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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3825",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Pharmacology and Nutritional Intervention in the Treatment of Disease",title:"Pharmacology and Nutritional Intervention in the Treatment of Disease",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Pharmacology and Nutritional Intervention in the Treatment of Disease is a book dealing with an important research field that has worldwide significance. 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With a licentiate in biomarkers\nof health and disease and as an adjunct professor in\nClinical Genetics and Nutrition, he is both a senior\nresearcher and a visiting professor in several international institutions and universities, including the Sleep\nClinic andCancer Bio-Immunotherapy Institute, Helsinki, Finland. 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Congenital heart defects (CHD) are the most frequent congenital malformations (5–12 per 1000 live births), the costliest hospital admissions for structural defects and represent the leading cause of infant general and malformations related mortality (42%) [1, 2]. Prenatal CHD detection allows proper counseling, provides the options of pregnancy termination [3], in utero treatments (antiarrhythmics, valvuloplasties, etc.) [4, 5, 6, 7] and allows for delivery planning in a referral center [8, 9, 10, 11].
CHD etiology includes many genetic, environmental and teratogenic factors [12, 13, 14, 15, 16], but 90% of heart malformations have no identified cause. Conversely, the risk may be reduced with periconceptionally folic acid intake [17].
A detailed sonographic examination, used to characterize fetal cardiac anatomy has traditionally been reserved for high-risk populations [18, 19, 20, 21, 22]: advanced maternal age, more than 35 years old, family history of CHD or disorders that involves potential CHD, infectious, autoimmune or metabolic diseases, exposure to drugs and teratogens. FECG was also proposed in certain pregnancy findings: structural defects, non-immune hydrops, arrhythmia, suspected chromosomal abnormalities, enlarged nuchal translucency, monochorionic multiple gestation. Nowadays, professional guidelines recommend a screening heart evaluation to all pregnancies, as most of the CHD cases are not associated with known risk factors [38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45].
Guidelines and training requirements have been developed [18, 19]. An accurate visualization of heat features is commonly achieved at 18–22 gestational weeks. FECG is a relatively brief but skilled ultrasound examination, because of the complexity and prenatal physiological and structural particularities of the fetal heart. Consequently, FECG has not been widely implemented, and the prenatal diagnosis of even severe CHD varies considerably, with less than half prenatally detected.
Optimal views of the fetal heart are obtained when the cardiac apex is orientated toward the anterior maternal wall. Heart anatomy is evaluated using a sequential segmental analysis, starting from the venous plane (atria with veins connections), following the blood flow to ventricles and great arteries [23]. The information regarding fetal heart anatomy is achieved by examining five axial and three longitudinal scanning planes [18, 19, 24], described below, with examples of cardiac abnormalities. In general practice, only the axial sectional planes are evaluated during the cardiac sweep [25] (Figure 1).
Given all these information, the 4CV is much more than a simple count of cardiac chambers, but certain abnormalities, especially involving great vessels, cannot be detected at the 4CV level alone [35]. Recent revised and updated guidelines and recommendations from several professional bodies [18, 36, 37] plead for the routinely screening evaluation of the outflow tract views along the 4CV, based on strong medical evidence regarding the prenatal detection of CHD [38, 39, 40].
The
The pulmonary
The approximately equal
This view may be altered with regard to several features. Their width may be discrepant, as due to aortic coarctation, where the aortic isthmus is significantly smaller than the arterial duct (Figure 19). However, this diagnosis is challenging and affected by high rates of false-positive diagnoses. Thus, to improve detection, a multiple-criteria prediction model is adopted, as a combination of isthmic/duct and ventricular diameters ratios and Z-scores, visualization of CoA shelf and isthmic flow disturbance [42, 43].
Another abnormality of 3VTV plane is represented by the impossibility to identify all the three vessels. One of the arterial arches may not be seen, as in the presence of an interrupted aortic arch (Figure 20), or more than three vessels may be present, as in persistent left superior vena cava (Figure 21).
The superior vena cava may be identified contralateral, on the left side, as in the persistent of left superior vena cava (Figure 8).
Absence of a normal “V”-sign confluence of the arterial arches can be used to detect aortic arch abnormalities: right aortic arch, double aortic arch (Figure 22) and interrupted aortic arch (Figure 20).
A diminutive caliber accompanied by an altered shape may be present in aortic arch coarctation (Figure 24A) or stenosis (Figure 16D). Also, the course of the arch may be misshaped and interrupted, with lack of communication with the descending aorta, as in interrupted aortic arch (Figure 24C).
The vessel may appear irregular and thin, as in pulmonary stenosis (Figure 24B), or heavily dilated, as in aortic arch stenosis or interruption (Figure 24D). The ductus may be absent, as is usually in the most frequent variant of absent pulmonary valve syndrome-associated with tetralogy of Fallot. Another type of the syndrome—accompanied by tricuspid atresia, is characterized by a normal or narrowed ductus arteriosus, along the dysplastic right ventricle. Contrarily, the isolated type of absent pulmonary valve syndrome, with intact ventricular septum, associates a severe right ventricular hypertrophy with pulmonary artery and ductus arteriosus dilatation.
Normal heart visualized during fetal cardiac sweep. Visualization of the cardiac transverse planes, by sweeping the transducer from the four-chamber plane toward the fetal neck as shown in the left of the image. Schematic presentation of the cardiac planes in duplex mode (gray-scale and color Doppler) that become apparent: (1) upper abdominal view, and abdominal situs; (2) four-chamber view (4CV). The atrioventricular Doppler flow is red because of the direction toward the direction during diastole. When the atrioventricular are closed, during systole, the atrioventricular flow is absent; (3) left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT). Note the continuity of the ventricular septum (VS) with the aortic wall. When the aortic valve (AoV) is closed, during diastole, the aortic flow is absent; (4) right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT) and (5) three-vessel and trachea (3VTV) and aortic arch views. L, left; R, right; St, stomach; D, diastole; and S, systole; UV, umbilical vein; DAo, descending aorta; IVC, inferior vena cava; SVC, superior vena cava; LV, left ventricle; RV, right ventricle; LA, left atrium; RA, right atrium; mb, moderator band; mv, mitral valve; tv, tricuspid valve; vi, valve insertion; pv, pulmonary veins; sp., septum primum; fo, foramen ovale, DAo, descendent aorta; MPA, main pulmonary artery; DA, ductus arteriosus; RPA, right pulmonary artery; PV, pulmonary valve Sp, spine; T, trachea. Modified with permission [
Two-dimensional US images in the cross-sectional plane of the thorax at the level of the four-chamber view of the heart. Stomach (red star) and small bowel loops (yellow stars) are identified intrathoracic and displaces fetal heart (figured by the blue tracing line) to the right; the lungs areas are highlighted by red tracing lines. With permission, Tudorache et al. [
Cardiomegaly. (A) Increased area of the heart, occupying half of the thorax area. (B and C):Outflow tract appears dilated in relation to the fetal thorax.
Ebstein’s anomaly. The arrow indicates the dysplastic tricuspid valve with septal and posterior leaflets of the tricuspid valve displaced toward the apex of the right ventricle. Color Doppler investigation shows significant valvular regurgitation.
Tuberous sclerosis. Increased thickness of ventricular walls and presence of solid tumors in ventricular cavities, highlighted with open arrows.
Rhabdomyoma of the right ventricle, visible in 4CV (A) and left ventricle outflow tract view (B), and confirmed postabortum (C and D), penetrating the ventricular wall (C).
Hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS), with discordance of the heart chambers, ventricular cardiomyopathy and hypertrophic left ventricle (A), markedly reduced filling at Doppler evaluation (B), fibroelastosis, and reduced aortic caliber and flow (C).
Discordance of the cardiac ventricles, with enlarged right ventricle and dilated coronary sinus (CS), in the presence of persistent left superior vena cava.
Multiple VSDs, apical and membranous, unapparent in certain 4CV incidence at gray-scale and color Doppler evaluation (A), but present in nearby planes, as the cardiac sweep is conducted (B). The entire interventricular septum must be carefully swept.
Multiple VSDs, apical and muscular, inapparent in gray-scale evaluation. (A): Apparently normal ventricular septum in apical and (B): lateral four-chamber view. (C–E): Muscular VSDs diagnosed using color Doppler in lateral four-chamber view—open arrows.
Atrioventricular septal defect. A large defect (open arrow) is present in the area where normally crux cordis is identified.
Foramen ovale aneurysm (red arrow) in a case where pericarditis is associated.
Fetal bradyarrhythmia, M-mode and pulsed Doppler evaluation. Premature atrial contractions (PACs, highlighted with arrows) are blocked, resulting in bradycardic irregular cardiac rhythm. Normal values for the mechanical PR interval by pulsed Doppler interrogation at the mitral-aortic region in prediction of heart block risk.
Tachyarrhythmia and measurement of cardiac rhythm using pulsed Doppler.
Tetralogy of Fallot. Inapparent four-chamber view (A and B) with increased cardiac axis (C). Septal defect with septoaortic discontinuity and aortic root overriding at the level of mixing flows form ventricles (D). Diminutive stenotic pulmonary artery is identified in right outflow tract view (E) and three-vessel and trachea view (F).
Aortic stenosis. Abnormal left ventricle with atretic inlet and fibroelastosis (A), stenotic aortic root (B) and aortic arch in axial (C) and longitudinal (D) views.
Pulmonary stenosis. (A): Dysplastic pulmonary valves, with incomplete opening and doming; (B): reversed and turbulent flow in the RVOT; (C): post-stenotic increased velocities in pulmonary artery course; (D): post-stenotic dilatation.
Transposition of the great arteries. (A): Emergence of the vessel arising from the left ventricle, showing early branching (B) that suggest pulmonary outflow tract. (C): Emergence of the vessel arising from the right ventricle with no evident branching in the transversal plane. (D): Sagittal view of the thorax showing branching characteristic to aortic arch of the vessel arising from the anterior ventricle in gray scale and after power Doppler is applied (E). (F): Parallel course of the great vessels.
Discrepancy between the large right ventricle, pulmonary root and arterial duct and the diminutive left ventricle, aortic arch and isthmus in aortic coarctation. Calculations for mitral and tricuspid valves (A), arterial arches (B), isthmus and ductus (C).
Interrupted aortic arch. (A): The ventricular discordance is not present, because of the septal defect, not evident in four-chamber views, but sub-aortic, when the entire septum is swept. (B): Enlarged pulmonary trunk (yellow arrow), and thin aorta (white arrow) in 3VT view. (C): Discontinuity of aortic arch in upper mediastinum axial planes.
Persistent left superior vena cava (PLSCV), indicated with arrow in duplex gray-scale (A) and color Doppler (B) evaluation.
Right aortic arch (RAA) types. RAA and left ductus, forming a “U” shape of the arterial arches confluence as an almost complete vascular ring (A and B). Note the aorta coursing to the right of the spine, on the same side with superior vena cava (A), and a visible vascular incomplete ring behind the trachea. Double aortic arch, color Doppler evaluation (C and D) with complete vascular ring between the aortic branches. RAA with right ductus (E and F), described before with normal heart [
Aortic (A) and ductal (B) arches in longitudinal view. Note the differences mentioned in the text, regarding the origin, curvature and branching. (C): Bicaval view. IVC, inferior vena cava; SVC, superior vena cava; RA, right atrium.
Pathologic aortic and ductal arches in longitudinal view. (A): Aortic coarctation with stenotic isthmus (arrow); (B): pulmonary valvular stenosis, with irregular course and stenotic ductal areas; (C and D): interrupted aortic arch, with ascending aorta that fails to curve, but courses straight cranially (C), and heavily enlarged ductal arch (D).
The upper image presents the normal appearance of ductus venosus in 2D color Doppler imaging. (A–C): Agenesis of ductus venosus: with hepatic (A), caval (B) and cardiac (C) drainage. UV, umbilical vein; IVC, inferior vena cava; H, heart; HV, hepatic veins; UA, umbilical artery; PV, portal vein; Ao, aorta.
Applications of color and spectral Doppler. (A): Critical aortic stenosis with dysplastic left ventricle (*), atretic valve and aortic regurgitation (arrow, (B)). (C): Same case, tricuspid regurgitation, pulsed Doppler evaluation. (D): Atrioventricular valves regurgitation associated with cardiomegaly. (E): Same case, spectral Doppler evaluation of atrioventricular flow.
B-flow and classic power Doppler display in some cases greater sensitivity in imaging cardio-vascular blood flow, but they are not routinely used.
Volume datasets obtained with 4D STIC ultrasonography allow the evaluation of virtual planes not available for direct visualization with 2D technique, and facilitates the reconstruction of the spatial relationships between the cardio-vascular structures (Figure 27). This technology has the potential to increase the CHD detection rate by decreasing the dependency on sonographer skills and experience. However, due to the expensive costs and lack of specialists for training and interpretations, the technique is not routinely used.
Double outlet right ventricle in 4D STIC. Axial planes show the origin of the great vessels (A) and the communication of the pulmonary artery with the left ventricle, due to a septal defect (B). Oblique longitudinal plane with the anterior origin of the two outflow tracts (C).
In selected cases, it may offer important information as the comprehensive assessment of complex CHD cases [47, 48, 49, 50] and the evaluation of cardiac function and quantification of fetal hemodynamic parameters, such as cardiac output [51].
It should be considered for suspected structural or functional cardiac anomalies [18, 19]. Some
Although the most frequent congenital malformations, CHDs are among the most frequently missed [18, 55]. The efficiency of the cardiac scan is reported with great variation, depending on the scanning protocol, examiner experience, equipment quality and scanning conditions [18, 56, 57, 58]. It appears that the use of 4CV alone detects up to 77% of CHD, while adding OTV increases prenatal detection to 83–92% of major abnormalities.
Congenital heart defects appear during the first 8 weeks of the fetus development, thus cardiac sonography at the genetic scan, during 11–13 gestational weeks (GW) is feasible (Figure 28) and identifies numerous abnormalities (Figures 29–35) [59, 60, 61]. The rate of complete cardiac evaluation increases with gestational age, from 20% at 11GW, to more than 92% at 13–15 GW, especially when transvaginal route was used [62, 63].
FT cardiac sweep of a normal heart, duplex mode. (A): 4CV plane: gray-scale imaging shows, crux cordis and pulmonary veins entering left atrium; color Doppler imaging shows equal atrioventricular flow and no flow between ventricles. (B): LVOT plane with the aortic emergence, septoaortic continuity and aortic flow. (C): Crossing of the great vessels. (D): 3VT plane – the confluence of arterial arches on left of spine with normal direction and equal flow.
Monoventricular heart.
Atrioventricular septal defect. Thickened common valve, large communication between the cardiac chambers, absence of crux cordis and regurgitation.
Hypoplastic left heart. A diminutive left ventricle (A) and aorta (B) are identified with the aid of color Doppler. RV, left ventricle; LV, left ventricle; PA, pulmonary artery; Ao, aorta.
Transposition of great arteries. Inapparent four-chamber view (A), with parallel course of the arterial arches (B) and the impression of only one arterial arch at the level of 3VT view (C).
Double aortic arch. Four-chamber view with normal appearance (A), normal emergence of the aorta (B) and pulmonary artery (C), with the aorta coursing to the right of the spine and dividing in two branches that form a vascular ring around the trachea (D).
Tetralogy of Fallot with right aortic arch. (A): Normal appearance of atrioventricular flows; (B): overriding aorta; (C): aorta coursing to the right of the spine along the diminutive pulmonary artery.
Hypoplastic right heart syndrome. Tricuspid atresia with intact septum. (A): Dysplastic thickened tricuspid valve in 4CV assessment, with lack of antegrade blood flow (B) and regurgitation (C). Normal aortic flow is visualized (D), and reversed ductal flow (E), by using color Doppler.
Regarding the
For safety reasons, routine use of pulsed color Doppler is advised against in the FT [65], although tricuspid and ductus venosus flows are commonly used [66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72] and color Doppler improves early visualization of cardio-vascular features, due to the low discrimination of the heart structures in gray-scale mode [73, 74, 75], while respecting the ALARA principle (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) [76].
At a lesser extent, the FT
The
Normal flows at the pulsed Doppler interrogation of ductus venosus (A) and tricuspid valve (B). Ductus venosus with reversed a-wave (C) and tricuspid regurgitation (D) in fetus with atrioventricular septal defect (E).
The performance of early screening for CHD achieved by measurement of fetal NT is improved by the assessment of ductus venosus and tricuspid valve flow pattern. In fetuses with enlarged NT (above 95 centile) and
In 1996 World Food Summit stated that “food security is ensured when the entire population has at all times, physical and economic access to sufficient food resources, safe and of high nutritional value, to meet food needs and preferences providing an active and healthy life”.
Food security has long been associated with the abundance of cereal products, roots and tubers, vegetables and fruits from the main agricultural crops, which could provide affordable sources of nutritional energy. But this image has changed as the concept of nutritional security has become the essential element of food safety, and nutritional diversity has become the basic component to ensuring the human population health. Healthy diets, qualitatively superior, determine the consumption of a variety of foods in optimal quantities [1].
The vegetables are an affordable and relatively inexpensive source of fiber, vitamins and minerals. In general, they have the highest nutritional value when are eaten fresh. Unfortunately, a large part of primary (unprocessed) horticultural products have a relatively short life before they begin to degrade. The extent to which the nutritional value of vegetables deteriorates during harvesting, processing and storage depends both on the type of product (species, organ, ripening level) and on the used technologies [2].
Also, the vegetables are recognized as essential for food and nutritional security of humanity. Producing them offers multiple economic opportunities, reducing poverty and unemployment in rural areas especially, and is also an essential component of plant biodiversity maintaining strategies. The systematic production of vegetables for local markets not only provides income for small farmers, but also contributes to strengthening their resilience to external risks. Diversification of vegetable crops, short cycles of growth and development, the use of local, environmentally friendly inputs and the efficient use of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation can reduce farmers’ vulnerability to climate changes. For economic resilience, farmers may choose either to integrate vegetables into existing large crop systems or to focus exclusively on specialized vegetable production.
Vegetable production has increased more than twice in the last 25 years and the economic value generated by their cultivation has exceeded the commercial value of cereals [3].
The global market of vegetables is still predominantly local because only about 5% of vegetables grown worldwide are marketed internationally. However, this percentage continues to increase quite a lot from one year to other. Easy access to a booming global market is essential for export vegetable producing countries, such as Mexico, Spain or The Netherlands. For example, over the past two decades, Mexico has strengthened its leading position of vegetable exports in the North American market and EU domestic trade has continued to grow, particularly on the basis of products from the two European countries mentioned above.
Declared revenues on the global vegetable market were around 1.249.8 billion US$ in 2018, and their market share increased at an average annual rate of +4.1% between 2007 and 2018. Overall vegetable consumption reached the maximum value in 2018 and is expected to increase continuously between 2020 and 2025 [4].
The quantities of vegetables exported worldwide in 2018 (Figure 1), reached a level of about 47 million tonnes, the total volume of exports increasing at an average annual rate of 1.7% between 2007 and 2018. In terms of value, vegetable exports amounted to 42.3 billions US$. The world’s most important exporters were; The Netherlands (6.1 million tonnes), Mexico (5.8 million tonnes), Spain (5.1 million tonnes), China (4.3 million tonnes), France (3.5 million tonnes), Germany (2.7 million tonnes) and the United States (2.4 million tonnes) accounting for about 64% of total vegetable exports in 2018.
The main global exporters of vegetables, and the volume of their exports for 2018. Processed by; World - Vegetable - Market Analysis, Forecast, Size, Trends and Insights (
Vegetables import levels have also had an upward trend over the past decade. Statistical data show that in 2018 the greatest importers was the US with 7.4 million tonnes, followed by Germany (3.8 million tonnes), the Netherlands (3.1 million tonnes) Russia and the United Kingdom (2.2 million tonnes). An interesting trend has been the emergence in recent years of new countries with high requirements on imports of vegetables such as India, China or the United Arab Emirates. Russia has also seen an increase in trade, despite the imposition of economic sanctions on imports since 2014. The main countries providing vegetables to Russia are Belarus, Morocco, China, Armenia and Azerbaijan [4].
It is estimated that 70% of vegetables grown around the world are sold fresh and whole as primary (unprocessed) horticultural products. Processing of vegetables by preserving, freezing and drying is the main purpose of storage technologies, the possibility of long-distance transport, long lasting storage and the reduction of damage losses. However, the global consumption of preserved vegetables has decreased over the past decade, which attests to consumers’ preferences for fresh vegetables against the background of reduced time from harvest to market (concept from field to fork). Has increased however the demand for frozen vegetables over the past decade by an average of about 1% annually [5].
Due to the relatively high level of perishability, primary horticultural products are exposed to loss in a significant percentage. With 1 in 8 people on Earth starving (about 759 million people), the loss of vegetables and fruits is a component with major social effects. According to the FAO, about 14% of globally produced foods are lost between harvest and retail trade, with significant quantities also being wasted at the retail and consumption level. The value is higher in the case of fruit and vegetables where losses range from 20 to 40 % [6]. Analysis of the data presented shows that significant losses of fresh vegetables and fruits occur in the production process (Europe, North America, Oceania and Latin America), in processing (Africa, South Asia and South-East) and to the final consumer (Europe, North America and Industrialized Asia).
Recent studies haves shown that in European Union around 7.2 million tonnes of fruits and vegetables are discarded annually, which is the equivalent of 14.2 kg/person/year. Of this quantity, avoidable waste (edible parts) accounted for almost half, and the inevitable waste (shells, seeds, stalk, etc.) was the difference [7, 8, 9]. These wastes, if are not properly treated, pose major environmental hazards because their decomposition eliminates an important quantity of various greenhouse gases [10].
Therefore, the reducing of food waste is the main way to close the gap between food supply and demand [11]. On the basis of this argument, one of the specific targets of the UN Sustainable Development Goals is to halve food losses along the production and supply chain by 2030 (Objective 12.3) [12]. The European Commission is committed to respect the objective 12.3. and considers food waste as a priority area in its Circular Economy Action Plan [13]. Moreover, to underline the importance of reducing food loss, the UN declared 29 September as “International Day of Food Lost and Waste”.
The global market share of organic foods is growing from year to year. The share of trade in organic and ecologic fruit and vegetables (out of the total trade in fresh fruit and vegetables) has increased by around 10% in some european countries with high standards of living such as; Switzerland, Sweden, Austria and Denmark. In the United States, this rate is around 9%, but there has been recorded intense growth rates in the last years. Although, income per capita appears to be a determining factor in the consumption of these products, this is not the only one. The consumer education level, supermarket policies on the category of organic vegetables, the price and availability of conventional or traditional products, cultural factors, etc. can be important vectors that influence the consumption of organic and ecologic vegetables products [5].
Vegetable quality assurance is achieved by a succession of attributes related to biological material and cultivation technologies, harvesting, conditioning, processing, storage and marketing. Seed quality is the basic appropriation that characterizes the biological material. The demand of growers for quality seeds is increasing. The world market for vegetable seeds accounts for about 11% of the total plant seed market. The estimated value of the vegetable seed market in 2017 was 8.02 billion US$, reaching 12.6 billion US$ by 2021, with a cumulative annual rate of 8.1 [3].
In general, plant genetic resources are defined as that part of biodiversity used to generate productivity and quality in agriculture. In addition to commercial genotypes (varieties and hybrids), the genetic resources of a cultivated species include breeding lines, genetic forms obtained by various technologies by deliberate breeding (natural or induced mutant lines, substitution and addition lines, inter-specific hybrids, etc.), wild descendants, related species and local races, also referred to as ‘farmers, local or primitive varieties’ [14].
Plant Genetic Resources (PGR’s) represents an important component of the conservation of plant biodiversity and the food security of the human population [15]. PGRs are actually the expression of natural variability in plants, variability that has sustained the human species for millennia. The multitude of plant species, with all existing genotypes, are especially important for ensuring food security, but also because they represent energy sources, medicines, animal feed, fiber, ecosystem services, etc. All these aspects are essential in the context of the global challenges currently facing life on Earth, in particular due to climate change and resource shortages. In the light of this, the efficient conservation and sustainable use of the PGR’s is extremely important and has never been more necessary [16].
Thus, according to The Second Report on the State of the World’s Plant Genetic Resources [17], approximately 7.4 million genotypes, sources of germplasm, belong to over 16,500 species of plants are currently stored in 1750 gene banks and collections around the world.
Vegetable genetic resources (VGR’s) are the foundation on which vegetable cultivation techniques and food chains integrated with them have been developed, and the genetic diversity present in small farms and germplasm collections is essential in efforts to eradicate hunger and poverty. They are the main gene reservoir for the production of new vegetables cultivars and the main supplier of genetic diversity [18]. Therefore, plant genetic resources offer a huge diversity and variability, widely used in genetic studies and plant breeding programs, with undeniable benefits for global food production [19, 20].
Vegetable genetic resources (VGR’s) are used both by traditional farmers to obtain safe and quality production and by researchers as the initial biological material for obtaining new cultivars. The genetic resources are also a reservoir of biodiversity that acts as an element of balancing sudden economic and environmental changes. Recent studies have shown that the main factor in the erosion of PGR’s and biodiversity loss is the replacement in cultivation of local genotypes (old varieties, local populations) with modern cultivars [21].
Unfortunately, VGR’s natural pools are strongly affected by the modern society activities – urbanization, habitat degradation through intensive exploitation, deforestation and arson, increased pressure from diseases and pests, to name just some of these activities.
Modern industrial agriculture based on improved hybrids and cultivars limited and marginalized the use of landraces, causing a serious loss of genetic variability. The high genetic erosion of vegetable landraces was highlighted by Hammer and Laghetti [22], who found that from 1950 till 1986 in Southern Italy only 27.2% of the landraces were still grown. Also, Dias [23] reported that, during the last 50-60 years the genetic diversity of vegetables has been severely eroded all over the world, so that the vegetable genetic resources are disappearing yearly on a global scale with a rate of 1.5-2.0%. This genetic erosion represents an alarm signal for the breeding activities in order to streamline the vegetable production under stressful environments [24].
As genetic erosion continues “in situ” and on farms due to the reasons already mentioned and climate change as well as by replacing old local varieties with improved, super-productive genotypes, it is necessary to intensify the efforts of collection, characterization and conservation with a major focus on the wild relatives of cultivated plants and on the breeds of vegetables poorly represented by the major and minor groups of this class. The conservation of the diversity of local and underutilized plant crops should also be given greater attention [25].
Widely used in the literature, the term “landrace” encompasses different concepts, variable in time and space, depending on trends prevalent in the use and conservation of genetic resources. After a period of beginning when the issue of preserving and maintaining biodiversity was prevalent, today the commercial message is clear and promotes the higher nutritional and sensorial qualities of local vegetable landraces [26]. Due to their complex nature and huge diversity landraces are extremely difficult to be characterized by an all-encompassing definition (Figure 2).
Vegetable landraces diversity.
However, over time, different authors have tried to define landraces on the basis of the characterization of their main attributes. Kiessling [27] in 1912 defined landraces as a mixture of shapes (phenotypes) with a certain degree of external uniformity, specific composition and a high adaptability to the natural, technical and economic conditions of the region of origin [28].
An interesting definition has been proposed by Prospéri et al. [29] in 1994 which attest that a landrace represents a set of genotypes belonging to the same species, that a grower in a given region, uses specific cultivation methods and carries out mass selection, more or less targeted, over several generations.
Zeven [28] said that a “landrace” is a variety with high tolerance to biotic and abiotic stressors, manifested by medium but stable productive yield, under low technological inputs conditions. Landraces have also been defined as dynamic populations of a cultivated plant of distinct historical origin and identity, with genetic variability and high adaptability to specific local conditions (soil, climate, biotic stressors) adapted to cultivation technologies specific to local farmers [30].
Vegetable landraces are considered local old varieties with distinctive characteristics resulting from archaic selection and adaptation over time to pedo-climatic conditions specific to a localized geographical region, which usually exhibit greater genetic diversity than the types subjected to the usual breeding techniques. According to the definition developed by Dwivedi et al. [24] landraces represent heterogeneous, local adaptations of some cultivated species and therefore provide genetic resources adapted to the current challenges posed by biotic and abiotic stress factors.
The analysis of these definitions attests to the existence of some common elements in the characterization of landraces in cultivated plants such as; local character, historical origin, adaptability to soil, climate and stress factors, genetic variability, harvest stability, reduced inputs, traditional farms. Landraces through their long selection process by farmers during the pre-intensive agricultural period provide a great opportunity to find appropriate combinations of genes and phenotypes tolerant to complex situations [31].
In conclusion, landraces are dynamic populations usually associated with traditional farming systems. As such, their evolution was based on both natural and farmers’ selection in low-input cultivation systems [32]. During long period of cultivation, farmers greatly contributed to the diversification of vegetable crops by selecting populations with moderate yield and well adapted to the specific agro-climatic conditions of different regions. The diversity of landraces is usually lower than at their wild ancestors, but considerably higher than at modern cultivars produced by plant breeding [33]. The vegetable landraces are valuable genetic resources to identify genes for increasing yield and adaptation to abiotic stress under the current and future climate changes [34].
Compared with modern varieties, the vegetable landraces have a low presence on the market, due to their lower yields, disease sensitivity, and poorer postharvest shelf life [35]. In the last period, amid an increasing interest of the consumers for traditional and healthy products of the local growers, the landraces are reconsidered both as a source of food and as a source of useful genes [36, 37].
The breeding of plants is as old as their cultivation. The first vegetable growers exploited the favourable variability of landraces of the main attributes such as productivity and high tolerance to environmental stress factors. Much later, probably after a few millennia, mankind developed new methods of breeding and multiplication, including hybridization techniques, and the peak was reached through the use of molecular tools, all of which led to the creation of modern vegetable genotypes with high yielding performance characters [38].
Therefore, an important source of genes that is increasingly used in breeding programs are landraces, old varieties adapted to the conditions of a specific pedo-climatic area [39]. Due to the stronger genetic proximity to modern varieties than their wild relatives, landraces show huge potential to improve modern genotypes by increasing stress tolerance and as sources of healthy and nutritive food [20, 40, 41, 42, 43].
Featuring by a good stress tolerance and high adaptability to different conditions, despite the lack of pathogen tolerance genes, vegetable landraces are still a reservoir of genetic diversity, in particular for certain attributes of interest, such as; tolerance to abiotic stress and high fruit quality [44]. For these reasons, studies carried out on some heterogeneous tomato populations have shown that they have been, are and will continue to represent very important genetic resources used in breeding processes [28]. The genetic profiles of landraces are clearly different from those of modern genotypes [45]. It has been observed that numerous morpho-anatomical, physiological and biochemical traits record significant levels of phenotypic and genotypic diversity [46]. However, information on the variation within vegetable landraces is still limited.
The antioxidant content of the edible organs of wild vegetable species is significantly different from landraces. These compositions have been associated with the features of the organs, the geographical origin and altitude at which they are found. For example, in high-rise areas of northwestern Argentina, local tomato populations with the highest concentration of antioxidants have been identified [47].
Recovering and rendering these qualities in adapted landraces to the original communities will contribute to the sustainable maintenance of these varieties [48, 49]. For example, tomato landraces are characterized by excellent fruit quality, high content in metabolites [50], antioxidants [20, 47] and volatile organic compounds [51]. Landraces and old varieties have a typical flavour that consumers appreciate and demand, although the availability of their seeds is increasingly low [52].
The vegetable landraces are particularly important because they exhibit high heterogeneity (for improvement), are adapted to biotic and abiotic stress conditions, have excellent taste qualities, thus justifying a higher recovery price than commercial varieties [53].
One strategy to highlight the genetic treasure represented by the landraces is to identify the size of genetic variability for primary and secondary metabolites and to establish existing links between biochemical composition of edible products, genetic basis and consumer preferences [54]. Studies from last decade [20, 55, 56] showed that in Romania it still exists many vegetable landraces that need to be preserved and evaluated for further use in breeding programs.
In order to obtain appropriate tomato yield under environmental stress conditions, the plants must show tolerance during the developmental stages from seed germination to flowering and fruit maturity [57]. Characterized by a good adaptability and stress tolerance amid a lack of diseases resistance genes, the landraces still represent an important reservoir of genetic diversity especially for traits associated with abiotic stress resistance and fruit quality [58].
The genetic structure of tomato landraces is quite different from those of modern tomato cultivars [32, 42, 59, 60], while the morphological variation of tomato landraces is higher compared to cultivars [61]. The heterogeneous structure of landraces was highlighted by Terzopoulos and Bebeli [32] who found a wide intra-population phenotypic diversity at 34 Greek tomato landraces for 33 morphological traits except for stem pubescence and foliage density, or plant growth type, respectively. Also, Manzano et al. [62] found a wide phenotypic diversity among 39 Spanish tomato landraces both in terms of morphological traits and postharvest quality of fruits, under organic greenhouse conditions. Analyzing the diversity between 75 landraces and 25 tomato varieties from Southern Italy, Corrado et al [58] revealed that the genetic structures of the landraces were mainly related with the fruit traits
The intra- and inter-populations variability may occur even in case of landraces from a small area, for morphological, agronomical and quality traits [63]. Based of farmer’s activities, different selections of the same landrace can be made. These populations will evolve in different environmental conditions thus contributing to phenotypic diversity of tomato landraces [64, 65]. The diversity/variability between tomato landraces could be attributed both to genetic background and environmental conditions where these genotypes were evolved [66]. The analysis of landraces genetic variability will be useful for a better understanding of fruit shape and size and can help to identify valuable alleles for improving productivity, adaptation and quality [67, 68, 69].
Even, during the last decades the tomato landraces were replaced by new cultivars, in different regions of Romania these landraces are still cultivated for local consumption and market. They have especially distinctive morphological and quality traits of the fruits, considering that the fruits quality is highly appreciated by local consumers.
Within the project S-Stress 82 tomato landraces from two regions of Romania were evaluated using ISSR markers in order to establish the degree of similarity between them. The literature data show that this category of markers could be successfully used for evaluation of tomato variability.
The genetic variability was evaluated based on amplification with 8 ISSR markers namely: UBC 808 – (AG)8C, UBC810 - (GA)8T, UBC811- (GA)8C, UBC840- (GA)8YT, UBC841- (GA)8YC, UBC843- (CT)8RA, UBC884- HBH(AG)7, UBC886- VDV(CT)7, where Y = C or T, R = G or A, H = non G, B = non A, D = non C and V = non T.
In the case of primers such as UBC843, molecular fingerprints revealed major differences between the analyzed populations, while other markers, such as UBC 840, generated very similar fingerprints (Figure 3).
Analysis of amplification products for UBC843 and UBC840 primers.
The results indicated the existence of a wide diversity, both between landraces from the two regions and from the same region, arguing the wide genetic basis of these landraces (Figure 4). Based on these results, combined with the analysis of fruit traits, divergent landraces were crossed together and finally five commercial hybrids were homologated.
UPGMA clustering of 82 tomato landraces using ISSR markers (Landraces 1 to 70 from S-W Romania; landraces 71 to 82 from N-E of Romania).
Given that the fruit traits were the main selection criteria used by the farmers during the evolution of tomato landraces, the maintenance of some landraces in a specific ecological region was mainly due to social factor, thus influencing the diversity of tomato landraces from different regions [70].
The landraces with wild specifics characteristics like; high number of branches and fruits per plants, lower values of fruit weight and small pericarp thickness, exhibit a better disease resistance [71]. In this regard, the modern cultivars for fresh market are characterized by large and round fruits with suitable firmness and shelf-life, amid uniformity of size, shape and colour of the fruits [72]. After a comparative study of tomato landraces and advances lines, Carrillo-Rodriguez et al. [73] suggests that it is possible to select tomato landraces with healthy plants and similar performance to that of advanced breeding lines.
Amid the increasing of consumer’s interest in fruit quality, landraces with fruits appreciated for flavour and aroma should be considered both for production and for breeding activities. Crossings among varieties and landraces or among landraces can provide a useful variability for different plant and fruit traits [46, 65, 74]. Studying the Mexican tomato landraces Martinez-Vazquez et al. [75] found crosses derived between landraces and commercial lines with values of important traits like firmness, yield and fruit size, close to a commercial hybrid. As such, tomato landraces are a valuable source to obtain breeding lines with high general combining ability, possessing important alleles for yield traits, suitable to be used in breeding programs.
Considering that the landraces are genetically closer to modern cultivars than to their wild relatives, they represent an important source of genes for improvement of adaptation to abiotic stress [43]. In this regard, Massaretto et al. [76] highlighted the potential of tomato landraces from Southeast of Spain to improve the fruit quality and also to maintain the yield stability under salt stress conditions. Studying tomato landraces from Romanian areas with medium and high levels of soil salinity, Sumalan et al. [20] found that landraces with tolerance to soil salinity have a high ability to accumulate large amounts of antioxidants in the ripe fruits, increasing their nutraceutical value. Taking into account that the growing conditions have a high influence on plant morphology, chemical composition of the fruits and agronomic performances, Figas et al [77] suggest that long–shell life landraces from Mediterranean basin could be a useful material for improvement of tomato adaptation to greenhouse cultivation, or to predicted climate change conditions, especially drought [78].
Breeding of tomato focused on yield led to a loss of genetic diversity and a decrease of nutritional value and disease resistance [79]. Under a low diversity and a narrow genetic base of disease resistance, the cultivation of tomato becomes vulnerable and dependent to widespread use of pesticides [80]. Given that the preservation of tomato landraces is influenced by both natural and human selection, these populations can be considered a suitable breeding material for the identification of genes with supposed adaptive value [81].
Due to the replacement of landraces and old varieties with modern varieties and in particular F1 hybrids the genetic basis of onion has been considerably reduced, so that many genes with adaptive value contained in the landraces and old varieties are in danger of being lost [82].
The success of onion breeding programs, among others depends mainly on the availability of genetic variability for different traits of interest. The use of wild Allium species for genetic improvement of cultivated varieties is a very long-term process that can take up to 20 years [83]. As such the onion landraces are a more suitable material for breeding of adaptive traits like bulbing and flowering, controlled by multiple genes [84, 85, 86, 87].
For an effective use of onion landraces it is necessary to characterize and evaluate these germplasm at both molecular and at morphological level. In this regard et al. [82] found a 69% diversity between 85 Spanish onion landraces based of pungency, day length requirements, and skin colour, without being established a relation among the diversity at molecular and at morphological or physico-chemical level. Similar results have been reported by other studies: Hanci and Gökçe [88] for Turkish onions; Mitrová et al. [89] for Czech onions; González-Pérez et al. [90] for Galician onions. The landraces possessing high genetic diversity have an important selection potential for the development of new onion cultivars with favorable yield, adaptive and quality traits.
Likewise, the molecular diversity of Indian onions studied by Khar et al [91] was not related with colour, growing season and geographical origin. The exchange among farmers from different regions could be an explanation for the lack of relation between clustering of landraces and their geographical origin.
Following the molecular evaluation of 43 onion landraces from two regions of Romania using ISSR markers within the S-Stress project, a high level of diversity (around 80 %) was found, associated with a clear separation of the landraces in two clusters, related with their geographical origin (Figure 5). Amid a lack o biological material exchange between two regions, it is assumed that the landraces have had a distinct evolution under the influence of local ecological conditions. As such, these onion landraces are important sources of genetic diversity, containing valuable genes for different yield and adaptive traits under salt stress conditions.
UPGMA clustering of 43 onion landraces using ISSR markers (Landraces 1 to 35 from S-W Romania; landraces 36 to 43 from N-E of Romania).
High levels of heterozigosity associated with low allele number reported by several studies [90, 92, 93, 94] represents a consequence of out-crossing and continuous gene flow in small geographical regions where the onion landraces have evolved. In order to capitalize the genetic variation of onion landraces in breeding programs, it is necessary to ensure a certain degree of out-crossing on the selected genotypes [95, 96]. The breeding potential of onion landraces was also revealed by Porta et al [97], who found transgressive segregation for different bulb traits in selfing (S1) lines, compared to original population. The high variance within and among S1 lines for all traits, confirm the heterogeneous structure of landraces and efficiency of their use as a selection material.
A representative of the horticultural plants studied in our research were tomatoes landraces, due to their importance as food in Romania and because it is one of the first crop assessed by molecular markers for variability evaluation. The genetic study of local landraces is based on the evaluation of their genetic variability to determine the degree of similarity. Next, it is necessary to correlate the molecular fingerprints with the phenotypic traits in order to identify genotypes of interest for plant breeding.
Over the time, the variability was evaluated with morphological markers followed by biochemical ones, developed on the basis of isoenzymes. The biochemical markers had a major disadvantage because they are affected by the phenological development stage, being possible to detect a percentage of only 0.1% of the variability. For this reason, the DNA markers have gained increasing importance and have been used on a very large scale today. They can be classified according to the type of analyzed sequence and the applied methods of analysis which both determine their genetic behaviour, i.e. their codominant or dominant character.
The codominant markers, such as RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism), STS (Sequence tagged site), EST (Expressed Sequence Tag) and SSR (Single Sequence Repeats), are an important source of information because they allow the differentiation of homozygotes and heterozygotes being co-dominants, but each category also has a number of disadvantages.
Considering that the microsatellite markers have shown to be promising to evaluate the genetic diversity, Bredemeijer et al [98] constructed database comprising information about more than 500 tomato varieties cultivated in Europe evaluated with 20 SSR markers. The obtained results showed a relatively reduced variability of the studied tomato genotypes, with the average of allele per locus of 4.7, ranging between 2 and 8. Besides, the same test was performed in five different laboratories to emphasize the robustness of the marker system. It was concluded that the use of this set of 20 SSR markers lead to suitable results when homogeneous varieties were studied, but in the case of heterogeneous genotypes it is necessary to analyze a mixed DNA sample from 6 different individuals [98].
When Spanish landraces were analyzed, it was possible to differentiate cultivars only with a small number of SSR markers, even if they were phenotypic different, emphasizing a low level of variation within this species [99].
In an Italian study 50 tomato landraces originated from central of the country and other vintage and modern cultivars were analyzed with 29 SSR markers. The molecular data were associated with the study of 15 morpho-physiological traits. Two categories of markers were used – the markers from the first category were part of a linkage area where QTLs previously associated with the shape and size of the fruits were positioned and in the second category were markers from some chromosomal regions without any known linkage. Besides, DNA samples collected from plants grown in two different locations were analyzed. It was pointed out a high polymorphism of the tomato landraces compared to modern cultivars and many relations between the markers from the QTL region and the traits associated with fruit shape and size. These results are promising for the identification of SSR markers associated with traits of agronomic interest [100].
Later, 42 tomato varieties originated from different regions from China and Kenya were evaluated with SSR markers, emphasizing a high degree of diversity. The results analysis distributed the genotypes in different clusters without any relation with their origin [101]. In other study Italian local landraces were analyzed with 19 SSR markers generating a number of 60 alleles with moderate level of diversity but very different compared to the commercial varieties [102].
It was pointed out that the SSR markers could be used for the evaluation of tomato landraces variability, but it must be considered that their development is expensive and time consuming, therefore may be the markers which generated a high amount of data in only one analysis could be more efficient.
In 2000, species of wild tomato relatives originated from Peru (named PC – Peruvian complex) were evaluated with RAPD markers in comparison with cultured genotypes. A high diversity was shown, emphasizing the potential of the wild genotypes to be used as a source of genes for breeding [103].
In India, based on the molecular fingerprints generated by RAPD markers, the reduction of genetic diversity for tomato cultivars has been highlighted. This has been attributed to breeding processes that target plants with very similar traits [104].
The evaluation of the brasilian tomato landraces based on RAPD primers showed that most of them were part of a single cluster, different from the commercial cultivars [45]. Similar results were obtained when tomato landraces originated from Azerbaijan were analyzed [105].
ISSR markers were used to evaluate the genetic variability for 100 Brazilian tomato genotypes of different origin. Finally, a correlation between the fingerprints generated by ISSR markers and the origin of the genotypes was established [106]
In 2016, landraces originated from East Anatolian region of Turkey and North-West of Iran, along with three commercial cultivars were evaluated with ISSR markers. It turned out that the genotypes originating from the same region, often located in the same group or two adjacent groups [107].
The same markers were used to evaluate tomato genotypes with different antioxidant content. The obtained fingerprints were used to confirm the nature of the hybrids in breeding programs, thus accelerating the selection process [108].
The AFLP markers (Amplified Polymorphic DNA) were used in conjunction with SSR markers to characterize 48 traditional tomato cultivars collected from the south-east of Spain. The discrimination power was similar for both category of markers and the constructed dendrograms were grouped in the main types. The conclusion was that it would be more appropriate to use in combination the information obtained with several categories of markers [59].
In the early 2000’s SRAP markers (Sequence-Related Amplified Polymorphism) were developed as a technique with low cost, simple, highly variable, with high reproducibility [109], based on a random amplification reaction. Considering that 3 ‘UTR region is usually polymorphic due to insertions and deletions the probability to identify polymorphism random in the coding regions is high. This marker had a widely use for diversity evaluation for different plant species.
Ruiz et al [99] studied the diversity of some traditional tomato cultivar from Spain based on SSR and SRAP markers. It was pointed out that SRAP markers clustered together the genotypes with the same origin. Comparable results were observed when SSR markers were used, but the level of resolution was lower [99].
Al Shaye et al [110] evaluated Saudi tomato landraces with SDS-PAGE and SRAP markers. It was shown that almost all of the landraces with the same origin were grouped in the same cluster emphasizing the usefulness of these markers in future breeding programs [110].
Similar to SRAP markers, which bind in the coding gene region, ScoT markers (Start Codon Targeted) involve the amplification with a single primer that anneal to the highly conserved region positioned next to start codon ATG of two close genes [111]. The ScoT primers were used in comparison with the ISSR to evaluate the variability for 8 Egyptian tomato genotypes. The genetic fingerprints were different for the two categories of markers and it was considered that ScoT ones were more related to the morphological traits compared to ISSR for evaluation of tomato diversity. Therefore, the use of more than one marker system is recommended for a higher resolution of the analysis [112]. Following the introduction of modern analytical techniques, they have also been applied in the area of diversity assessment.
Therefore, the sequencing system Illumina was used for evaluation of 75 landraces originated from Sothern Italy and distinguished a number of 152 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP). 30% variability was identified between local populations, the differences being associated especially with fruit-related traits. The developed SNP system was considered to be very useful for genetic characterization, effective conservation and application on tomato breeding process [58].
A complex research had been done in Italy to investigate 123 tomato genotypes originated from all over the world. A very wide range of genotypes has been analyzed in order to succeed in the polymorphism identification and its correlation with different 18 morphological traits, mainly related to fruits. A tomato array was used and a number of almost 8000 SNP were analyzed. The results showed that 36 of the SNP markers were correlated with 15 of the studied traits. These markers were mapped on chromosomes along with a number of 98 candidate genes as follows: 19 SNPs were located in six chromosomal regions in which candidate genes are positioned, and 17 SNPs in regions where no such genes are found. Thus, it can be stated that chromosomal regions have been identified where unknown genes related to the traits are positioned. Thus, new research lines are opened to identify genes of interest [61].
In the following years, considering the development of the SNP analysis system, point mutations associated with organoleptic characters and metabolites content were identified [113] and mutations in genes involved in drought tolerant and fruit maturation and quality [114].
Besides SNP identification, the whole genome sequencing was also applied to identify genes of interest involved in tolerance to drought, good quality and storage proprieties. Therefore, the whole genome of two landraces with the mentioned traits was sequenced. In their genome regions similar to
Therefore, it can be said that over time several molecular marker systems have been used to assess variability in local tomato landraces. But it has rarely been possible to correlate with the phenotype, i.e. the genes determine certain characters. But these molecular markers have shown their importance in screening populations to determine the degree of similarity or to remove identical genotypes from the study and from the conservation. Instead, the development of SNP markers and sequencing of the entire genome is expected to be a strategy that will underpin the identification of all genes of interest in both biological and agricultural areas.
Vegetable landraces constitute a valuable genetic pool of genetic diversity, which can be exploited both in breeding programs for obtaining new commercial genotypes with targeted traits and as a valuable source of germplasm for traditional farmers.
Tomatoes are the most important vegetable with fruits and many landraces are preserved around the world as local varieties or farm varieties. Variability of chemical composition, plant morphology and agronomic performance have shown that cultivation technology has a major impact on the shelflife of tomato fruits.
The conservation of vegetable landraces is associated with their cultural value, geographical isolation of sites, aesthetic and organoleptic preferences of consumers and traditional farmers.
There is an optimistic outlook on harnessing landraces and traditional vegetable varieties in a quality-oriented sustainable horticultural system.
The authors would also like to thank the Centre for Consultancy and Euro-regional Rural Cooperation for financial support.
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by",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:66,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"58070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72427",title:"MRI Medical Image Denoising by Fundamental Filters",slug:"mri-medical-image-denoising-by-fundamental-filters",totalDownloads:2618,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:"Nowadays Medical imaging technique Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays an important role in medical setting to form high standard images contained in the human brain. MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"46296",doi:"10.5772/57398",title:"Physiological Role of Amyloid Beta in Neural Cells: The Cellular Trophic Activity",slug:"physiological-role-of-amyloid-beta-in-neural-cells-the-cellular-trophic-activity",totalDownloads:5952,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:null,book:{id:"3846",slug:"neurochemistry",title:"Neurochemistry",fullTitle:"Neurochemistry"},signatures:"M. del C. Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. Gómez-Virgilio, G. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. Vera-\nArroyo, R. Fiorentino-Pérez, U. García, J. Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9758,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7207,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1477,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:193348,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4632,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3565,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3622,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1370,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82953",title:"Early Visual Areas are Activated during Object Recognition in Emerging Images",slug:"early-visual-areas-are-activated-during-object-recognition-in-emerging-images",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105756",abstract:"Human observers can reliably segment visual input and recognise objects. However, the underlying processes happen so quickly that they normally cannot be captured with fMRI. We used Emerging Images (EI), which contains a hidden object and extends the process of recognition, to investigate the involvement of early visual areas (V1, V2 and V3) and lateral occipital complex (LOC) in object recognition. The early visual areas were located with a retinotopy scan and the LOC with a localiser. The participants (N=8) then viewed an EI, followed by the hidden object’s silhouette (disambiguation), and then, the EI was repeated. BOLD responses before and after disambiguation were compared. The retinotopy parameters were used to back-project the BOLD response onto the visual field, creating spatially detailed maps of the activity change. V1 and V2 (but not V3) showed stronger response after disambiguation, while there was no difference in the LOC. The back-projections revealed no distinct pattern or changes in activity on object location, indicating that the activity in V1 and V2 is not specific for voxels corresponding to the object location. We found no difference before and after disambiguation in the LOC, which may be repetition suppression counteracting the effect of recognition.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Marleen Bakker, Hinke N. Halbertsma, Nicolás Gravel, Remco Renken, Frans W. Cornelissen and Barbara Nordhjem"},{id:"82931",title:"Neuroinflammation in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"neuroinflammation-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105178",abstract:"Neuroinflammation following traumatic brain injury (TBI) is an important cause of secondary brain injury that perpetuates the duration and scope of disease after initial impact. This chapter discusses the pathophysiology of acute and chronic neuroinflammation, providing insight into factors that influence the acute clinical course and later functional outcomes. Secondary injury due to neuroinflammation is described by mechanisms of action such as ischemia, neuroexcitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and glymphatic and lymphatic dysfunction. Neurodegenerative sequelae of inflammation, including chronic traumatic encephalopathy, which are important to understand for clinical practice, are detailed by disease type. Prominent research topics of TBI animal models and biomarkers of traumatic neuroinflammation are outlined to provide insight into the advances in TBI research. We then discuss current clinical treatments in TBI and their implications in preventing inflammation. To complete the chapter, recent research models, novel biomarkers, and future research directions aimed at mitigating TBI will be described and will highlight novel therapeutic targets. Understanding the pathophysiology and contributors of neuroinflammation after TBI will aid in future development of prophylaxis strategies, as well as more tailored management and treatment algorithms. This topic chapter is important to both clinicians and basic and translational scientists, with the goal of improving patient outcomes in this common disease.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Grace Y. Kuo, Fawaz Philip Tarzi, Stan Louie and Roy A. Poblete"},{id:"82876",title:"Oxygen Tissue Levels as an Effectively Modifiable Factor in Alzheimer’s Disease Improvement",slug:"oxygen-tissue-levels-as-an-effectively-modifiable-factor-in-alzheimer-s-disease-improvement",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106331",abstract:"Despite the advance in biochemistry, there are two substantial errors that have remained for at least two centuries. One is that oxygen from the atmosphere passes through the lungs and reaches the bloodstream, which distributes it throughout the body. Another major mistake is the belief that such oxygen is used by the cell to obtain energy, by combining it with glucose. Since the late nineteenth century, it began to be published that the gas exchange in the lungs cannot be explained by diffusion. Even Christian Bohr suggested that it looked like a cellular secretion. But despite experimental evidence to the contrary and based only on theoretical models, the dogma that our body takes the oxygen it contains inside from the air around it has been perpetuated to this day. The oxygen levels contained in the human body are high, close to 99%, and the atmosphere only contains between 19 and 21%. The hypothesis that there is a supposed oxygen concentrating mechanism has not been experimentally proven to date, after almost two centuries. The mistaken belief, even among neurologists, that our body takes oxygen from the atmosphere is widespread, even though there is no experimental basis to support it, just theoretical models. Our finding that the human body can take oxygen from the water it contains, not from the air around it, like plants, comes to mark a before and after in biology in general, and the CNS is no exception. Therefore, establishing the true origin of the oxygen present within our body and brain will allow us to better understand the physio pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases.",book:{id:"11637",title:"Neuropsychology of Dementia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11637.jpg"},signatures:"Arturo Solís Herrera"},{id:"82859",title:"Impact of Hypoxia on Astrocyte Induced Pathogenesis",slug:"impact-of-hypoxia-on-astrocyte-induced-pathogenesis",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106263",abstract:"Astrocytes are the most abundant cells of the central nervous system. These cells are of diverse types based on their function and structure. Astrocyte activation is linked mainly with microbial infections, but long-term activation can lead to neurological impairment. Astrocytes play a significant role in neuro-inflammation by activating pro-inflammatory pathways. Activation of interleukins and cytokines causes neuroinflammation resulting in many neurodegenerative disorders such as stroke, growth of tumours, and Alzheimer’s. Inflammation of the brain hinders neural circulation and compromises blood flow by affecting the blood–brain barrier. So the oxygen concentration is lowered, causing brain hypoxia. Hypoxia leads to the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB) and hypoxia-inducible factors (HIF), which aggravates the inflammatory state of the brain. Hypoxia evoked changes in the blood–brain barrier, further complicating astrocyte-induced pathogenesis.",book:{id:"10744",title:"Astrocytes in Brain Communication and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10744.jpg"},signatures:"Farwa Munir, Nida Islam, Muhammad Hassan Nasir, Zainab Anis, Shahar Bano, Shahzaib Naeem, Atif Amin Baig and Zaineb Sohail"},{id:"82839",title:"Neurophysiology of Emotions",slug:"neurophysiology-of-emotions",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106043",abstract:"Emotions are automatic and primary patterns of purposeful cognitive-behavioral organizations. They have three main functions: coordination, signaling, and information. First, emotions coordinate organs and tissues, thus predisposing the body to peculiar responses. Scholars have not reached a consensus on the plausibility of emotion-specific response patterns yet. Despite the limitations, data support the hypothesis of specific response patterns for distinct subtypes of emotions. Second, emotional episodes signal the current state of the individual. Humans display their state with verbal behaviors, nonverbal actions (e.g., facial movements), and neurovegetative signals. Third, emotions inform the brain for interpretative and evaluative purposes. Emotional experiences include mental representations of arousal, relations, and situations. Every emotional episode begins with exposure to stimuli with distinctive features (i.e., elicitor). These inputs can arise from learning, expressions, empathy, and be inherited, or rely on limited aspects of the environment (i.e., sign stimuli). The existence of the latter ones in humans is unclear; however, emotions influence several processes, such as perception, attention, learning, memory, decision-making, attitudes, and mental schemes. Overall, the literature suggests the nonlinearity of the emotional process. Each section outlines the neurophysiological basis of elements of emotion.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Maurizio Oggiano"},{id:"82172",title:"Neuroimaging in Common Neurological Diseases Treated by Anticoagulants",slug:"neuroimaging-in-common-neurological-diseases-treated-by-anticoagulants",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105128",abstract:"Stroke imaging/Cerebral Venous sinus thrombosis/Arterial dissecting disease in Head and Neck regions/Neurocomplication of anticoagulation therapy. Nowsday, anticoagulant drugs are common drugs used in daily practice for patients in neurology clinic. Anticoagulant treatment used for treated symptomatic patients as well as for prophylaxis therapy in asymptomatic patients. 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