one megabase in this relatives (see below). Certainly, polymorphism provides for just 70 kb through the
The latest focus of attempts to recognize the pollen S-gene that continues to be connected to the areas flanking S-RNase. Indeed, this repetitive nature of non-coding sequences flanking the real S-RNase gene, has, up to now, dissuaded attempts at chromosome walking in this area and string data via genomic clones (cloned throughout lambda phage) has been available only for a couple of kb upon each side in the S-RNase gene [14].
The latest technological advances, nonetheless, with unique advancement of the Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC) local library, have greatly increased the size limit of genomic clones, increasing the number of sequence information per clone and rendering that more chromosome walking can be done. BAC clones containing S-RNase genes are actually identified throughout
Predicted amino acid sequences frompollen SFB and SLF from all functional SI S haplotypes conserve the F-box motif at the Nterminal, indicating that they function as F-box proteins. The F-box protein is known to be a component of a class of E3 ubiquitin ligases, the SCF complex, which regulates protein degradation in the ubiquitin/proteasome proteolytic pathway [19]. The F-box protein functions as a receptor to incorporate proteins targeted for polyubiquitination into the SCF complex. The polyubiquitinated targeted proteins are degraded by the 26S proteasome. It was, therefore, first proposed that the SCF complex that contains SFB (SCFSFB) and SLF (SCFSLF) might polyubiquitinate all nonself-SRNases for degradation but specifically interact with its cognate SRNase to leave it active, leading to the arrest of self-pollen tubes [56, 126-128].
Biochemical experimental results supporting this hypothesis have been obtained with Solanaceae and Plantaginaceae. Coimmunoprecipitation and yeast two hybrid analyses showed that
The existence of different mechanisms of self-recognition in
Although the real S-locus encodes real determinants of S-haplotype specificity, there is evidence for the existence of other unlinked body\'s genes, termed modifier genes which can be required for SI result (reviewed in [16, 56, 81-84,], which is to be discussed in this article.
HT-B protein, a smaller asparagine-rich protein expressed late in style development, was initially identified by differential cDNA hybridization to screen fashion genes which were expressed in self-incompatible kinds such as
This sort of revealed that in self-pollen pipes, HT-B was more likely to help S-RNase move from a great endomembrane compartment for the cytoplasm, where they might exert cytotoxicity, bringing about the arrest of pollen tube growth, when it is in compatible pollen pipes; the HT-B amount was appreciably down-regulated as well as the S-RNases were compartmentalized [25].
The 120 kDa glycoprotein (120K) is an abundant protein inside the stylar ECM and taken up by the real growing pollen pipes [71]. This 120K protein binds to S-RNase in vitro and, like HT-B, reductions of its expression by means of RNAi stopped self-pollen rejection [16, 33]. With recent immunolocalization trials, antibodies for the 120 kDa glycoprotein were found to label the real compartment tissue layer that enters the S-RNases inside the pollen pipes. However, given that S-RNase uptake is usual in 120K protein defective plant life; its specific role in SI continues to evade researchers [25].
F-box proteins often serve as adaptors that bind specific substrate proteins to the SCF (Skp1-Cullin-F-box) E3 ubiquitin ligase complex [99]. This raised the possibility of whether the SLF involved in the SI also participates in an SCF complex, mediating S-RNase ubiquitination. Identification of other components in such a putative complex is obviously necessary to address this question. SSK1 (SLF-interacting SKP1-like1), a homolog of SKP1, was originally isolated in
Pull-down assays encouraged that AhSSK1 could be an adaptor that connects SLF to CUL1 protein. Therefore, it can be thought that SLF and SSK1 will tend to be recruited to some anonical complicated SCF, which could be responsible for S-RNase ubiquitination.
Protein interactions in gametophytic self-incompatibility [
In trying to isolate the real pollen S, Sims and Ordanic (2001) screened a yeast twohybrid library from mature pollen of
Non-S RNases (syn. S-like RNases) in the T2/S-type are actually distinguished via different vegetable species. Non-S RNases are divided into two kinds, acidic and fundamental [127, 45]. A type of acidic non-SRNases is included in phosphate reuse as a result of phosphate confinement and tissue maturation [6, 121]. Other acidic non-S RNases can be up-controlled as a result of injury and vaccination together with pathogenic organisms. Albeit some essential non-S RNases are actually accounted of, for illustration, RNase Lc1 and Lc2 of
Members of the real of category to which S-RNases fit in, exemplified with the fungal RNase T2, are actually identified creatures as varied as worms, bacteria, fungus, slime molds, Drosophila, and oysters [32]. In addition, plants are actually found to obtain T2 category RNases that are not involved with SI. Completion in the Arabidopsis genome string has revealed five T2 group RNases in this particular self-compatible kinds (GenBank Accession Nos.: NP_178399; NP_030524; NP_178399; NP_563940; NM_101288). With plants, the similarity of the T2 RNases to S-RNases has generated those S-like RNases. Although S-like RNases are closely related to S-RNases, there are important differences in their design, expression, and function [120] and they do not take part in the control of SI.
S-like RNases are actually found in all the plants examined and constitute an essential family of RNA-degrading meats in plant life. In distinction to S-RNases, their expression is not restricted for the pistil— they are expressed in a number of plant parts and caused by several unique stimuli. There is experimental evidence that S-like RNases are involved in phosphate starvation, senescence, wounding, programmed cell death, defense against pathogens, and light signaling (for review, see [6].
A particular class of S-like RNase has recently been given and called relic S-RNases. These are generally S-like RNases which can be expressed throughout pistils but are not S-linked and so are presumed not to be involved with SI. Relic SRNases are actually identified throughout both SI
S-RNases are actually involved in gametophytic SI in 3 distinct groups of eudicots, the real Solanaceae [2]; Rosaceae [105]; and also Scrophulariaceae [139]. This addresses the issue of whether or not primarily S-RNase-based SI includes a single beginning or whether they have arisen independently on multiple occasions. The Solanaceae and Scrophulariaceae are part of the subclass
A number of studies have attempted to discuss evolutionary associations among S-RNases and related S-like RNases [45, 101, 104-107, 116, 125, 139]. Preliminary studies found that solanaceous, rosaceous and scrophulariaceous S-RNases just about every formed monophyletic clade [105, 139], pointing to the idea that SRNases share a typical ancestor. Later studies, nonetheless, found simply very vulnerable bootstrap support for nodes uniting S-RNases [101, 125-128], but simply included a finite number about S-like RNases (7 and 14, respectively), limiting the chance to distinguish the single and also multiple beginnings of SRNase mediated SI. The two most up-to-date studies have taken advantage of the significant amount of completely new sequence information now available together with different phylogenetic approaches than those used previously to check phylogenetic associations among S-RNase sequences.
Igic and Kohn (2001) carried out a maximum likelihood analysis using 67 S-RNase and S-RNase-like DNA sequences, Steinbachs and Holsinger (2002) executed a Bayesian research of 72 DNA sequences. Together with maximum chance analysis, Igic and Kohn also analyzed intron presence/absence and position in 29 S-RNase and also S-RNase including genes, and found a high degree of congruence regarding relationships deduced by intron/exon structure as well as the tree extracted by utmost likelihood research. While not really unequivocal, the finest interpretation in the trees generated in similar studies is that S-RNases indeed carry out a kind ofmonophyletic clade (with the actual addition of one or two S-like RNases). Thus, primarily S-RNase-based GSI generally seems to have arisen from a popular ancestor, which covers three-quarters of dicot individuals, indicating that primarily S-RNase-based GSI has been the ancestors stated in nearly all dicots [45, 115].
To address a number of unresolved difficulties surrounding the actual evolution of S-RNase-based SI systems, we analyzed the actual S-RNase information in two ways: (1) we explored the actual variation throughout S-RNase gene DNA and also amino p sequences, particularly in relation to structural and functional motifs described previously. (2) We also S-RNase string data of potential patterns of assortment and/or recombination. Previous works [44, 123] include suggested specific types of the structure in the S-RNase genes that we tested employing a broader phylogenetic test than previously used, as well as exploring the variation in gene sequence in a phylogenetic context. Some scientific tests have encouraged that recombination may play a role in the real diversification of alleles in S-RNase gene family, at very least within populations [134]. We explored an opportunity of assortment and/or recombination happening across many major S-RNases and S-like RNases. The gene structure of S-RNases has been previously described as including five conserved domains (C1–C5), two hypervariable regions (Hva and HVb), and several highly conserved amino acid residues including five cysteine residues, one leucine residue, and two tryptophan residues outside of the conserved domains and two histidine residues (one in C2 and one in C3) that are considered to be catalytic residues for RNase function [44, 123]. We first explored the real variation of proteins and nucleotides in S-RNase sequences employing a previously released dataset [116] by means of counting the amount of inferred changes on the phylogenetic tree using MacClade 4.03 [75]. During these evaluations, it has been noted the published alignment failed to align every one of the conserved fields previously identified [123]. The patterns seen together with nucleotide and amino p sequences suggested the same patterns; consequently, amino p variability was also evaluated.
Roalson et al. (2003) in this respect analyzed amino variety in SRNase position for 3 clades: (1) the whole S- and S-like RNases clade, (2) the real clade of Solanaceae and Scrophulariaceae S-RNases, and (3) the genuine clade of S-like II RNases. Comparative examples were essentially in different clades on the grounds that are alluded to here of these 3 clades. The examples of deviation for a large portion of these 3 clades are than the speculated monitored fields, hypervariable territories, and moderated amino p deposits.Amino p variety in the Solanaceae/Scrophulariaceae clade is for the most part than the recommended basic components proposed by Ida et al. (2001). Altogether, there was substantially more amino p substitution surmised, even at hypothetically saved locales, than keeps on being beforehand recognized. At the point when numerous S- and S-like RNases are considered, in any event various amino acids in every one of the saved spaces may be variable, with upwards of 19 substitutions found at a few locales. In change, amino p positions outside the "hypervariable" zones show comparative degrees of amino p change inside a phylogenetic wording as is found inside HVa and HVb. Preserved amino p deposits (cysteine, leucine, tryptophan, and histidine) are several slightest variable amino p buildups, in spite of the fact that other amino p deposits were discovered which can be correspondingly saved. For example, the glycine deposit in C2 near the preserved histidine buildup, a tryptophan deposit in the middle of HVb and C3, the genuine lysine and glycine buildups all through C3 that encompass the genuine saved histidine deposit, and any tyrosine/phenylalanine set about halfway about C3 and C4. A couple of different positions appear to have minor variety, yet this is a result that does not have (crevice all through amino p arrangement) the amino p positions in numerous groupings. At the point when just probably utilitarian S-RNases are thought, for example, the S-RNases through Solanaceae and Scrophulariaceae, a comparable example of amino p variety is found, despite the fact that the aggregate number of changes at locales is lower. As a comparative example of variety is found in utilitarian S-RNases as is discovered when numerous S- furthermore S-like RNases are thought, it is not clear in the occasion the lower level of variety at positions is generally a capacity in the higher protection inside useful duplicates and additionally lower testing (26 versus 72 amino p successions). Since the discovery when numerous groupings were viewed, there is a huge level of variety inside all the moderated fields and there are heaps of amino acids outside the hypervariable fields that show comparative degrees of variety as is found in HVa also in HVb. As has been discovered, extreme S- and S-like RNases and the Solanaceae/Scrophulariaceae S-RNases, huge degrees of a variety were discovered over the whole quality if S-like RNase clade II alone is viewed as (Fig. 5). Just 16 groupings in this specific clade can be discovered, which can be reflected inside aggregate quantities of derived adjust at every amino p deposit, however, the genuine example of amino p substitutions over the quality takes after that inside alternate examinations. Also, most in the saved amino p buildups are correspondingly rationed inside S-like RNase II clade as theS-RNase clades (Fig. 5).
Phylogenetic hypothesis of relationships among S- and S-like RNase gene sequences with major clades labeled according to the plant family of origin and their inferred function (S- or S-like). Modified from Steinbachs and Holsinger (2002); Bayesian analysis of DNA sequence data [with permission from ref. 102].
In the analysis of S-RNase sequences via
The author would like to thank the Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Iran. The author is also grateful to Ms. Kh. Chenaneh-Hanoni for helping prepare the facilities and for her overall assistance in undertaking this study. The literature citations and permissions given for the illustrations used are likewise much appreciated by the author.
Corrosion is an unstoppable phenomenon, in order to avoid or reduce the corrosion of metallic materials; the corrosion inhibitor is one of the most effective and flexible means of corrosion prevention and mitigation [1].
According to ISO 8044, the corrosion inhibitor is a chemical substance added to the corrosion system at a concentration chosen for its effectiveness; this causes a decrease in the corrosion rate of the metal without significantly modifying the concentration of any corrosive agent contained in the aggressive medium [2]. In addition, this role can be assured by other ways such as modification of the pH and incorporation of some metals like zinc in the chemical composition of the materials. In fact, such a definition cannot be perfect; however, it avoids to consider inhibitors as additives.
From this definition, a corrosion inhibitor must therefore verify some fundamental properties:
Decreasing the corrosion rate of the metal while retaining the physicochemical characteristics of the latter
Stable in the presence of other constituents, in particular with respect to certain biocides
Stable in the temperature range used
Effective at low concentrations
Inexpensive compared to the savings it allows to achieve
Compatible with the current standards of nontoxicity and environmental pro-tection
A corrosion inhibitor can be used as method of protection:
As a
As a
As a
Various authors have classified the corrosion inhibitors differently. Some authors prefer to group the inhibitors by their chemical functionality (organic or inorganic), others by their electrochemical reaction. Figure 1 presents the classification of the corrosion inhibitors.
Corrosion inhibitor classification.
The corrosion inhibitors can be classified in the liquid phase as a cathodic, anodic, or mixed.
Effect of addition of the cathodic inhibitor.
Anodic inhibitors can actually cause pitting and accelerate corrosion when concentrations fall below minimum limits. This kind of problem is not encountered in the case of cathodic inhibitors (Figure 3).
Effect of addition of the anodic inhibitor.
Effect of addition of the mixed inhibitor.
Each type of inhibitor is characterized by its action mode: adsorption, barrier, reinforcing of the oxide layer, passivation, and formed insoluble complex.
In the case of the interposition of a barrier between the metal and the corrosive medium, which is essential in acidic backgrounds, the role of adsorption of the compounds on the surface is essential.
The reinforcement of a pre-existing barrier, in general the oxide or hydroxide layer formed naturally in a neutral or alkaline medium, may consist of an extension of the oxide to the surface or of the precipitation of salts with weak places of the oxide, these salts being corrosive agents.
The formation of the barrier by interaction between the inhibitor and one or more species of the corrosive medium is a type of mechanism which is also specific for neutral or alkaline media.
Obviously, taking into these general notions, the mechanism of action of an inhibitor can be considered under two aspects: a mechanistic aspect (intervention in the fundamental corrosion processes) and a morphological aspect (intervention of the inhibitory molecule in the interfacial structure). It is also clear that the mechanism of action will differentiate strongly depending on the pH characteristics of the medium.
Volatile corrosion inhibitor is referred to as gas molecules used as a corrosion inhibitor; they are intended for the temporary protection of metallic materials placed in the atmosphere, essentially in storage or transport condition. Their use is made either in the form of wrapping papers impregnated with product or in the form of powder or by spraying with a solution (volatile solvent) [8] (Figure 5).
Volatile corrosion inhibitor mechanism.
Vapor phase inhibitors (VPI) or volatile corrosion inhibitors (VCI) are low nitrogen base salts (cyclohexylamine, dicyclohexylamine, guanidine), and weak acids (nitrous acid, carbonic acid, benzoic acid). The organic part ensures volatility and a certain protective power, and the inorganic part adjusts the volatility, which must correspond to vapor pressures between 10−4 and 10−2 mmHg at room temperature, and ensures the supply of groups of protectors (Ph-COO▬…).
The inhibitor molecules acts by different ways; they are transported or dissociated on the metal surface to ensure an excellent protection by:
pH effect
Adsorption leading to hydrophobization of the surface
Effect on electrochemical processes, essentially on the anodic process: blocking of sites or passivation
The adsorption is more of a chemical type, and the molecule is difficult to remove afterwards. Despite this, the protective action is only maintained if the source of the inhibitor is itself maintained in the immediate environment of the metal surface.
The molecule inhibitors have three areas of application which are in particular important for the use of these products: the petroleum industry, water treatment, and pickling/cleaning of metals. Other applications exist for inhibitors, which involve then more specific formulations, which will be described in the following.
These are essentially the inhibitors added to the paints.
The incorporation of a pigment having inhibitory properties in the coating primer provides most of the corrosion resistance provided by the coating. There are two types of pigments: the active inhibitor pigment and the inactive inhibitor pigment.
The
At the same time, it helps maintain an optimal ratio between the pigment volume concentration and the critical pigment volume concentration that means the film is not too compact to avoid blistering nor too loose to prevent the penetration of aggressive ions (Cl−).
Main inhibitors used
Zinc-based formulations include:
Zinc powder, which provides cathodic protection of the steel coated, provided that the dry extract is greater than 92% of the mass paint.
Zinc chromate, used because of its solubility in water; very effective in paints on aluminum, as well as strontium chromate.
Lead-based formulations include:
Lead powder, whose mode of action is complex and passing probably by modifying the pH of the aqueous medium on contact paint (alkalization) and metal and reverse polarity between iron and lead, explaining cathodic protection of the ferrous material.
Lead oxide Pb3O4, many mechanisms of action are proposed: formation of mixed protective layers of PbO oxide corrosion products, formation of soaps with constituents of paint, etc.
The
Although their use could theoretically be envisaged in most cases of corrosion (with, as main limitations, too large volume of the corrosive medium or the possible impossibility of incorporating additives therein), inhibitors have several traditional application fields [10]:
Water treatment (sanitary water, industrial process water, boiler water, etc.).
Petroleum industry: drilling, extraction, refining, storage, and transport; at all stages of this industry, the use of corrosion inhibitors is essential for the safeguarding of installations.
Temporary protection of metals, whether during acid pickling and cleaning of installations or storage in the atmosphere (volatile inhibitors, incorporation into oils and greases for temporary protection) or for the treatment of cutting oils.
Paint industry on metals where the inhibitors are additives ensuring the anticorrosion protection of metals.
GCI is the molecule extract from plants; it has a double effect because it has a good ability to protect the metals and no negative effect on the environment at the same time.
In the last few years, the researcher community had oriented to inhibitors extracted from plants such as essential and vegetable oil, flavonoids, coumarins, steroids, terpenoids, and condensed tannins. These substances are excellent inhibitors because they contain heteroatoms such as an N, O, P, and S. The free electrons on the heteroatoms form bonds with the electrons on the metal surface. Some atoms in water ionize to release a proton; thus, the now negatively charged heteroatom helps to free an electron on the heteroatom and forms a stronger bond with the metallic electrons. These properties confer them good inhibition properties.
The following table summarized some green inhibitors used for corrosion inhibition of steels, steel alloys, aluminums, aluminum alloys, and other metals and alloys (Table 1).
Metal | Inhibitor source | Active ingredient | References |
---|---|---|---|
Steel | Tamarind | [11] | |
Steel | Tea leaves | [12] | |
Steel | Eucalyptus oil | Monomtrene 1,8-cineole | [13] |
C-steel, Ni, Zn | Lawsonia extract (henna) | Lawsone (2-hydroxy-1,4-napthoquinone resin and tannin, coumarine, Gallic, acid, and sterols) | [14] |
Mild steel | Gum exudate | Hexuronic acid, neutral sugar residues, volatile monoterpenes, canaric and related triterpene acids, reducing and nonreducing sugars | [15] |
Mild steel | Garcinia kola seed | Primary and secondary aminesUnsaturated fatty acids and biflavnone | [16] |
Steel | Aloe leaves | [17] | |
Steel | Mango/orange peels | [18] | |
Steel | Hibiscus sabdariffa (Calyx extract) in 1 M H2SO4 and 2 M HCl solutions, stock 10–50% | Molecular protonated organic species in the extract. Ascorbic acid, amino acids, flavonoids, Pigments and carotene | [19] |
Al-Mg alloy | Aqueous extract of | Catechin | [20] |
Al | Opuntia (modified stems cladodes) | Polysaccharide (mucilage and pectin) | [21] |
Zn | Metal chelates of citric acid | [22] | |
Zn | Onion juice | S-containing acids (glutamyl peptides) S-(1-propenyl) L-cysteine sulfoxide, and S-2-carboxypropyl glutathione | [23] |
Sn | Natural honey (acacia chestnut) | [24] | |
Sn | Black radish | [25] |
Green inhibitors used for corrosion inhibition of steel, steel alloys, aluminum, aluminum alloys, and other metals and alloys.
In this part, we will present a study of a green corrosion inhibitor using a formulation prepared based on the
The inhibition effect was evaluated using the electrochemical measurement such as polarization curves and spectroscopy impedance. The electrode surface was characterized by SEM/EDS.
The results of the open circuit potential (OCP) variation of the iron substrate in acidic solution in the presence and in the absence of FCSL are reported in Figure 6.
Variation of the open circuit potential (OCP) of the iron substrate in acidic solution with and without the FCSL formulation.
The results show that in the absence of FCSL, the potential tends to stabilize at −0.51 V, after 20 min.
The addition of the FCSL formulation leads to a shift in the corrosion potential to a positive direction. This important shift of corrosion potential may indicate an important anodic inhibiting effect of FCSL.
The polarization studies of iron were carried out in acid rain solution both in the absence and in the presence of the FCSL formulation.
All of these curves were obtained after 30 min of immersion time of the electrode in electrolytic solution after performing the automatic ohmic drop compensation (ZIR).
The cathodic and anodic polarization curves of iron in simulated acid rain solution with and without various inhibition concentrations are reported in Figure 7.
Potentiodynamic polarization curves of the iron in acid rain solution with and without various inhibition concentrations in the cathodic domain (a) and in the anodic domain (b).
In absence of the inhibitor (Figure 7a), the corrosion current increases rapidly with the cathodic overvoltage until the potential value of −0.8 V/SCE; for more negative potential values, a pseudo-plateau appears in 0.4 mA/cm2, which can be attributed to the oxygen diffusion process, so the cathodic reaction can be expressed in the following equation:
In the cathodic process, the important factor that must be considered is the mass transport [24].
The adding of the formulation to the corrosive solution is accompanied by both a shift of corrosion potential Ecorr toward a more positive potential and a decrease of the current density Icorr, with the disappearance of the diffusion plateau, obtained in the case of the blank solution, in the presence of the FCSL formulation. We observe the formation of the film on the area, which hinders the diffusion of dissolved oxygen toward the electrode surface.
This behavior is associated with the presence of chloride in solution. The anodic reaction can be expressed by the following equation:
According to Figure 7b in the presence of the FCSL formulation, the current density decreases significantly with the presence of the inhibitor. Furthermore, the corrosion potential displayed more positive values, and also the value of the corrosion current density Icorr reduced from 74.9 mA cm−2 in the absence of the inhibitor to 1.0 mA cm−2 in the presence of the inhibitor. So in less than 75 times, then we observe the appearance of a current plateau in a wide potential range.
The inhibition efficiency (% IE) was calculated using the following relation and its value of 98.6%:
The corresponding current plateau value is in the order of 0.03 mA cm−2 in the case of the FSCL formulation. This may indicate that the iron surface is protected by the inhibitor; this protection may be attributed to a passivity of iron substrate resulting from the formation of inhibitor film on the iron electrode surface. Thus results were observed by other authors [27].
From this result, we can conclude that the FSCL formulation is a mixed-type inhibitor that acts by decreasing the current density in both the cathodic and the anodic domains and making the corrosion potential become more anodic.
This good inhibiting effect of the FSCL formulation may be related to the adsorption on the electrode surface by the establishment of a barrier film.
The impedance diagrams in Nyquist and Bode plots in the absence and in the presence of the FCSL at 293 K are represented in Figure 8.
Nyquist and Bode impedance plots of the iron electrode in acidic solution with and without the FCSL.
In the case of the blank solution, as shown in Figure 8, we noted the two capacity loops in the high frequencies and the inductive loop at low frequencies. This inductive effect may be due to the desorption of the H+ ions and salt ions present in the solution or to the redissolution of the passivity surface [26]. In effect, this inductive loop disappeared with the addition of the inhibitor. The same behavior has been observed by other authors [27].
As shown in Figure 8, in the presence of the FCSL formulation, the size of the loops are bigger than in the case of the blank. Indeed, the polarization resistances pass from 380 Ω cm2 in the case of blank to 14,080 Ω cm2 in the presence of inhibitor.
The inhibition efficiency (% IE) was calculated using the following relation and its value of 97.3%:
We noted also a decrease in the electrolyte resistance which may be explicated by the presence of the ionized substances in the formulation.
We can be ascribed to the following contributions. The high-frequency contribution (Cf, Rf) can be attributed to the dielectric character due to the formation of the film on the iron surface in presence of the inhibitor. The low-frequency contribution can be attributed to the double-layer capacitance (Cdl) at the electrolyte/iron interface at the bottom of the pores coupled with the charge transfer resistance (Rt) [10].
The aim of the surface analysis by SEM coupled with the EDX used in this study is firstly to check the hypothesis of the formation of the inhibitor on the electrode surface and secondly to verify its protective qualities against iron corrosion.
Figures 9 and 10 show the area of the substrate of iron with and without the FCSL formulation after 24 h of immersion time in the acidic solution.
SEM micrograph and EDS spectrum of the iron substrate in corrosive solution after 24 h of immersion time in the absence of the FCSL formulation.
SEM micrograph and EDX spectrum of the iron substrate in acidic solution after 24 h of immersion time in the presence of the FCSL formulation.
In the absence of the FSCL formulation (Figure 9), the SEM examination provides that the metallic surface be heavily attacked by the corrosive ions. The EDX spectrum reported in Figure 9 showed the characteristic peaks of the specimen and marked the presence of oxygen atoms.
Also in the case of the presence the FSCL formulation (Figure 10), in the addition of the optimal concentration of the FSCL formulation into the corrosion solution, a smooth surface noted could explain the good protection effect of the inhibitor by a formation of the film. As confirmed by the EDX spectrum, a very low content of oxygen species is revealed.
Corrosion is one of the most destructive phenomena that can affect metallic pieces. Through this work, we present one of the most used method to protect the metals: the corrosion inhibitor. In addition, we present a case study using a green corrosion inhibitor prepared from the oil of
The authors have declared that no conflict of interest exists.
General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed.
',metaTitle:"Horizon 2020 Compliance",metaDescription:"General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed. ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
\\n\\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
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\\n\\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\\n\\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\\n\\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
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\\n\\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
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\n\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\n\nIn other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
\n\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\n\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\n\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\n\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
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Beneficial treatment effects of cannabidiol (CBD), a major non-intoxicating compound isolated from the cannabis plant, have been shown in multiple states of cognitive impairment, including neurodegenerative (Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s and Parkinson’s disease), neuroinflammatory (sepsis-induced encephalopathy) and neurological disorders (ischemic brain injury). CBD can also treat some of the symptoms of schizophrenia, including cognitive deficits (impairments in learning and memory), which is a major symptom domain of the illness that is largely resistant to existing antipsychotic medications. However, empirical evidence suggests the presence of an ‘entourage effect’ in cannabis; that is, observations that medicinal cannabis seems to work better in some instances when administered as a whole-plant extract. While scientific evidence highlights isolated CBD as a strong candidate for treating cognitive impairment, the entourage effect suggests that the co-operation of other plant molecules could provide further benefits. This chapter explores the scientific evidence surrounding the benefits of CBD and other specific key phytochemicals in cannabis: linalool, α-pinene, β-caryophyllene, flavonoids and anthocyanin, on brain health and cognition.",book:{id:"7040",slug:"recent-advances-in-cannabinoid-research",title:"Recent Advances in Cannabinoid Research",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Cannabinoid Research"},signatures:"Katrina Weston-Green",authors:null},{id:"64031",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81224",title:"Trends of Protein Aggregation in Neurodegenerative Diseases",slug:"trends-of-protein-aggregation-in-neurodegenerative-diseases",totalDownloads:1622,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Protein aggregation trends in neurodegenerative diseases are largely unmapped due to the complex nature of protein-protein interactions and their regulatory machineries such as protein proteolytic systems. Since the protein aggregation process in humans is a slow process, early determination of the patients that will develop neurodegenerative diseases later in life is critical in terms of starting effective treatment, which will reduce the expensive health care. In this chapter, I will discuss the nature of protein aggregation of signature proteins and the status of protein proteolytic systems such as proteasome and autophagosome in Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, frontotemporal lobar degeneration, Huntington’s disease, and prion disease under the light of recent studies including our new findings.",book:{id:"7480",slug:"neurochemical-basis-of-brain-function-and-dysfunction",title:"Neurochemical Basis of Brain Function and Dysfunction",fullTitle:"Neurochemical Basis of Brain Function and Dysfunction"},signatures:"Abdulbaki Agbas",authors:[{id:"250609",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdulbaki",middleName:null,surname:"Agbas",slug:"abdulbaki-agbas",fullName:"Abdulbaki Agbas"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3560,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. 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Results are usually expressed as metabolite ratios rather than absolute metabolite concentrations. Because glial tumors have some specific metabolic characteristics that differ according to the grade of tumor, there is a potential for MR spectroscopy to increase the sensitivity of routinely used diagnostic imaging. MRS also has many diagnostic applications in neurosciences to support the diagnosis in conditions like demyelination, infections, and dementia and in postradiotherapy cases. Biochemical changes in the metabolism of tumor cells related to malignant transformation are reflected in changes of particular metabolite concentration in the tumor tissue. Our prospective study aimed to analyze the usefulness of proton MR spectroscopy in grading of glioma and to correlate various metabolite ratios like choline/creatine, choline/N-acetylaspartate, N-acetylaspartate/creatine, and lactate/creatine with the histopathological grades of glioma.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"B C Hamsini, Bhavana Nagabhushana Reddy, Sankar Neelakantan\nand Sunitha Palasamudram Kumaran",authors:[{id:"211054",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunitha",middleName:null,surname:"P Kumaran",slug:"sunitha-p-kumaran",fullName:"Sunitha P Kumaran"},{id:"221485",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankar",middleName:null,surname:"Neelakantan",slug:"sankar-neelakantan",fullName:"Sankar Neelakantan"},{id:"398223",title:"Dr.",name:"B C",middleName:null,surname:"Hamsini",slug:"b-c-hamsini",fullName:"B C Hamsini"},{id:"398224",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhavana",middleName:null,surname:"Nagabhushana Reddy",slug:"bhavana-nagabhushana-reddy",fullName:"Bhavana Nagabhushana Reddy"}]},{id:"62431",title:"The United Chemicals of Cannabis: Beneficial Effects of Cannabis Phytochemicals on the Brain and Cognition",slug:"the-united-chemicals-of-cannabis-beneficial-effects-of-cannabis-phytochemicals-on-the-brain-and-cogn",totalDownloads:1834,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"‘Medicinal cannabis’ can be defined as pharmaceutical grade cannabis-based products used for the treatment of illness. 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The process of synaptic transmission generates or inhibits electrical impulses in a network of neurons for the processing of information. Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, while GABA is the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter. The balance of glutamatergic and GABAergic tone is crucial to normal neurologic function. Through synaptic transmission, this information is communicated from the presynaptic cell to the postsynaptic cell. Amino acid neurotransmitters primarily glutamic acid, GABA, aspartic acid, and glycine are single amino acid residues released from presynaptic nerve terminals in response to an action potential and cross the synaptic cleft to bind with specific receptor on the postsynaptic membrane. The integral role of amino acid neurotransmitters is important on the normal functioning of the brain. The presynaptic and postsynaptic events in chemical synapses are subject to use dependent and highly regulated as per the changes in synaptic neurotransmitter release and function.",book:{id:"7480",slug:"neurochemical-basis-of-brain-function-and-dysfunction",title:"Neurochemical Basis of Brain Function and Dysfunction",fullTitle:"Neurochemical Basis of Brain Function and Dysfunction"},signatures:"Manorama Patri",authors:[{id:"196763",title:"Dr.",name:"Manorama",middleName:null,surname:"Patri",slug:"manorama-patri",fullName:"Manorama Patri"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"212",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"