Autophagy inducers identified using a sensitive autophagic flux probe.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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In 2014, he took a senior research scientist position with the International Center of Agriculture Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA). In 2017, he moved back to Canada and joined InnoTech Alberta as a Native Plant Research Scientist. Since November 2019 he has been working as an agriculture specialist with Palm Gardens, Inc. In July 2021, he joined RAYN Cultivation Inc., Edmonton, Alberta, Canada as Chief Executive Officer (CEO). Dr. Goyal has published ten books and fifty research papers, review articles, book chapters, and book reviews. 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Livestock, particularly cattle and poultry are important contributors to total food production in the world. Intensive animal farming is very important from the food security perspective as it involves a dense population of animals on small land and increases food production.
\r\n\r\n\tIntensive animal farming benefits global trade but it also has some harmful impacts on human health. To lessen the harmful effects of intensive farming, farmers should improve the health, welfare, and productivity of their animals through animal health planning and disease control measures that are less dependent on veterinary medicines without jeopardizing animal welfare.
\r\n\r\n\tIntensive animal farming is very prevalent in developed countries and the aim is to produce large quantities of milk, meat, and eggs at low cost. Intensive farming involves mass production through modernized feeding systems and improved breeding and health programs.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-102-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-101-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-103-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"c7c16a12a60f1131a1635594b98e2f11",bookSignature:"Dr. Shumaila Manzoor and Dr. Muhammad Abubakar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11625.jpg",keywords:"Livestock, Animal Husbandry, Poultry Farming, Cattle Farming, Pasture Strengthening, Rotational Grazing, Concentrated Animal Feeding, Biotechnology, Antibiotic Resistance, Zoonotic Diseases, Socio-Economics Impact, Animal Welfare",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 27th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 24th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 14th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Scientist from the National Veterinary Laboratory, Pakistan, with experience of over 10 years in various areas of veterinary disease diagnosis. Dr. Manzoor’s expertise on Transboundary animal diseases (TADs) is well recognized and she has worked with FAO control programs of TADs in the country.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"An Editor-in-Chief of two journals and a Senior Scientist from the National Veterinary Laboratory with over 15 years of experience in various areas of veterinary sciences.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"174519",title:"Dr.",name:"Shumaila",middleName:null,surname:"Manzoor",slug:"shumaila-manzoor",fullName:"Shumaila Manzoor",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/174519/images/system/174519.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shumaila Manzoor, a scientist and laboratory worker from the National Veterinary Laboratory, Islamabad, Pakistan, has experience over 10 years in various areas of veterinary disease diagnosis. Her expertise on the Transboundary animal diseases (TADs) is well recognized and she has worked with FAO control programs of TADs in the country. She has been involved in conduct of various trainings for field as well as laboratory staff. She has published research papers, review articles and book chapters on different areas of veterinary disease diagnosis and control. She has been peer reviewer for two different journals of veterinary science “Research journal for Veterinary Practitioners and Veterinary Sciences; Research and Reviews” for over 03 years.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Laboratory",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"112070",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Abubakar",slug:"muhammad-abubakar",fullName:"Muhammad Abubakar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/112070/images/system/112070.jpg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Abubakar, a scientist from the National Veterinary Laboratory, Islamabad, Pakistan, has more than fifteen years of experience in various fields of veterinary sciences. His main area of expertise is transboundary animal diseases (TADs) and antimicrobial resistance (AMR). He has worked in academics as well as in the field of implementing disease control programs. He has worked with local and international projects to establish diagnostic laboratories for TADs. He has also conducted various training for field as well as laboratory staff. Dr. Abubakar has published numerous research papers, review articles, and book chapters on different subjects in the veterinary sciences, especially TADs like avian influenza, foot-and-mouth disease, and peste des petits ruminants. He is the co-editor of The Role of Biotechnology in Improvement of Livestock. 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Today, this figure has markedly increased to nearly 77 years [1]. Recent estimates [1] predict that in the next four decades, the world’s proportion of people aged 65 years and older will account for nearly 22% of the total population—from the present 800 million to 2 billion people. Although this increase in life expectancy is reflective of the healthcare achievements [2], the socioeconomic costs associated with a higher chronic disease burden have necessitated the development of robust prevention and management strategies that are both safe and immediately executable.
\nAlzheimer’s disease (AD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease, affecting 40 million people worldwide [3]. The prevalence of AD is strongly correlated with age, imposing a greater socioeconomic burden as life expectancy continues to increase. Clinically, AD is associated with the progressive loss of essential cognitive functions and progressive hippocampal and cortical brain atrophy [4]. Current AD treatment Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drugs include N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor antagonist memantine and cholinesterase inhibitors donepezil, galantamine, and rivastigmine [5]. These drugs augment cholinergic neurotransmission or attenuate excitotoxic neuronal injury. However, they only provide palliative benefits at best, with limited impact on the underlying disease mechanisms. Therefore, there is an urgent need for interventions that not only impact the aging process in favor of sustained brain health but also promote successful brain aging in the context of neurodegenerative diseases. AD is pathologically defined by the widespread brain distribution of amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ) plaques, neurofibrillary tangle (NFT) formation, as well as synaptic and neuronal loss [6]. Despite growing understanding of the disease, it remains unclear how these pathological features relate to the specific disease processes. The amyloid cascade hypothesis continues to serve as the predominant model of AD pathology. This hypothesis suggests the overproduction of Aβ, particularly an increase in Aβ [42] relative to Aβ [40], as the causal trigger in the disease process [7]. Aβ is derived from the amyloidogenic cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP), protein cleaved by two endoproteases: the beta-site APP-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1/β-secretase) and γ-secretase enzyme. Briefly, APP is cleaved by BACE1, releasing sAPPβ and leaving the membrane-bound C99 carboxy-terminal fragment that is subsequently processed by γ-secretase to generate Aβ, a nontoxic P3 peptide, and the APP intracellular domain (AICD) [7]. γ-Secretase cleavage results in a C-terminal heterogeneity of the resulting Aβ peptide population. Hence, Aβ peptides of different lengths exist, with Aβ40 being the most abundant (~80–90%), followed by the more hydrophobic and fibrillogenic Aβ42 (~5–10%) form which is the principal peptide aggregated in the AD brain [8].
\nSimilar to AD, protein aggregation is also a hallmark of neuronal cell death onset in Parkinson’s disease (PD). PD is pathologically defined by the formation of intraneuronal inclusions consisting of aggregated α-synuclein (α-syn) and the presence of Lewy neurites and Lewy bodies (LBs) [9]. This neuropathology is associated with impaired functioning of intracellular protein degradation mechanisms [10]. Thus, strategies to either degrade or prevent the initial accumulation of Aβ oligomers and α-syn may be promising in the treatment or prevention of AD and PD, respectively.
\nThe postmitotic nature of neuronal cells makes them highly susceptible to the accumulation of protein aggregates. Hence, the maintenance of protein homeostasis is critical to maintain neuronal function, particularly with age. Although the etiology and molecular mechanisms underlying the pathological changes in AD are not fully understood, studies suggest that localized deficits in the autophagy pathway are likely to precede the formation of Aβ plaques or NFTs [11]. Autophagy is a highly conserved catabolic process that is critical for the systemic removal of long-lived proteins, protein aggregates, and dysfunctional organelles and serves as a major regulator of longevity in various species [12]. This process is triggered by various stressors, e.g., low nutrient levels, and proteotoxicity [13]. Proteotoxicity is by the of functional conformation as mature proteins misfold due to normal aging, posttranslational modifications, or inherent mutations [14]. In the absence of intracellular corrective mechanisms, this proteotoxicity can lead to uncontrolled protein aggregation, impair the cells’ ability to maintain protein homeostasis, and promote cell death onset [14]. Depending on the cargo sequestered, and the mechanism through which cargo is delivered to the lysosome, autophagy encompasses at least three subtypes: microautophagy, chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA), and macroautophagy (Figure 1).
\nSchematic model of the three main types of autophagy described in mammalian cells.
In microautophagy, lysosomal membrane invaginations mediate the internalization of cytosolic cargo into small vesicles that detach into the lumen for degradation [15]. CMA refers to a selective form of autophagy, whereby cytosolic proteins containing a CMA targeting motif—an amino-acid sequence biochemically similar to KFERQ—are bound by heat shock-cognate chaperone of 70 kDa (HSC70). HSC70 targets these proteins to the lysosomal membrane, where after binding to the cytosolic tail of lysosome-associated membrane protein type-2A (LAMP2A), proteins are unfolded and translocated across the lysosomal membrane aided by the lysosome-resident form of HSC70 (lys-hsc70) for degradation by the luminal proteases [16]. Of the three pathways, macroautophagy (hereafter referred to as autophagy) is the most extensively characterized and most relevant to AD. Therefore, this review will focus on the role of macroautophagy as the key mechanism which may be exploited to promote brain health and successful brain aging.
\nAutophagy serves as the cell’s principal quality control system which mediates the degradation of entire cytoplasmic materials through a series of stages characterized by the
The induction of autophagy is primarily mediated by two complexes. Firstly, the initiation complex, which triggers the formation of a phagophore structure (or isolation membrane), comprises the Unc-51-like kinase-1 (ULK1), Atg13, Atg101 and the focal adhesion kinase family-interacting protein of 200 kDa (FIP200) [17]. Secondly, the nucleation complex drives the phosphorylation of phosphatidylinositol (PI) to produce phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PI3P), a membrane-bound lipid which requires the class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (C3PI3K) vacuolar protein sorting 34 (Vps34) to recruit Beclin1, Vps15, Atg14L, or Ambra1 in the region of phagophore formation, termed the omegasome [17]. Autophagosome formation is mediated by two ubiquitin-like conjugation reactions. The first reaction results in the formation of the Atg12-Atg5-Atg16L1 conjugation complex which facilitates the expansion of the phagophore membrane. In the second reaction, Atg12-Atg5 associates with Atg16L1 and localizes to the outer membrane of the pre-autophagosomal structures, in turn catalyzing the recruitment and conjugation of microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (MAP1LC3/Atg8/LC3) with a membrane phospholipid, phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), through the action of Atg4, Atg7, and Atg3 [18]. Atg4 catalyzes the conversion of the cytosolic form of LC3 (LC3-I) to the autophagosome membrane-associated form (LC3-II), which serves as an indicator of autophagosome pool size at a given time [18]. Mature autophagosomes ultimately fuse with lysosomes to form autolysosomes, in which sequestered cargo is degraded and released back into the cytosol for reuse [18]. Autophagic flux, the rate of protein degradation through the autophagy pathway [19, 20], provides an accurate measure of this dynamic process.
\nThe mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) is a component of mTOR, the master regulator of cellular metabolism in response to environmental cues. mTORC1 integrates various signaling networks to promote protein synthesis by suppressing catabolic processes under nutrient-rich conditions [21]. In addition to the class I phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) and the Akt signaling pathway, the tuberous sclerosis (TSC) tumor suppressor complex (TSC1/TSC2) is an important upstream regulator of mTORC1, with loss-of-function mutations in either complex leading to the constitutive activation of mTORC1 [22]. Under conditions of nutrient excess, growth factors such as insulin-like growth factor 1 (insulin/IGF1) activate their cognate receptors, subsequently activating the PI3K/Akt pathway [23]. Activated Akt inhibits TSC1/TSC2, resulting in the activation of mTORC1 [23]. Subsequently, mTORC1 suppresses autophagy activity by phosphorylating (i) components of the ULK1 complex; (ii) Atg14L or Beclin1 regulator (Ambra1); (iii) the Beclin1-binding protein, UV radiation resistance-associated gene (UVRAG); or (iv) the transcription factor EB (TFEB), a key regulator of lysosomal and autophagy gene expression [24]. Therefore, mTORC1 can inhibit autophagy by targeting different components of the core autophagy machinery (Figure 2).
\nRegulation of autophagy by cellular nutrient status.
Under conditions of nutrient stress, mTORC1 activity is suppressed, resulting in the activation of the ULK1 complex [24]. Cellular energetic sensor, AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), positively regulates autophagy to maintain energy homeostasis under energy depleted conditions. Briefly, AMPK phosphorylates TSC2- and mTORC1-binding partner regulatory-associated protein (Raptor) [25], thereby suppressing mTORC1 activity. Additionally, AMPK can bind and phosphorylate ULK1, freeing this complex to initiate autophagy under both nutrient and ATP deplete conditions [26]. Thus, initiation of autophagy can be jointly regulated by mTORC1 and AMPK, to increase the cell’s capacity to adapt to metabolic perturbations.
\nConsistent with the transcriptional downregulation of autophagy during healthy aging in the human brain [27], the impairment of autophagy has been found to decrease life span in various model systems [28]. Screening for chronological aging factors, Matecic et al. [29] published one of the earliest findings implicating impaired autophagy activity in the shortened life span of
Intermittent fasting (IF) is the most studied CR regime in humans. IF involves alternating between periods of
During the aging process, neuronal cells are exposed to increased oxidative and metabolic stress associated with numerous cellular modifications [49]. These modifications are aggravated in neurodegenerative diseases, where neuronal injury is most pronounced in the hippocampus and cortex region. Strong evidence from animal studies suggests that CR promotes enhanced synaptic plasticity, resulting in increased brain resistance to metabolic stressors, and delays brain aging [50]. Studies suggest that long-term CR, from 3 to 11 months of age, had a survival-promoting effect on newly formed glial cells in the hippocampus region of 2-, 18-, and 24-month-old mice [51]. In AD mouse models maintained on a 6–14 week CR regime, a significant reduction in Aβ and astrocytic activation was observed [52]. Hence, exploitation of the mechanisms through which CR augments brain health may aid in the development of lifestyle-based therapeutics in the treatment of AD and other neurodegenerative diseases. Although the exact mechanisms through which CR promotes health and life span are not fully understood, nutrient signaling pathways have been implicated (Figure 3). Of considerable importance to the CR-induced effects on brain aging is the induction of autophagy following the activation of metabolic energy sensors AMPK and sirtuin-1 (SIRT1) or the inhibition of the insulin/IGF1 pathway and mTORC1 signaling [53].
\nThe targeting of nutrient-triggered pathways by selective calorie restriction mimetics in longevity and the promotion of brain health. CR, calorie restriction; CRM, caloric restriction mimetic; IF, intermittent fasting; SIRT1, sirtuin-1; mTORC1, mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1; AMPK, AMP-dependent protein kinase; PGC-1α, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-α; insulin/IGF-1, insulin/insulin-like growth factor-1; PI3K, phosphoinositide 3-kinase; FOXO, Forkhead box O; EP300, E1A-binding protein p300.
SIRT1 is a nicotine amide NAD+-dependent histone deacetylase, which exhibits increased expression following CR in many tissues, including the brain [54]. Importantly, SIRT1 overexpression has also been shown to promote autophagy by activating essential Atg proteins [55]. SIRT1 can further stimulate autophagy by deacetylating and activating the Forkhead box (FOXO) family of transcription factors which act as key regulators of longevity under CR conditions [56]. SIRT1 may further promote longevity through FOXO-dependent induction of stress response genes [56].
\nAMPK is activated in response to low energy levels, e.g., under CR conditions [57], suggesting that AMPK may play a role in CR-induced longevity. Indeed, increased AMPK activity has been found to extend life span in
Inhibition of insulin/IGF1 signaling following CR or growth factor removal has been reported to increase life span, delay the onset of age-related diseases, and increase oxidative stress resistance in various species, including humans [60]. CR-induced downregulation of the insulin/IGF1 pathway in turn induces the activation of SIRT1, resulting in the activation of FOXO transcription factors [61].
\nmTORC1 is activated by growth factors, amino acids, or increased glucose levels, and is thought to control life span through various mechanisms, including the regulation of autophagy [62]. Indeed, autophagy has been shown to be essential for life span expansion in mTOR knockout yeast [63] and
Given the challenge to adhere to prolonged CR regimes, as well as selective side effects, such as decreased body temperature [64] and slowed wound healing [65], compounds that elicit similar beneficial effects on aging, health, and life span as CR could be a more practical alternative. This area of research has sparked considerable interest in the use CRM drugs, or CRM supplements as adjuvant therapy to delay the aging process, particularly during mid- to late life. Currently, the most widely studied CRM candidates are resveratrol, rapamycin, 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2DG), metformin, and spermidine (Figure 3).
\nResveratrol is a polyphenol compound isolated from the skins of red grapes, with red wine (5 mg/L on average) being the principal source of this compound [66]. Daily consumption of grape and blueberry polyphenols has also gained interest as CRMs for the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. For example, studies indicate that the combined dietary supplementation of grape and blueberry polyphenols may have beneficial effects on age-related cognitive decline, improving episodic memory impairment in elderly subjects [67] and preventing the onset of learning and cognitive deficits in aged mice [68]. However, resveratrol has been found to be the most potent polyphenol compound and is to date the most thoroughly studied CRM, first identified and implicated in life span extension in a yeast model system [69]. Work by Baur et al. [70] revealed that resveratrol significantly increased survival in middle-aged mice on a high-calorie diet compared to that of mice on a standard diet by nearly 31%. In addition, resveratrol increased insulin sensitivity, reduced IGF1 levels, activated AMPK/PGC-1α signaling, and improved motor function [70]. Similar benefits have been reported in response to resveratrol supplementation in nonhuman primate models fed a high-fat diet [71, 72]. In the latter study, resveratrol improved adipose insulin levels and reduced the inflammatory response caused by the high-fat diet [72], while the former study revealed that resveratrol prevented diet-induced arterial wall inflammation [71].
\nNaturally sourced resveratrol is poorly absorbed in humans [73]. Hence, high-purity resveratrol-mimetic drugs, such as ResVida™, have been developed to ensure its sustained release [74]. In a recent study, 30-day resveratrol supplementation (150 mg/day ResVida™) in humans led to a decrease in circulating glucose levels, inflammatory markers, triglycerides, and systolic blood pressure [74]. In contrast, others have reported no significant changes in the above parameters in obese men following resveratrol supplementation [75]. Longevinex® is another commercially available resveratrol supplement shown to induce SIRT1 and PGC-1α and increase mitochondrial biogenesis in the brain [76]. Prolonged Longevinex® supplementation has been shown to result in increased levels of LC3-II, Beclin1, and FOXO transcription factors. Therefore, it appears conceivable that prolonged Longevinex® may influence brain health, in part, by inducing neuronal autophagy. Work by Vingtdeux et al. [77] has also revealed that resveratrol can decrease extracellular Aβ accumulation by inducing autophagy through the activation of AMPK. Long-term resveratrol treatment is well tolerated in humans [78], with significantly reduced Aβ levels and improved memory retention observed in AD mouse models [79], making this compound a promising CRM candidate for the treatment of AD.
\nThe suppression of mTORC1 activity is associated with a significant improvement in both health and life span in various organisms, while increased activity is associated with old age in humans [80]. Hence, the use of mTORC1 inhibitor rapamycin may have potential applications as a CRM. Currently, rapamycin is clinically used as an immunosuppressant to prevent the rejection of kidney transplants in patients [66]. In AD mouse models, rapamycin treatment has been shown to improve cognitive ability and reduce Aβ and tau pathology, with these observations being linked to increased autophagic induction [81]. However, it has been reported that prolonged rapamycin treatment in rodents leads to the development of hyperlipidemia, glucose intolerance, and high levels of free fatty acids in skeletal muscle [82]. In contrast, lifelong intermittent administration of rapamycin for 2 weeks/month was found to extend life span in mice [81], suggesting that intermittent rapamycin administration may be more beneficial. In a separate study, adult mice maintained on lifelong rapamycin treatment, starting at 2 months of age, performed significantly better on a task measuring spatial learning and memory compared to age-matched mice on the control diet [83]. However, rapamycin did not improve cognition in adult mice with pre-existing age-dependent cognitive deficits [83], suggesting that rapamycin may have better cognitive outcomes prior to the onset of cognitive deficits.
\nRapamycin is unstable in water; thus, different oral preparations such as nanoparticles [84] have been formulated to increase its bioavailability. Rapatar, a rapamycin formulation based on Pluronic block copolymers as nanocarriers, has been shown to have significantly higher bioavailability after oral administration [85]. Rapatar has been shown to increase life span and delay carcinogenesis during lifelong treatment administered at intermittently low doses (0.5 mg/kg) in tumor-prone mice [86]. The advantage of rapamycin is its FDA-approved status for various clinical applications in humans; however, the relevance for longevity in humans has yet to be established given its immunosuppressive effects.
\nMetformin is a first-line drug approved for the treatment of diabetes [87], which also targets the insulin/IGF1 pathway, mTORC1, AMPK, and SIRT1 [88]. Metformin is rapidly distributed to many tissues following partial absorption, whereas the luminal concentration in the gastrointestinal tract remains high after a single oral dose [89]. Patients with type 2 diabetes have an increased risk of developing AD [90], as insulin has been shown to prevent Aβ oligomer formation in a dose-dependent matter [90]. A 12-year cohort study revealed that metformin supplementation reduced the AD risk in type 2 diabetes patients, with the risk being further reduced when metformin was combined with an antihyperglycemic agent, sulfonylurea [91]. In contrast, a case-control study revealed that long-term metformin-treated type 2 diabetes patients had a slightly higher risk of developing AD [92]. Despite these contradictory findings, metformin remains a promising CRM, but further research is required to unravel its effects on brain health.
\n2DG is a well-established glycolysis inhibitor first identified by Lane et al. [93] as a potential CRM drug. In this study, rats fed with a 2DG supplemented diet at varying weight-dependent doses revealed that 2DG was toxic at a high dosage, while at the lower dosage, 2DG supplementation had beneficial effects, including reduced blood insulin levels [93]. Rodents maintained on a 2DG-supplemented diet for 2 weeks increased neuronal resistance in AD [94] and PD [95] models. While 7 weeks of 2DG supplementation at a dosage of 0.04% has been shown to attenuate amyloid pathology and increase the levels of BDNF in an AD mouse model [96], toxicity studies revealed that 2DG supplementation at a dosage of 0.2–0.4% may induce cardiotoxicity [97]. 2DG has been linked to the upregulation of CR-related signaling pathways, specifically increased activation of AMPK and SIRT1 [93]. Hence, 2DG remains a viable CRM candidate provided the dose-dependent toxicity can be fully established.
\nGiven the cell’s declining capacity to sustain efficient autophagic degradation with age, it is not surprising that autophagy dysfunction plays a key role in pathological processes common to aging and neurodegeneration in the elderly [98]. The modulation of autophagic activity may thus be a promising strategy to offset the progression of neurodegenerative processes with age [99]. In addition to adhering to low CR regimes, and the use of CRM drugs, autophagy-induced life extension may also be mediated using the histone acetylase inhibitor, spermidine. Unlike other autophagy-inducing drugs, spermidine has shown no adverse effects during lifelong administration in mice [100], with clinical data indicating good safety and tolerability in elderly subjects during long-term dietary supplementation [101].
\nSpermidine is a naturally occurring polyamine that has been shown to decline throughout the aging process in humans [102]. Accordingly, spermidine dietary supplementation in mice (26 weeks) and humans (2 months) has been shown to increase blood polyamine concentrations [103, 104]. Studies reveal that spermidine influences life span, partly, by inducing autophagy through the suppression of E1A-binding protein p300 (EP300), an acetyltransferase that transfers acetyl groups from acetyl coenzyme A to core Atg proteins, thereby inhibiting this pathway [105]. Indeed, He et al. [99] revealed that spermidine’s life-extending effects were abolished when autophagy activity was suppressed through
Spermidine’s autophagy-inducing potency has been quantified to be equivalent to that of rapamycin [106]. Although dietary supplementation with spermidine has emerged as a promising prevention strategy in aging individuals with an elevated risk of developing AD, the spermidine concentration required for optimal autophagy activity with healthy aging in humans remains unknown. A recent study revealed that spermidine supplementation had no toxic effects even at high concentrations in mice and in older adults at risk for AD [101]. Improved memory performance was reported in the aged subjects after 3 months of spermidine intake compared to the placebo group [107], suggesting that nutritional spermidine may potentially delay memory loss with age.
\nConsiderable efforts have been made to identify autophagy-inducing drugs which may attenuate the risk for age-associated diseases. Recently, Kaizuka et al. [108] developed an autophagic flux probe which was used to rank autophagy-inducing drugs according to their level of potency by screening an approved drug library. The autophagic flux probe, i.e., GFP-LC3-RFP-LC3∆G, is a fusion protein consisting of GFP-LC3 and RFP-LC3, with the C-terminal glycine of RFP-LC3 being deleted. An equal amount of GFP-LC3 and RFP-LC3∆G is generated in the cytosol, and upon autophagy induction, GFP-LC3 is degraded within autolysosomes, while RFP-LC3∆G remains in the cytosol and serves as an internal control. GFP-LC3-RFP-LC3∆G-expressing cells were treated with candidate drugs at varying concentrations for 24 hrs under both nutrient-rich and starvation conditions. The resulting GFP/RFP signal ratio was measured using a microplate reader, with a low GFP/RFP ratio indicating a robust autophagy inducer (Table 1). Caution is recommended during cell transfection, as homologous recombination can occur between the two LC3 proteins of the probe. Thus, the isolation of properly expressing GFP-LC3-RFP is recommended. Expression levels of the probe may also vary among different cells/tissues; thus, cells/tissues with similar RFP expression levels should be compared. Lastly, the probe has a relatively low time resolution, making it more ideal for the detection of basal autophagy [108].
\nRank | \nDrug | \nGFP/RFP (%) | \nPathology | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nCiclopirox olamine | \n17.3 | \nCancer | \nZhou et al. [109] | \n
17 | \nCladribine (2-CDA) | \n51.1 | \nAD model | \nHayes et al. [110] | \n
27 | \nSertraline hydrochloride | \n58.8 | \nDepression | \nRainey et al. [111] | \n
29 | \nLoperamide hydrochloride | \n61.7 | \nHuntington’s disease model | \nWilliams et al. [112] | \n
47 | \nAzacitidine | \n70.0 | \nHematopoiesis disorders | \nAbdulhaq and Rossetti [113] | \n
Autophagy inducers identified using a sensitive autophagic flux probe.
Modified from Kaizuka et al. [108].
Of the 47 autophagy inducers identified, 3 were of relevance to neuroprotection. Importantly, these data indicate firstly, that autophagy activity can be measured accurately and hence standardized and, secondly, that neuronal autophagy decline in aging or neurodegeneration may be matched with an autophagy inducer that is suitable to offset autophagy dysfunction at the respective levels of autophagy activity (Figure 4). Further studies using these drugs in the context of healthy brain aging as well as AD pathology are required.
\nMatching autophagy induction with autophagic flux decline and dysfunction in brain health and pathology associated with cognitive impairment.
Other antiaging nutrients identified to date, including antioxidants (vitamins A, C, D, and E; quercetin; and coenzyme Q10), and phytochemicals, such as curcumin and epigallocatechin-3-gallate, have been shown to enhance autophagy activity [114]. However, there is a paucity of studies on their overall health benefits in humans.
\nResearch on the “nutrition transition” reveal that urban areas of developing north and sub-Saharan African countries, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East share similar dietary pattern shifts [115]. One commonality of this shift is the increased consumption of fat and sugar-laden foods associated with increased risk for age-associated and lifestyle-based diseases. The consumption of nutritionally dense CRM foods, such as marine-based carotenoid-rich food, sweet potatoes, legumes, low-GI grains, fruits, and various flavonoids used in the Okinawan diet, is thought to be the most beneficial food choices for successful aging [48].
\nShould we restrict our calories/frequently consume CRMs in order to preserve brain health and maintain a sufficiently high neuronal autophagic flux with age? Cumulative evidence from over 70 years of CR research provides compelling support for the role of CR-induced autophagic activity in brain health and longevity [116]. Therefore, a CR regime, alone or in combination with the dietary supplementation of a potent autophagy-inducing CRM, could contribute substantially to successful brain aging, delaying the onset of detrimental effects associated with neuronal proteotoxicity.
\nThe authors acknowledge financial support from the South African National Research Foundation (NRF), the South African Medical Research Council (SAMRC), and the Cancer Association of South Africa (CANSA).
\nHaemostasis is a protective process that regulates and maintains stable physiology in the system. The physiology of haemostasis is extremely complex and reflects a delicate balance between the constant blood flow and immediate localised response to vascular injury. The process of haemostasis is traditionally divided into a cellular phase (involving platelets), known as the primary haemostatic phase and a fluid phase (involving plasma proteins), also called the secondary haemostatic phase [1]. It associates with other body defence mechanisms, including the immune system and the inflammatory responses [2]. During vascular injury, the increased blood pressure exerted in the blood circulation requires powerful and regulated localised pro-coagulant responses to minimise blood loss without compromising blood flow. Systemic anticoagulant and fibrinolytic components in other ways are also developed to inhibit the extension of the pro-coagulant responses to escalate beyond the vascular endothelial control, which may result in thrombotic formation. Thus, the haemostatic system is defined as a complex, highly regulated and integrated process, comprising both activators and inhibitory pathways, including blood vessels, platelets activities, coagulation and fibrinolytic system together [3]. While the coagulation cascade is aimed at fibrin formation through the production of thrombin, which is converted to fibrinogen (FN) and subsequently to fibrin, in the fibrinolytic system, plasmin is the main enzyme that plays a key role in dissolving the already formed clots by degrading fibrin. Physiological anticoagulation mechanisms function to suppress thrombin generation or inhibit its effects. Alterations to these mechanisms could lead to hypercoagulable states. This chapter will focus on the mechanisms associated with anticoagulation and defects of the anticoagulation mechanisms, leading to hypercoagulable states. The review also gave a concise description of the clinical approaches and traditional intervention to minimise the effects of hypercoagulability, which may progress to cardiovascular diseases (CVDs).
Knowledge of the universal sequence of events in haemostasis can give vital information to the progress and development of thrombosis [4]. Within the blood coagulation cascade, the extrinsic pathway is mostly activated by vascular endothelial injury. In contrast, the intrinsic pathway is triggered solely through Factor XII (FXII) exposure on the thrombogenic surface. Even though separated, these pathways are interconnected at several points [4]. Both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways are linked to initiating the common pathway, which terminates at the formation of fibrin clots that are subsequently degraded by plasmin during fibrinolysis (Figure 1) [5]. Within the damaged endothelium, platelet adhesion and activation are promoted by the extremely exposed thrombogenic subendothelial extracellular matrix (ECM). Through its interactions with proconvertin (FVII), tissue factor (TF) initiates the coagulation cascade by converting prothrombin to thrombin. During secondary haemostasis, the thrombin generated triggers FN generation, which is converted to an insoluble fibrin plug that formed a fibrin mesh network together with aggregated platelets [4]. These assist to stop the blood flow, thus ensuring “haemostasis” and the final step of the coagulation cascade [6]. At the “thrombus”, the circulating blood cells become trapped into the fibrin structure, and fibrin cross-linked is accomplished by Factor XIII activator (FXIIIa), which is promoted by the thrombin, leading to solid structural stability and the initial step of the fibrinolytic system [7].
Coagulation cascade and its interrelationship with the fibrinolytic system. Both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways of the coagulation cascade join to initiate the activation of FX of the common pathway. These unite to a fibrin clot, which is eventually degraded by plasmin in the fibrinolytic system.
During the repair process, the generated thrombus is destroyed by plasmin activities, produced by its zymogen plasminogen, tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA) or uPA on the fibrin clot [8]. Proteolysis of fibrin generates soluble fibrin degradation products (FDPs). The fibrinolytic system is extremely controlled by a protease enzyme inhibitor known as plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), synthesised by endothelium, adipose tissue and the liver. The PAI-1 serves as a potent irreversible inhibitor of plasminogen activators, including t-PA and uPA, which convert plasminogen to plasmin, to promote fibrinolysis. The major plasminogen activator is t-PA, which has a high affinity to fibrin. The t-PA is secreted by endothelial cells or synthesised locally following the activation of endothelium by histamine, adrenalin, thrombin, FXa and hypoxia [9]. The u-PA is another plasminogen activator secreted by several cells, such as fibroblasts, epithelial cells and the placenta. The indigenous form of uPA is transformed into a two-chain protein by plasmin or following stimulation by the contact factors, such as FXII, prekallikrein and high molecular weight kininogen (HMWK) (Figure 1) [10]. The uPA and t-PA convert plasminogen into plasmin through urokinase plasminogen activator-receptor (uPA-R) and LDL-receptor related protein-1 (LRP-1) respectively [11].
Generally, anticoagulants exert their effects at different points of the coagulation cascade. Certain anticoagulants function directly as enzyme inhibitors, while some act indirectly by binding to antithrombin (AT) or inhibiting their production in the liver, such as vitamin K-dependent factors (Figure 2) [12].
Mechanisms of Anticoagulation. The anticoagulation system inhibits coagulation through a delicate balance between the activators and inhibitors of the coagulation cascade. At the fibrinolytic system, the balance between the activators of the fibrinolysis, including t-PA and u-PA and inhibitors, such as PAI-1 and α2-AP ensures the inhibition of fibrin formation or immediate dissolution of fibrin when it is formed. TF; tissue factor, TFPI; tissue factor pathway inhibitor, TAFI; thrombin activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor, EPCR; endothelial protein C receptor, ZPI; protein Z-dependent protease inhibitor, PZ; protein Z, TM; thrombomodulin, PC; protein C, APC; activated protein C, PS; protein S, HCII; heparin cofactor II, TM; thrombomodulin, t-PA; tissue-type plasminogen, u-PA; urokinase-type plasminogen activator, PAI-1; plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, α2-AP; α2-antiplasmin, FDP; fibrin degradation products. The dashed arrows indicate inhibition while thick arrow lines indicate activation.
Vitamin K dependent anticoagulant
Coumarin and its derivatives are a class of vitamin K–dependent anticoagulants (VKAs). Warfarin is the most common anticoagulant agent currently in use. It functions to inhibit vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKOR), which is necessarily required for the gamma-carboxylation of vitamin K-dependent factor, including factors II, VII, IX, X and protein C and S. Inhibition of vitamin K carboxylation triggers the decreased hepatic synthesis activity of clotting factors, leading to an anticoagulated state. Bleeding is the most common complication associated with warfarin therapy and is related to exponentially higher international normalised ratio (INR) values. The goal of the management is to reduce the INR back to a therapeutic safe level and hence are monitored by the value of the INR [13]. The dose-effect is narrow, and its actions are altered intensely by some factors, such as vegetables, greenleaf, some certain fruits, some drugs while inherited mutations in the VKOR complex may lead to resistance [12].
Unfractionated heparin (UFH)
Heparin forms a complex with antithrombin III (ATIII) and inactivates several coagulation factors, including FVII. It has a rapid onset of action and a short half-life. Heparin is monitored by activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) and anti-Factor Xa activity. The ratio of 1.5–2.2 times is the recommended target for aPTT [12].
Low molecular weight heparin (LMWH)
Nadroparin, enoxaparin, and tinzaparin have a shorter half-life compared to UFH. However, LMWH is not necessarily monitored unless in some conditions, such as pregnancy and renal failure [12].
Fondaparinux sodium
Fondaparinux sodium also called “Arixtra”, is a new class of synthetic pentasaccharide anticoagulants that bind to ATIII and indirectly inhibit the action of factor Xa. It has a similar mode of action to LMWH but has a longer half-life (17–21 h) than heparin. It does not prevent thrombin generation or interact with platelets but could be an essential and effective alternative to LMWH for the treatment of VTE following an orthopaedic surgical procedure. Fondaparinux is administered subcutaneously and excreted by unsaturated renal filtration [1].
Idrabiotaparinux sodium
Idrabiotaparinux sodium is another related family also injected subcutaneously once a week. It has a similar chemical structure and mode of action as fondaparinux but with a half-life of about 5–6 times longer than fondaparinux (fondaparinux’s 17 hours to about 80 hours), indicating that the drug needs to be administered only once a week. The biotin attached to its structure allows its neutralisation with avidin, an egg-derived protein with low antigenicity [2].
Inhibitors of FXa
Rivaroxaban, apixaban, edoxaban, betrixaban, apixaban and edoxaban are the common types of FXa inhibitors. They act by inhibiting the cleavage of prothrombin to thrombin through binding to FXa. They do not usually require constant monitoring [14].
Inhibitors of thrombin
Bivalirudin and dabigatran are common examples of thrombin inhibitors. They act by inhibiting the cleavage of FN to fibrin and are metabolised in the kidney [12].
In 1845, the German physician, anthropologist, pathologist, prehistorian, and biologist, Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow hypothesised that three factors are important to the development of thrombosis; vascular endothelial injury, haemodynamic alterations and hypercoagulability, which interact with each other (Figure 3) [17]. The vascular endothelial injury was identified first as the main initiator of arterial thrombosis alongside traumatic or endocardial damaged. Moreover, the dysfunctional endothelial cells can secrete a significant concentration of procoagulant agents, including platelet adhesion molecules, TF, and PAI-1 while generating little anticoagulant effectors, such as TM and PCL [18]. The haemodynamic changes may promote procoagulant activities and leucocytic adhesions by modifying the gene expression of the endothelial cells. Although blood stasis is the main trigger for venous thrombosis, turbulent blood flow could also facilitate cardiac and arterial thrombosis. In hypercoagulability, blood clotting factors themselves facilitate thrombogenesis through heritable hypercoagulable states, such as mutations in Factor V Leiden (FVL) and prothrombin. Additionally, disseminated intravascular coagulopathy (DIC), heparin-mediated thrombocytopenia, and Trousseau’s syndrome have been linked with hypercoagulability [18].
Mechanisms of Virchow Triad in the Pathophysiology of Thrombus Formation: Rudolf Virchow proposed a triad of conditions that predisposes to thrombotic formation. They include abnormalities in the blood vessel wall, blood stasis and hypercoagulability. Inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and atherosclerosis constituted abnormalities in the blood vessel wall. Abnormal blood flow arises from haemorheology and turbulence at bifurcations and stenotic sites. The hypercoagulability encompasses the abnormal blood constituents, including dysfunctional platelet, coagulation and endogenous fibrinolytic abnormalities, and metabolic factors.
Hypercoagulability or thrombophilia defines a pathologic condition of exaggerated coagulation or coagulation without bleeding episode. It represents the increased risk for thrombose [19]. Hypercoagulability states are either acquired or inherited but real thrombosis originates as a result of interactions of both genetic and environmental agents. It encompasses a wide range of coagulation abnormalities characterised by a thrombotic event, such as deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE). Congenital hypercoagulability included prothrombin G20210A gene mutation, deficiencies in protein C and protein S, AT deficiency and a single-point mutation on the FVL. Acquired conditions usually result from trauma or surgery, certain medications while the APS has been identified as the most common acquired thrombophilia in the general population [20]. The genetic abnormalities of the fibrinolytic system are not common, however, the acquired hyperfibrinolysis has been identified as the major cause of severe haemorrhage [15].
Certain medications, such as those prescribed to treat certain cancers, including thalidomide, tamoxifen, bevacizumab, and lenalidomide
Central venous catheter placement, hyperlipidaemia, obesity
Prolonged immobility, inactivity or bed rest
Heart attacks, including cardiac heart failure, stroke pelvic artery diseases, etc.
Long-distance aeroplane travel, known as “economy class syndrome”
Previous history of DVT or PE
Myeloproliferative, including polycythaemia vera or essential thrombocytosis
Paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria
Inflammatory bowel syndrome
HIV/AIDS
Nephrotic syndrome (too much protein in the urine).
Hypercoagulability has been recognised as an abnormal complex condition of the haemostasis and as such, the diagnosis of hypercoagulability syndromes involves a combination of associated risk factors, screening tests and confirmation tests [21]. Assessment guidelines vary between medical associations. Some associations suggested that young patients with unprovoked or recurrent VTE, patients with a strong family history of abnormal blood clotting, patients with a recurrent blood clot, women with a history of recurrent miscarriage, stroke at a young age, thromboses in unusual sites, such as hepatic, renal, cerebral, mesenteric, neonatal purpura fulminans, warfarin-induced skin necrosis, and foetal loss should be screened for haemophilia. Also, patients with a history of suspected APS, unexplained prothrombin time (PT), thrombin time (TT), may require APS investigation, screening for APLAs and the diluted Russell venom viper test (dRVVT) [21].
The baseline investigations for hypercoagulability states, including routine coagulation studies, such as aPPT, which measures the blood clot time, usually to monitor heparin treatment, prothrombin time (PT) test is used to calculate INR, to monitor warfarin (Coumadin) treatment, FN levels, d-dimer and complete blood counts (CBC) should be carried out. The most advanced and essential screenings for thrombophilia include functional assays for ATIII, protein C and S deficiencies, PCR for prothrombin G2021A mutation and FVL mutation, testing for APLAs and homocysteine levels [19].
Screening for undetected cancer and unexplained VTE in older patients, including patients history and physical examination, ESR, hepatic and renal function tests, urinalysis, and chest X-ray (XR), tumour markers, CT of the chest, abdomen and pelvis mammography in women above 40 years [20], prostate ultrasound in men of more than 50 years, lower endoscopy, Papanicolaou smear and faecal occult blood test are recommended. In patients with hypercoagulability syndromes, there is an increased risk of venous thrombosis than ischemic stroke. Existing evidence has indicated that venous thrombosis could progress to arterial strokes by paradoxical embolism, therefore young adults with stroke should be screened for venous thrombosis, as the incidence of stroke is gradually increasing in young adults. The report has indicated an association between the homocystinuria and APLA syndrome with arterial strokes, and stroke has been investigated as the common arterial condition progressing to APLA syndrome. Hence, screening for APLA syndrome should be performed on stroke patients younger than 45 years [19].
Anticardiolipin antibodies (ACA) or beta-2 glycoproteins, LA, which are part of the APLA syndrome, to evaluate patients with recurrent miscarriage and venous or arterial thrombosis. Heparin antibodies (in patients who have decreased platelet counts after exposure to heparin) [19].
The ATIII can be substituted for inherited or acquired defects, such as enhanced consumption in DIC and sepsis. Fresh frozen plasma (FFP) for the maintenance of natural balance between procoagulant and anticoagulant factors [30]. Also, various types of anticoagulants and antiplatelets are established to treat recurrent VTE [31], such as vitamin K antagonist (VKA), aspirin (as evaluated in the WARFASA and ASPIRE trials), rivaroxaban (EINSTEIN trial), dabigatran (RE-MEDY and RE-SONATE trials), and apixaban (AMPLIFY trial. The CLOT trial also evaluated LMWH against warfarin in cancer patients and was approved by food and drugs administration [32], rosuvastatin was approved for the prevention of occurrence of VTE [19].
Although the present anticoagulant drugs available are safe and effective, the morbidity and mortality caused by atherothrombosis are still unacceptably high [33]. Many of these drugs are mostly associated with several side effects [34]. Statin, such as simvastatin, a lipid-lowering agent, known as 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitor, is associated with several side effects, including fever, headache, gastric irritation, myositis, hyperuricaemia, rhabdomyolysis, myalgia, renal and hepatic dysfunctions [35]. Acetylsalicylic acid, including aspirin, are antiplatelet synthetic drugs widely prescribed to treat inflammation, headache, fever and thrombosis [36]. Aspirin, in particular, has been reported to inhibit cyclooxygenase (COX), a potent enzyme that catalyses prostaglandin formation by blocking the synthesis of thromboxane A2 (TXA2), an essential mediator of blood clotting [37]. However, aspirin and other related antiplatelet drugs were reported to give recurrent thromboembolic vascular events (aspirin intolerance), including dizziness, nausea, abdominal pain or patients may suffer from increased risk of bleeding [37]. Bleeding is the most common complication associated with warfarin therapy and is related to exponentially higher INR values. The goal of the management is to reduce the INR back to a therapeutic safe level [13]. Existing reports have shown that plant extracts have analgesic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticoagulative, antiplatelet, anti-atherosclerotic, antithrombosis antiproliferative, and cardioprotective, properties [38, 39]. In this regard, the development of natural-based products to augment conventional synthetic drugs is essential. They are more effective with minimal or without side effects [40]. Some natural-based products commonly used in traditional medicines include:
Existing reports demonstrate that honey inhibited the coagulation proteins of the three coagulation pathways: intrinsic, extrinsic, and final common pathway. The main reason for the anticoagulant properties of nature might be attributed to the variety of flavonoids contained in honey that may affect the activity of coagulation factors like FN and factor VII. Additionally, honey contains maltose that has been reported to interfere with blood coagulation. The therapeutic potentials of honey comprise various mechanisms that might play a significant role in the prevention of atherosclerotic CVDs. Honey has been reported to inhibit thrombin (main enzyme of blood coagulation) and induce the formation of reactive oxygen species from phagocytes; as free oxygen radicals particularly superoxide and hypochlorous acid provides room for the development of atherosclerotic plaque, thus honey might interrupt the formation of atherosclerotic plaque [62].
The anticoagulant mechanisms maintain the constant blood flow while inhibiting the progress to hypercoagulable states. The process of maintaining the delicate balance between the coagulation system, the integrity of the haemostasis and the significant contributions of the various system involved is continuous. Supplementation with traditional medications could be beneficial in the treatment and prevention of hypercoagulable states. Further studies are required to evaluate the new classes of anticoagulants and traditional medications with anticoagulant potentials towards improving healthcare to the patients demanding hypercoagulable therapy.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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Ciurean, Dagmar Schröter and Thomas Glade",authors:[{id:"163703",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Glade",slug:"thomas-glade",fullName:"Thomas Glade"},{id:"164141",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Roxana",middleName:"Liliana",surname:"Ciurean",slug:"roxana-ciurean",fullName:"Roxana Ciurean"},{id:"164142",title:"Dr.",name:"Dagmar",middleName:null,surname:"Schroeter",slug:"dagmar-schroeter",fullName:"Dagmar Schroeter"}]},{id:"58010",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72304",title:"Fourth Industrial Revolution: Current Practices, Challenges, and Opportunities",slug:"fourth-industrial-revolution-current-practices-challenges-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:6436,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:68,abstract:"The globalization and the competitiveness are forcing companies to rethink and to innovate their production processes following the so-called Industry 4.0 paradigm. It represents the integration of tools already used in the past (big data, cloud, robot, 3D printing, simulation, etc.) that are now connected into a global network by transmitting digital data. The implementation of this new paradigm represents a huge change for companies, which are faced with big investments. In order to benefit from the opportunities offered by the smart revolution, companies must have the prerequisites needed to withstand changes generated by “smart” system. In addition, new workers who face the world of work 4.0 must have new skills in automation, digitization, and information technology, without forgetting soft skills. This chapter aims to present the main good practices, challenges, and opportunities related to Industry 4.0 paradigm.",book:{id:"6291",slug:"digital-transformation-in-smart-manufacturing",title:"Digital Transformation in Smart Manufacturing",fullTitle:"Digital Transformation in Smart Manufacturing"},signatures:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Raffaele Cioffi and Federico\nZomparelli",authors:[{id:"161682",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"De Felice",slug:"fabio-de-felice",fullName:"Fabio De Felice"},{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"},{id:"205141",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Zomparelli",slug:"federico-zomparelli",fullName:"Federico Zomparelli"},{id:"208748",title:"Dr.",name:"Raffaele",middleName:null,surname:"Cioffi",slug:"raffaele-cioffi",fullName:"Raffaele Cioffi"}]},{id:"35715",doi:"10.5772/38693",title:"The Role and Importance of Cultural Tourism in Modern Tourism Industry",slug:"the-role-and-importance-of-cultural-tourism-in-modern-tourism-industry",totalDownloads:41082,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:61,abstract:null,book:{id:"2298",slug:"strategies-for-tourism-industry-micro-and-macro-perspectives",title:"Strategies for Tourism Industry",fullTitle:"Strategies for Tourism Industry - Micro and Macro Perspectives"},signatures:"Janos Csapo",authors:[{id:"118766",title:"Dr.",name:"János",middleName:null,surname:"Csapó",slug:"janos-csapo",fullName:"János Csapó"}]},{id:"38973",doi:"10.5772/51460",title:"Risk Management in Construction Projects",slug:"risk-management-in-construction-projects",totalDownloads:102555,totalCrossrefCites:36,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:null,book:{id:"2175",slug:"risk-management-current-issues-and-challenges",title:"Risk Management",fullTitle:"Risk Management - Current Issues and Challenges"},signatures:"Nerija Banaitiene and Audrius Banaitis",authors:[{id:"139414",title:"Dr.",name:"Nerija",middleName:null,surname:"Banaitiene",slug:"nerija-banaitiene",fullName:"Nerija Banaitiene"},{id:"149658",title:"Dr.",name:"Audrius",middleName:null,surname:"Banaitis",slug:"audrius-banaitis",fullName:"Audrius Banaitis"}]},{id:"40977",doi:"10.5772/53885",title:"The Emergence of Scientific Reasoning",slug:"the-emergence-of-scientific-reasoning",totalDownloads:4546,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:null,book:{id:"654",slug:"current-topics-in-children-s-learning-and-cognition",title:"Current Topics in Children's Learning and Cognition",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Children's Learning and Cognition"},signatures:"Bradley J. Morris, Steve Croker, Amy M. Masnick and Corinne Zimmerman",authors:[{id:"154336",title:"Prof.",name:"Bradley",middleName:null,surname:"Morris",slug:"bradley-morris",fullName:"Bradley Morris"},{id:"154337",title:"Prof.",name:"Steve",middleName:null,surname:"Croker",slug:"steve-croker",fullName:"Steve Croker"},{id:"154338",title:"Prof.",name:"Amy",middleName:null,surname:"Masnick",slug:"amy-masnick",fullName:"Amy Masnick"},{id:"154339",title:"Prof.",name:"Corinne",middleName:null,surname:"Zimmerman",slug:"corinne-zimmerman",fullName:"Corinne Zimmerman"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58890",title:"Philosophy and Paradigm of Scientific Research",slug:"philosophy-and-paradigm-of-scientific-research",totalDownloads:14074,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Before carrying out the empirical analysis of the role of management culture in corporate social responsibility, identification of the philosophical approach and the paradigm on which the research carried out is based is necessary. Therefore, this chapter deals with the philosophical systems and paradigms of scientific research, the epistemology, evaluating understanding and application of various theories and practices used in the scientific research. The key components of the scientific research paradigm are highlighted. Theories on the basis of which this research was focused on identification of the level of development of the management culture in order to implement corporate social responsibility are identified, and the stages of its implementation are described.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]},{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2328,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:[{id:"324514",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabina",middleName:"N.",surname:"Valente",slug:"sabina-valente",fullName:"Sabina Valente"},{id:"326375",title:"Prof.",name:"Abílio Afonso",middleName:"Afonso",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"abilio-afonso-lourenco",fullName:"Abílio Afonso Lourenço"},{id:"329177",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"zsolt-nemeth",fullName:"Zsolt Németh"}]},{id:"58969",title:"Corruption, Causes and Consequences",slug:"corruption-causes-and-consequences",totalDownloads:27687,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Corruption is a constant in the society and occurs in all civilizations; however, it has only been in the past 20 years that this phenomenon has begun being seriously explored. It has many different shapes as well as many various effects, both on the economy and the society at large. Among the most common causes of corruption are the political and economic environment, professional ethics and morality and, of course, habits, customs, tradition and demography. Its effects on the economy (and also on the wider society) are well researched, yet still not completely. Corruption thus inhibits economic growth and affects business operations, employment and investments. It also reduces tax revenue and the effectiveness of various financial assistance programs. The wider society is influenced by a high degree of corruption in terms of lowering of trust in the law and the rule of law, education and consequently the quality of life (access to infrastructure, health care). There also does not exist an unambiguous answer as to how to deal with corruption. Something that works in one country or in one region will not necessarily be successful in another. This chapter tries to answer at least a few questions about corruption and the causes for it, its consequences and how to deal with it successfully.",book:{id:"6487",slug:"trade-and-global-market",title:"Trade and Global Market",fullTitle:"Trade and Global Market"},signatures:"Štefan Šumah",authors:[{id:"228073",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Sumah",slug:"stefan-sumah",fullName:"Stefan Sumah"}]},{id:"55499",title:"Human Resources Management in Nonprofit Organizations: A Case Study of Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts",slug:"human-resources-management-in-nonprofit-organizations-a-case-study-of-istanbul-foundation-for-cultur",totalDownloads:2399,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The aim of this study is to investigate the efficiency and importance of human resources management in nonprofit organizations. The understanding was included to the literature as personnel management at the beginning of the twentieth century and it turned into an approach as human resources management in the 1980s. It could be observed that many organizations, which deem the human as the most critical stakeholder, adopt a traditional way of personnel management in operating human resources. The employees play a key role in the success of an organization. For this reason, subjects such as recruitment, training, development, career management, performance appraisal, occupational health, and safety are the fundamental functions of human resources management. The study examines to what extent these roles are evaluated through a case study. The subject matter of the study is the most powerful culture and art foundation in Turkey. Compared to many other nonprofit organizations, the foundation actively performs a variety of services within a year worldwide. The fact that the total number of employees might rise up to 800, including the field personnel, indicates the need of a good functioning human resources management. The human resources practices of the foundation are examined and evaluated within that scope.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Beste Gökçe Parsehyan",authors:[{id:"189113",title:"Dr.",name:"Beste",middleName:null,surname:"Gokce Parsehyan",slug:"beste-gokce-parsehyan",fullName:"Beste Gokce Parsehyan"}]},{id:"59152",title:"Marketing Strategies for the Social Good",slug:"marketing-strategies-for-the-social-good",totalDownloads:1669,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Social network sites (SNS) have proven to be a good environment to promote and sell goods and services, but marketing is more than creating commercial strategies. Social marketing strategies can also be used to promote behavioral change and help individuals transform their lives, achieve well-being, and adopt prosocial behaviors. In this chapter, we seek to analyze with a netnographic study, how SNS are being employed by nonprofits and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) to enable citizens and consumers to participate in different programs and activities that promote social transformation and well-being. A particular interest is to identify how organizations are using behavioral economic tactics to nudge individuals and motivate them to engage in prosocial actions. By providing an understanding on how SNS can provide an adequate environment for the design of social marketing strategies, we believe our work has practical implications both for academicians and marketers who want to contribute in the transformation of consumer behavior and the achievement of well-being and social change.",book:{id:"6583",slug:"marketing",title:"Marketing",fullTitle:"Marketing"},signatures:"Alicia De La Pena",authors:[{id:"196878",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"De La Pena",slug:"alicia-de-la-pena",fullName:"Alicia De La Pena"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"4",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83049",title:"An Ethnographic Study on Sense of a Community: The “Awramba” Experience",slug:"an-ethnographic-study-on-sense-of-a-community-the-awramba-experience",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105953",abstract:"The study was conducted on “Awramba” Community who are living in “Amhara” region, south “Gondor” Zone, Ethiopia. The general objective of this study was to capture an understanding of sense of community in “Awramba” community. The study tried to answer the following questions: How the community was established? What are the criteria to be part of the community? What are the shared values of social practice that has survived for the test of time? What is the historical background of the “Awramba” Community? The researcher used realist ethnography method to achieve the above objective and to answer the questions. In-depth interview and observational guide techniques were applied to collect reliable data for the study. The observation and in-depth interview data were analyzed qualitatively. The study showed the following themes: Membership criteria of the community are based on adhering to the community norm. They have a strong sense of community based on shared story, cooperative work, marriage and mourning values, religious view, gender equality, commitment to be honest, and solving their problem by themselves. The emotional connection of the “Awramba” community is strengthened by their common celebration of the yearly anniversary of New Year and scheduled meeting.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Nassir-Maru Yesuf"},{id:"83027",title:"Coping Strategies and Meta-Worry in Adolescents’ Adjustment during COVID-19 Pandemic",slug:"coping-strategies-and-meta-worry-in-adolescents-adjustment-during-covid-19-pandemic",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106258",abstract:"With the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, several limitations and stressful changes have been introduced in adolescent’s daily life. Particularly, Italian teenagers were the first among western populations to experience fears of infection, home confinement, and social restrictions due to a long lockdown period (10 weeks). This study explores the role of coping strategies (task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and avoidance coping) and meta-beliefs about worry as vulnerability factors associated with adolescents’ anxiety. A community sample of adolescents (N = 284, aged 16–18 y.o.) answered questionnaires assessing anxiety symptoms (RCMAS-2), meta-cognitive beliefs and processes about worry (MCQ-C), and coping strategies (CISS). Results show that 37% of participants report clinically elevated anxiety. Emotion-centered coping predicted higher anxiety, whereas task-centered coping resulted associated with decreased anxiety. Cognitive monitoring about their own worry contributes, but to a lesser extent, to higher levels of anxiety. The implications for the intervention are discussed, especially the need to enhance the coping skills of adolescents and mitigate the stress of the COVID-19 pandemic, which could last for a long time.",book:{id:"10671",title:"Adolescences",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10671.jpg"},signatures:"Loredana Benedetto, Ilenia Schipilliti and Massimo Ingrassia"},{id:"83023",title:"Gestational Tryptophan Fluctuation Underlying Ontogenetic Origin of Neuropsychiatric Disorders",slug:"gestational-tryptophan-fluctuation-underlying-ontogenetic-origin-of-neuropsychiatric-disorders",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106421",abstract:"Neuropsychiatry underlies personality development and social functioning. Borderline personality disorder exhibits high trait aggression and is associated with tryptophan hydroxylase polymorphisms. The acute tryptophan depletion reduces plasma and cerebrospinal fluid tryptophan availability and brain serotonin concentrations, leading to alterations in personality and trait-related behaviors. Tryptophan is essential for fatal neurodevelopment and immunomodulation in pregnancy. Gestational tryptophan fluctuation induced by maternal metabolic disorders or drug administrations may account for the maternal-fetal transmission determining neurogenesis and microbial development, consequentially shaping the long-standing patterns of thinking and behavior. However, it is not possible to assess the gestational tryptophan exposure effects on fetal brain and gastrointestinal system in humans for ethical reasons. The maternal–fetal microbe transmission in rodents during gestation, vaginal delivery, and breastfeeding is inevitable. Chicken embryo may be an alternative and evidence from the chicken embryo model reveals that gestational tryptophan fluctuation, i.e., exposed to excessive tryptophan or its metabolite, serotonin, attenuates aggressiveness and affects peer sociometric status. This chapter discusses the gestational tryptophan fluctuation as a risk factor of personality disorders in offspring and the prevention of personality disorders by dietary tryptophan control and medication therapy management during pregnancy.",book:{id:"11782",title:"Personality Traits - The Role in Psychopathology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11782.jpg"},signatures:"Xiaohong Huang, Xiaohua Li and Heng-Wei Cheng"},{id:"83014",title:"Culture: A Pillar of Organizational Sustainability",slug:"culture-a-pillar-of-organizational-sustainability",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106523",abstract:"Sustainability is a concern that permeates all levels of society and is premised on meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. More recently, policies and research have emerged that guide organizations to align their activities with the broader sustainable development agendas, including cultural issues, not just economic, social, and environmental ones. Culture is the material and immaterial attribute of society. It incorporates social organizations, literature, religion, myths, beliefs, behaviors and entrepreneurial practices of the productive segment, use of technology, and expressive art forms on which future generations depend. Thus, cultural sustainability is a fundamental issue and is configured as the fourth pillar of sustainability, equal to social, economic, and environmental issues, which has to do with the ability to sustain or continue with cultural beliefs and practices, preserve cultural heritage as its entity, and try to answer whether any culture will exist in the future. The importance of cultural sustainability lies in its power to influence people. Their beliefs are in the decisions made by society. Thus, there can be no sustainable development without including culture.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Clea Beatriz Macagnan and Rosane Maria Seibert"},{id:"82982",title:"The Well-Being in the Children and Adolescents with ADHD: Possible Influencing Factors and How to Improve It",slug:"the-well-being-in-the-children-and-adolescents-with-adhd-possible-influencing-factors-and-how-to-imp",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106596",abstract:"In recent years, academics have increasingly emphasized the importance of research into the well-being of children and adolescents. This is because well-being plays an important role in the development of children and adolescents. The literature reports that high levels of well-being facilitate positive functioning in children and adolescents. They contribute to the overall development of the individual and are a key factor in helping children and adolescents to integrate into society. ADHD, the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder, affects more than 5% of children and adolescents, and the distress caused by its symptom can seriously undermine the well-being of children and adolescents. Therefore, this chapter discusses this noticeable issue focusing on the following key parts: An understanding of the well-being in children and adolescents, the factors that affect the well-being of children and adolescents with ADHD, and how to improve the well-being of children and adolescents with ADHD.",book:{id:"11444",title:"Happiness - Biopsychosocial and Anthropological Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11444.jpg"},signatures:"Jenson Yin and Jie Luo"},{id:"82949",title:"Corruption and Deterioration of Democracy: The Brazilian Lesson",slug:"corruption-and-deterioration-of-democracy-the-brazilian-lesson",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106194",abstract:"Although it has emerged, nationally and internationally, as one of the largest investigations against political corruption, Operation Car Wash—at its peak of popular prestige—cleared the path for the political rise of Jair Bolsonaro to the Presidency of the Republic of Brazil. And by doing so, to a certain extent, it paved the way for a set of arbitrary practices that today threaten and weaken the main Brazilian democratic institutions. Brazilian democracy today pays a high price for the Judiciary’s lethargic and condescending response to the unorthodox and illegal practices of Federal Judge Sérgio Moro during the golden years of Operation Car Wash (2014–2018). The lesson that the Brazilian episode brings to the international legal community is that the constant disrespect for the rules of due criminal procedure in large cases of corruption erodes the institutional bases that support the proper confrontation of this type of crime. The pertinent fight against corruption in a democracy can only take place in strict obedience to the law.",book:{id:"11772",title:"Corruption - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11772.jpg"},signatures:"Fabio Roberto D’Avila and Theodoro Balducci de Oliveira"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:280},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. Asimeng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"25",type:"subseries",title:"Evolutionary Computation",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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