Comparison of methods for robust GRN inference.
\r\n\tFrom a public health perspective, reduced health literacy can lead to widespread consequences. “Low health literacy is also costly for the country because when people don't understand health information and instructions, they are more likely to have worse health outcomes and unnecessarily use emergency room services,”. Experts agree that health literacy is vital to reducing healthcare costs and improving public health. The path to improving health literacy isn’t always straightforward, however.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\t“Unfortunately, up to 9 out of 10 adults can have limited health literacy, and this can be fluid,” Blue says. “It can be more challenging to be health literate when we are sick or in pain, so even someone who normally has a high level of health literacy may struggle at times to understand and process health information.”
The era of “big data” has arrived to the field of computational biology [1]. Biological systems are so complex that in many situations, it is not feasible to directly measure the target signals. Actually, most of biological measurements are noisy and dependent to but not exactly about what we aim to find. This is where probability theory comes to our aid: estimate the true signals from noisy measurements in the presence of uncertainty. Bayesian inference has been widely applied in computational biology field. In certain systems for which we have a good understanding, i.e., gene regulation, behind the observed signals, there exist multiple hidden factors controlling how genes behave under a specific condition. As we are lacking observations on those hidden factors, we model them as parameters in a Bayesian framework, with or without informative prior. Then, for each parameter, Bayesian inference learns a “posterior” distribution, through which we make a final estimation with a confidence interval.
Bayesian inference can update the shape of the learned posterior distributions for model parameters whenever new data observations arrive, providing enough flexibility for integrative analysis and model extension [2]. Although using more data types means defining more model parameters, Bayesian inference automatically prefers for simple models that sufficiently explain data without unnecessary complexity. This is a very important property for biological data analysis because a simple model is much easier to validate using lab-controlled experiments.
In this chapter, we introduce how to apply Bayesian inference to inferring gene regulatory networks (GRN). GRN is a hierarchical network with regulatory proteins, target genes, and interactions between them [3], playing a key role in mediating cellular functions and signaling pathways in cells [4]. Accurate inference of GRN using data specific for a disease returns disease-associated regulatory proteins and genes, serving as potential targets for drug treatment [5]. In recent years, noncoding DNA analysis reveals more and more noncoding regions with strong regulatory effects on gene transcription [6], which greatly expands the scope of GRN research.
GRN analysis requires an integration of multiple types of measurements including but not limited to gene expression, chromatin accessibility, transcription factor binding, methylation, and histone modification [7]. The challenge of GRN inference is that there exit hundreds of proteins and tens of thousands of genes. One protein can regulate hundreds of target genes, and their regulatory relationship (an interaction in GRN) may vary across different cell types, tissues, or diseases. Experiments of high-throughput target gene measurements for one protein in one specific condition are costive and noisy [8], let alone for hundreds of proteins under diverse conditions. For many tissues or diseases, we need to integrate multiple relevant data types and computationally infer GRNs specific for those conditions.
Bayesian inference is particularly suitable for GRN inference as it is very flexible for large-scale data integration. Moreover, when we have multiple datasets generated from very similar conditions, estimating variables using distribution learning than a single-value prediction makes the final estimation more robust and easier to compare across multiple datasets. We demonstrated this using two breast cancer datasets generated under very similar conditions, in which we also compared a hierarchical Bayesian model with several competing methods. Moreover, using patient data as model input, although they are noisy, we successfully identified a GRN associated with breast cancer recurrence. Finally, we discussed the potential of Bayesian deep learning for large-scale and complex GRN inference.
Human genome can be simply divided into coding (exomes) and noncoding regions. The process of producing an RNA copy from exomes is called transcription, which can be quantitatively measured using microarray or RNA-seq technics [9, 10], producing gene expression data of ∼30,000 genes simultaneously. The transcription process is mediated by regulatory regions located in the noncoding genome, including promoters and enhancers [11]. Promoters are proximal to gene transcription starting sites (TSS), usually within 3 kbps (Figure 1A), while enhancers are usually located distantly, i.e., 200 kbps (Figure 1B), and can be up to 1 Mbps. In general, each gene could be associated with one promoter and multiple enhancers.
Illustration of gene regulation: (A) transcription factor (TF)-gene regulation through proximal promoter regions; (B) TF-gene regulation through distal enhancer regions; (C) a gene regulatory network (GRN) including TFs, genes, and their interactions; (D) regulatory effects of TFs on individual genes with “red” as activation, “blue” as depression, and “white” as no regulatory effects; (E) a heatmap of TF protein activities across biological samples of multiple conditions with “red” as enhanced activity, “green” as reduced activity, “black” as no activity; and (F) a heatmap of gene expression across multiple samples, with “red” as up-regulated, “green” as down-regulated, “back” as no change.
Transcription factors (TFs), a special category of proteins, often coordinate with each other as cis-regulatory modules (CRMs) [12] and co-bind at regulatory regions [13]. For example, in Figure 1A or B, there are three TFs binding at promoter or enhancer regions and functioning together as one CRM to mediate the transcription process of their target genes. It has been known that the association relationships of TFs are not random [14, 15]. Some TFs tend to co-bind at the same regions more often than with others, i.e. MYC and MAX. One TF can regulate multiple genes, and a target gene can also be regulated by multiple TFs considering the existence of CRMs (Figure 1C). For each specific TF-gene interaction in Figure 1C, its regulatory effect can be either positive (activating gene expression) or negative (depressing gene expression), as shown in Figure 1D. The protein activities of TFs are therefore connected to the dynamic changes of gene expression across multiple samples [13]. To accurately identify GRNs, we need quantitative measures of all types of signals in Figure 1D–F. However, due to technical limitations, we can obtain good quality measurements of gene expression, binary measurements (existence or not) of individual TF-gene interactions yet with a high false positive rate, but no measurements of TF activities. To infer GRNs, we must jointly estimate TF activities, TF-gene regulation strengths, and CRMs (TF associations) given gene expression observations.
Bayesian inference is particularly suitable for inferring GRN as it will learn a posterior distribution for each variable, with a high tolerance on the noise existing in the gene expression data or caused by non-perfect prior assumptions.
Given gene expression data under multiple biological samples (conditions), we focus on the expression variation of each gene from its baseline expression because such variation reflects the effects of condition changes. For a specific disease, only genes showing significant expression changes between disease cells and normal cells are interesting candidates. Thus, for gene
where variable
Given protein-DNA binding measurements of
To estimate the abovementioned variables, we develop a hierarchical Bayesian network to model their internal dependency and associations with gene expression, as shown in Figure 2. CRM variable
A hierarchical Bayesian framework for GRN modeling. The number of variables in this framework depends on the numbers of biological samples, TFs, genes, and candidate CRMs. Given gene expression data under different conditions, for the same TF and same gene, their regulatory relationship (variable b) may have very different regulatory strength (variable a). And the TF activity (variable x) can be significantly different as well. Therefore, GRNs are highly context-specific.
Based on prior binding observations from public database, the candidate space of CRM is known, denoted by
Based on data observation,
The regulation strength variable
We model TF activity
Regarding hyperparameters of the prior mean and variance for
Then, the problem of GRN inference is Bayesian formed as estimating posterior probabilistic distributions of
Estimating the joint distribution of above-mentioned variables is difficult. Alternatively, we can approximate the joint posterior distribution by estimating the marginal distribution of each variable. To do that, we iteratively calculate each variable’s conditional probability and perform Bayesian estimation using Gibbs sampling. The advantage of using Gibbs sampling is that it is theoretically guaranteed to converge to the posterior distribution [2, 19, 20, 21].
We first sample TF activity variable
Gibbs sampling of CRMs, TF activities, and regulation strengths with prior TF-gene regulation and gene expression observations as input.
As shown in Eq. (4), the estimation of distribution of
Secondly, for gene
Similar to the estimation process of TF activity variables, the posterior distribution of each
Finally, with sampled TF activity and regulation strength variables, we sample CRM variable
After calculating Eq. (7) for all possible values of
After sampling TFA, TF-gene regulation strength, and cis-regulatory module variables for all
Convergence of Gibbs sampling can be monitored based on the ratio (R) of within-variance and between-variance using multiple sequences with different initial states [22]. In each application, we ran five sequences of sampling in parallel. In the
We first applied the hierarchical Bayesian model to gene expression data measured from in vitro breast cancer cell lines. We chose to use cell line data mainly because such data is usually clean and good for validating computational models. Here, we carefully selected two public available breast cancer cell line datasets measured independently but under the same condition (downloadable from the GEO database https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/, with accession number GSE62789 for Data #1 and accession number GSE51403 for Data #2, both treated by 24 hours of 17b-estradiol (E2) to stimulate breast cancer cells proliferation). The similarity between the two inferred GRNs can be used to evaluate the robustness of GRN inference methods.
For prior TF-gene collection, we checked the ENCODE database (https://www.encodeproject.org/) and selected genome-wide binding profiles of 39 TFs, measured from the same breast cancer cell line. We collected candidate binding events by examining TF binding signals at promoter and distantly associated enhancers associated with each gene. In total we collected 2,319 candidate TF-gene interactions (Figure 4A) between 39 TFs and 275 genes, whose gene expression is consistently upregulated in both datasets when breast cancer cells are stimulated to fast proliferate (Figure 4B and C). We, respectively, applied the hierarchical Bayesian model to the two gene expression datasets with the same prior settings. To monitor the convergence of the sampling process, we ran five sequences with different initial states and sampled 1000 times in each. As shown in Figure 4C and D (for Data #1), after 100 rounds of sampling, the model started to converge. The sampling frequency on each TF-gene interaction was calculated as the posterior probabilistic weight. We extracted top ∼500 most confident TF-gene interactions as the final GRN estimation for each data set and then focused on common interactions between two relevant GRNs.
Input breast cancer cell line data for GRN inference: (A) prior TF-gene interactions (“black” denotes binding occurrence); (B) heatmap of time-course gene expression data; (C) heatmap of steady-state gene expression, all data are from the same breast cancer cell line; (D) convergence of regulatory strength estimation using time-course gene expression data; and (E) convergence of TF activity estimation using time-course gene expression data.
Here, we specifically compared our approach with three competing methods (COGRIM [20], LASSO [23], and NARROMI [24]). COGRIM was a Bayesian inference approach without modeling on CRMs. It treated individual TF-gene binding events independently. Although such an assumption lowered the model complexity, it made the model less robust against the inaccuracy in the TF-gene binding prior. Moreover, for the TF activity, COGRIM simply treated it as an observed value by directly using TF mRNA expression. Although ideally the variation of mRNA transcription is proportional to the activity change of mRNA-translated protein, currently this correlation is very low in most studies using gene expression. These inaccurate assumptions brought a lot of uncertainty to modeling gene expression data. LASSO used a linear regression model to integrate prior TF-gene interactions and gene expression data and predicted one value for each TF-gene interaction. The NARROMI approach inferred GRNs using gene expression data only without any prior on TF-gene interactions, and also, it made single-value prediction for each interaction based on the mutual information between gene and TF expression values. Theoretically, the Bayesian approach described in this chapter should be more robust to identify GRNs. We applied the four competing methods to the above two datasets. Indeed, GRNs identified using our Bayesian model were more consistent between two related datasets (Table 1).
Methods | GRN edges in Data #1 | Similarity with other methods | GRN edges in Data #2 | Similarity with other methods | Common GRN for Data #1 and #2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
500 | 413 | ||||
COGRIM | 516 | 0.798 | 457 | 0.696 | 239 |
LASSO | 565 | 0.486 | 510 | 0.533 | 74 |
NARROMI | 514 | 0.519 | 591 | 0.516 | 44 |
Comparison of methods for robust GRN inference.
***denotes hypergeometric p-value < 0.001.
By analyzing the common 306 TF-gene interactions in Table 1, we identified two functional CRMs. The first CRM had five TFs including POL2A, TDRD3, MYC, MAX, and E2F1 (Figure 5A). The activities of these TFs, as inferred from both datasets, were shown in Figure 5B and C, respectively. In total there were 100 genes regulated by this module, and 60 of them were associated with breast cancer through literature survey (selected genes shown in Figure 5D). The second CRM had six TFs including ELF1, JUND, JUN, FOXA1, CTCF, and HDAC1. In total, there were 89 genes regulated by this module, and 51 of them were associated with breast cancer (selected genes shown in Figure 5E). COGRIM identified fewer genes for the first CRM and failed to identify the second CRM. For the other non-Bayesian approaches, as the number of common TF-gene interactions inferred from two datasets was small, size reduced by over 75%. We did not identify the two key CRMs using either approach.
Key CRMs inferred from breast cancer cell line data: (A) CRM #1 and their TF components; (B) estimated TF activities from Data #1 (time-course); (C) estimated TF activities from Data #2 (steady state); (D) target genes regulated by CRM with MAX, MYC, E2F1, POL2A and TDRD3; (E) target genes regulated by CRM with ELF1, JUND, JUN, FOXA1, CTCF, and HDAC2. Target genes in D and E are associated with breast cancer as supported by literature survey. “Blue” block represents genes showing up in at least two literatures, while “green” block represents genes with one literature support.
We finally applied the Bayesian approach to breast cancer patient data downloaded from the TCGA database (https://portal.gdc.cancer.gov/). Survival time distribution of 93 breast cancer patients treated by
Breast cancer recurrence-associated GRN: (A) heatmap of gene expression in breast cancer cell lines including MCF7, MIII, LCC1, and LCC9, where “red” represents overexpression and “green” represents lower expression; (B) heatmap of gene expression of breast cancer patients in “Early recurrence” and “Late recurrence” groups, divided by 5-year survival; (C) binding sites of 11 TFs on 32 target genes; and (D) association of 5 CRMs and 32 target genes.
Recent technology advance in single-cell gene transcription makes it feasible to study TF-gene regulation during the cell differentiation process [25]. In sections above, across multiple samples, TF-gene interactions are assumed to hold, and the gene expression change is connected to the dynamic variation of TF activities across samples. Yet, at the single-cell level, gene expression measurements are very noisy, whose variation across cells may be partially disconnected from the dynamic changes of TF activities [26]. In that situation, the linear model in Eq. (1) will not work with such gene expression input. Moreover, during the cell differentiation process, in fact we do not have prior knowledge on whether GRNs will hold or change between individual cell states. That means TF-gene interaction change can be another causal factor on gene expression variation across different cell states, too. To model GRNs individually for cell states, we need to define more binding variables, which will definitely make the estimation process more complex.
Those cell state-specific GRNs will uncover the regulatory mechanism that drives cell differentiation. This would be particularly useful for cancer treatment. If any regulation changes at a very early cell state eventually lead to cancer cell fast proliferation, we can engineeringly target those TFs, binding regions, or genes for cancer prevention. Currently inference of cell-state-specific GRN is either through enrichment analysis of TF binding signals in each cell state [27] or regression modeling of gene expression using the matched measurements of regulatory region activities [28]. When the single-cell expression measurements become more accurate, we hope the connection between gene expression and TF activities still holds. Then, the model in Eq. (1) with proper improvement can be used to infer cell-state-specific GRNs.
Although theoretically there is no upper limit on the number of model parameters in the Bayesian framework (Figure 2), the more variables we have, the slower the convergence will be. Moreover, given a complex network with many states, the dependence of different variables will be hard to model, and the estimation process is more easily to stuck into a local state. In recent years, neural network is widely applied to variable estimation in complex systems. Neural network is an end-to-end system that mimics the human brain and tries to learn complex representation within the dataset to provide an output. Similar to conventional machine learning, deep neural networks make a single-value prediction for each model parameter, without measuring uncertainty. That means the model performance relies heavily on the prediction accuracy, and even one overconfident decision can result in a big problem. A Bayesian approach to neural networks can naturally solve this problem by learning a distribution accounting for the uncertainty in parameter estimates [29].
Unlike Bayesian inference discussed in previous sections, inferring model posterior in a Bayesian neural network is much more difficult as there are many parameters to estimate in neural networks. Direct inference of variable posterior distribution is hard so that approximations to the posterior are often used, i.e., the variational inference. The posterior can be modelled using a simple variational distribution such as a Gaussian distribution, and the distribution’s parameters are fitted to approximate the true posterior as close as possible by minimizing the Kullback-Leibler divergence between this simple variational distribution and the true posterior. In earlier sections, we have demonstrated that modeling variables in GRN using Gaussian distribution provided robust performance. To infer large-scale GRN with thousands of genes and hundreds of TFs, Bayesian neural network can be a solution in which posterior distributions of all variables can be approximated by Gaussian distribution.
In this chapter, we mathematically illustrated how Bayesian inference can be used to infer gene regulatory networks. Using several breast cancer-specific datasets, we demonstrated the effectiveness of Bayesian network modeling in biological meaningful signal discovery, in comparison with methods of linear regression. Potentially, Bayesian inference can be used to infer dynamic GRN during cell differentiation using new types of gene expression data. For very large-scale GRN inference in complex systems, the big number of variables may degrade conventional Bayesian inference performance. Bayesian neural networks using variational inference can be a good solution.
Funding for open access charge: Virginia Tech’s Open Access Subvention Found (VT OASF).
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\n\nWe have adopted the Protocol to increase the number of readers of our publications. All our Works are more widely accessible, with resulting benefits for scholars, researchers, students, libraries, universities and other academic institutions. Through this method of exposing metadata, IntechOpen enables citation indexes, scientific search engines, scholarly databases, and scientific literature collections to gather metadata from our repository and make our publications available to a broader academic audience.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Milk has a short shelf life; however, products such as milk powders have allowed a global industry to be developed. Quality control tests are vital to support activities for hygiene and food standards to meet regulatory and customer demands. Multiples of chemical and microbiological contamination tests are undertaken. Hazard analysis testing strategies are necessary, but some tests may be redundant; it is therefore vital to identify product optimization quality control strategies. The time taken to undergo testing and turnaround time are rarely measured. The dairy industry is a traditional industry with a low margin commodity. Industry 4.0 vision for dairy manufacturing is to introduce the aspects of operational excellence and implementation of information and communications technologies. The dairy industries’ reply to Industry 4.0 is represented predominantly by proactive maintenance and optimization of production and logistical chains, such as robotic milking machines and processing and packaging line automation reinforced by sensors for rapid chemical and microbial analysis with improved and real-time data management. This chapter reviews the processing trains with suggestions for improved optimization.",book:{id:"6817",slug:"descriptive-food-science",title:"Descriptive Food Science",fullTitle:"Descriptive Food Science"},signatures:"Niamh Burke, Krzysztof A. Zacharski, Mark Southern, Paul Hogan,\nMichael P. Ryan and Catherine C. Adley",authors:[{id:"243276",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael P",middleName:null,surname:"Ryan",slug:"michael-p-ryan",fullName:"Michael P Ryan"},{id:"246153",title:"Prof.",name:"Catherine",middleName:null,surname:"Adley",slug:"catherine-adley",fullName:"Catherine Adley"},{id:"264302",title:"Ms.",name:"Niamh",middleName:null,surname:"Burke",slug:"niamh-burke",fullName:"Niamh Burke"},{id:"264304",title:"Mr.",name:"Krzysztof A",middleName:null,surname:"Zacharski",slug:"krzysztof-a-zacharski",fullName:"Krzysztof A Zacharski"},{id:"264305",title:"Mr.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Hogan",slug:"paul-hogan",fullName:"Paul Hogan"},{id:"264306",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Southern",slug:"mark-southern",fullName:"Mark Southern"}]},{id:"63188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80437",title:"Effects of Radiation Technologies on Food Nutritional Quality",slug:"effects-of-radiation-technologies-on-food-nutritional-quality",totalDownloads:2255,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Generally, foods are thermally processed to destroy the vegetative microorganisms for food preservation. However, only thermal treatment triggers many unwanted biochemical reactions, which leads to undesirable sensorial and nutritional effects. Therefore, a number of nontraditional preservation techniques are being developed to satisfy consumer demand with regard to nutritional and sensory aspects of foods. Ensuring food safety and at the same time meeting such demands for retention of nutrition and quality attributes has resulted in increased interest in emerging preservation techniques. These emerging food preservation technologies can extend the shelf life of unprocessed or processed foods by inactivating the enzymes, reducing the food spoiling microbial growth rate or viability without altering the food quality attributes including flavor, odor, color, texture, and nutritional value. On the emerging technology, sphere promising results have been attained by the radiation processes. Ionizing radiation has been widely used in industrial processes, especially in the sterilization of medicals, pharmaceuticals, cosmetic products, and in food processing. Nonionizing radiation has been used in surface decontamination, as on the packaging sector. Although radiation techniques, as the other traditional or emerging techniques, can impair alterations that can modify the chemical composition and the nutritional value of foods, these changes depend on the food composition, the irradiation dose and factors such as temperature and presence or absence of oxygen in the irradiating environment. The aim of this chapter is to discuss retention or loss of vitamins and minerals in several food products submitted to a radiation process (gamma irradiation, short wave ultraviolet, microwave, and pulsed electric fields).",book:{id:"6817",slug:"descriptive-food-science",title:"Descriptive Food Science",fullTitle:"Descriptive Food Science"},signatures:"Fabiana Lima, Kássia Vieira, Miriam Santos and Poliana Mendes de\nSouza",authors:[{id:"246696",title:"Dr.",name:"Poliana",middleName:null,surname:"Mendes De Souza",slug:"poliana-mendes-de-souza",fullName:"Poliana Mendes De Souza"},{id:"267120",title:"BSc.",name:"Fabiana Regina",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"fabiana-regina-lima",fullName:"Fabiana Regina Lima"},{id:"267121",title:"BSc.",name:"Kássia Héllen",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",slug:"kassia-hellen-vieira",fullName:"Kássia Héllen Vieira"},{id:"267122",title:"BSc.",name:"Miriam Aparecida",middleName:null,surname:"De Aguilar Santos",slug:"miriam-aparecida-de-aguilar-santos",fullName:"Miriam Aparecida De Aguilar Santos"}]},{id:"63207",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79434",title:"Agrifood By-Products as a Source of Phytochemical Compounds",slug:"agrifood-by-products-as-a-source-of-phytochemical-compounds",totalDownloads:1477,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"In last years, food by-products and waste valorization practices have gained importance because these processes are sustainable and can increase the profit for local economies. Many compound families of phytochemicals like carotenoids, tocopherols, glucosinolates and phenolic compounds can be obtained through plant by-products coming from agroindustries, such as citric peels, tomato wastes or wine pomace. A number of novel methods like pressured liquid, microwaves or supercritical CO2 are being used for the extraction of compounds, affecting them in different ways. Phytochemicals obtained can be used in cosmetics, medical uses and dietary supplements or reused in agrifood industries among others, as natural pigments, antioxidants or antimicrobials.",book:{id:"6817",slug:"descriptive-food-science",title:"Descriptive Food Science",fullTitle:"Descriptive Food Science"},signatures:"Sara Martillanes, Javier Rocha-Pimienta and Jonathan Delgado-\nAdámez",authors:[{id:"193962",title:"Ms.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Martillanes",slug:"sara-martillanes",fullName:"Sara Martillanes"},{id:"193963",title:"Mr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Rocha-Pimienta",slug:"javier-rocha-pimienta",fullName:"Javier Rocha-Pimienta"},{id:"247371",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Delgado-Adámez",slug:"jonathan-delgado-adamez",fullName:"Jonathan Delgado-Adámez"}]},{id:"61595",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77973",title:"Ultrasound Application to Improve Meat Quality",slug:"ultrasound-application-to-improve-meat-quality",totalDownloads:1681,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"High-intensity ultrasound offers an alternative to traditional methods of food preservation and is regarded as a green, versatile, popular, and promising emerging technology. Ultrasound generates acoustic cavitation in a liquid medium, developing physical forces that are considered the main mechanism responsible for the observed changes in exposed materials. In meat, ultrasound has been successfully used to improve processes such as mass transfer and marination, tenderization of meat ,and inactivation of microorganisms. It is also an alternative to traditional meat aging methods for improving the quality properties of meat. Moreover, the combination of ultrasonic energy with a sanitizing agent can improve the effect of microbial reduction in foods. This review describes recent potential applications of ultrasound in meat systems, as well as physical and chemical effects of ultrasound treatments on the conservation and modification of processed meat foods.",book:{id:"6817",slug:"descriptive-food-science",title:"Descriptive Food Science",fullTitle:"Descriptive Food Science"},signatures:"Alma D. Alarcon-Rojo, Esmeralda Peña-González, Iván García-\nGalicia, Luis Carrillo-López, Mariana Huerta-Jiménez, Raúl Reyes-\nVillagrana and Hector Janacua-Vidales",authors:[{id:"114470",title:"Dr.",name:"Alma D.",middleName:null,surname:"Alarcon-Rojo",slug:"alma-d.-alarcon-rojo",fullName:"Alma D. Alarcon-Rojo"},{id:"194015",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Janacua-Vidales",slug:"hector-janacua-vidales",fullName:"Hector Janacua-Vidales"},{id:"228859",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Carrillo",slug:"luis-carrillo",fullName:"Luis Carrillo"},{id:"252001",title:"Dr.",name:"Esmeralda",middleName:null,surname:"Peña-Gonzalez",slug:"esmeralda-pena-gonzalez",fullName:"Esmeralda Peña-Gonzalez"},{id:"252003",title:"Dr.",name:"Iván",middleName:null,surname:"García-Galicia",slug:"ivan-garcia-galicia",fullName:"Iván García-Galicia"},{id:"252004",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Huerta-Jimenez",slug:"mariana-huerta-jimenez",fullName:"Mariana Huerta-Jimenez"},{id:"252005",title:"Dr.",name:"Raul",middleName:null,surname:"Reyes-Villagrana",slug:"raul-reyes-villagrana",fullName:"Raul Reyes-Villagrana"}]},{id:"62295",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78796",title:"Chemical Constituents of Fruit Wines as Descriptors of their Nutritional, Sensorial and Health-Related Properties",slug:"chemical-constituents-of-fruit-wines-as-descriptors-of-their-nutritional-sensorial-and-health-relate",totalDownloads:1385,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Functional foods are foods that provide positive health effects apart from the provision of essential nutrients. Along with nutraceuticals, they represent the top trends in the food industry. Fruit wines are considered functional foods. When assessing the fruit wine quality, a wide range of descriptors are taken into consideration, namely physicochemical and sensorial properties of fruit wine. Furthermore, within the context of the new food products development (e.g. functional products), functional properties of fruit wines are also taken into consideration. Functional properties are determined by the content of the biologically active components, such as polyphenols, vitamins and micro- and macrominerals. It is also important to consider the food-safety issues regarding the fruit wines consummation, that is, the presence of pesticides, mycotoxins and biogenic amines in different fruit wines. This chapter aims to give an overview of various factors used to evaluate the quality and the functional properties of fruit wines.",book:{id:"6817",slug:"descriptive-food-science",title:"Descriptive Food Science",fullTitle:"Descriptive Food Science"},signatures:"Darko Velić, Daniela Amidžić Klarić, Natalija Velić, Ilija Klarić, Vlatka\nPetravić Tominac and Ana Mornar",authors:[{id:"147995",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Mornar",slug:"ana-mornar",fullName:"Ana Mornar"},{id:"245704",title:"Prof.",name:"Darko",middleName:null,surname:"Velić",slug:"darko-velic",fullName:"Darko Velić"},{id:"246414",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Amidžić Klarić",slug:"daniela-amidzic-klaric",fullName:"Daniela Amidžić Klarić"},{id:"246415",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalija",middleName:null,surname:"Velić",slug:"natalija-velic",fullName:"Natalija Velić"},{id:"246416",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilija",middleName:null,surname:"Klarić",slug:"ilija-klaric",fullName:"Ilija Klarić"},{id:"246417",title:"Prof.",name:"Vlatka",middleName:null,surname:"Petravić Tominac",slug:"vlatka-petravic-tominac",fullName:"Vlatka Petravić Tominac"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"63169",title:"The Dairy Industry: Process, Monitoring, Standards, and Quality",slug:"the-dairy-industry-process-monitoring-standards-and-quality",totalDownloads:9071,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Sampling and analysis occur along the milk processing train: from collection at farm level, to intake at the diary plant, the processing steps, and the end products. Milk has a short shelf life; however, products such as milk powders have allowed a global industry to be developed. Quality control tests are vital to support activities for hygiene and food standards to meet regulatory and customer demands. Multiples of chemical and microbiological contamination tests are undertaken. Hazard analysis testing strategies are necessary, but some tests may be redundant; it is therefore vital to identify product optimization quality control strategies. The time taken to undergo testing and turnaround time are rarely measured. The dairy industry is a traditional industry with a low margin commodity. Industry 4.0 vision for dairy manufacturing is to introduce the aspects of operational excellence and implementation of information and communications technologies. The dairy industries’ reply to Industry 4.0 is represented predominantly by proactive maintenance and optimization of production and logistical chains, such as robotic milking machines and processing and packaging line automation reinforced by sensors for rapid chemical and microbial analysis with improved and real-time data management. This chapter reviews the processing trains with suggestions for improved optimization.",book:{id:"6817",slug:"descriptive-food-science",title:"Descriptive Food Science",fullTitle:"Descriptive Food Science"},signatures:"Niamh Burke, Krzysztof A. Zacharski, Mark Southern, Paul Hogan,\nMichael P. Ryan and Catherine C. Adley",authors:[{id:"243276",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael P",middleName:null,surname:"Ryan",slug:"michael-p-ryan",fullName:"Michael P Ryan"},{id:"246153",title:"Prof.",name:"Catherine",middleName:null,surname:"Adley",slug:"catherine-adley",fullName:"Catherine Adley"},{id:"264302",title:"Ms.",name:"Niamh",middleName:null,surname:"Burke",slug:"niamh-burke",fullName:"Niamh Burke"},{id:"264304",title:"Mr.",name:"Krzysztof A",middleName:null,surname:"Zacharski",slug:"krzysztof-a-zacharski",fullName:"Krzysztof A Zacharski"},{id:"264305",title:"Mr.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Hogan",slug:"paul-hogan",fullName:"Paul Hogan"},{id:"264306",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Southern",slug:"mark-southern",fullName:"Mark Southern"}]},{id:"62295",title:"Chemical Constituents of Fruit Wines as Descriptors of their Nutritional, Sensorial and Health-Related Properties",slug:"chemical-constituents-of-fruit-wines-as-descriptors-of-their-nutritional-sensorial-and-health-relate",totalDownloads:1380,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Functional foods are foods that provide positive health effects apart from the provision of essential nutrients. Along with nutraceuticals, they represent the top trends in the food industry. Fruit wines are considered functional foods. When assessing the fruit wine quality, a wide range of descriptors are taken into consideration, namely physicochemical and sensorial properties of fruit wine. Furthermore, within the context of the new food products development (e.g. functional products), functional properties of fruit wines are also taken into consideration. Functional properties are determined by the content of the biologically active components, such as polyphenols, vitamins and micro- and macrominerals. It is also important to consider the food-safety issues regarding the fruit wines consummation, that is, the presence of pesticides, mycotoxins and biogenic amines in different fruit wines. This chapter aims to give an overview of various factors used to evaluate the quality and the functional properties of fruit wines.",book:{id:"6817",slug:"descriptive-food-science",title:"Descriptive Food Science",fullTitle:"Descriptive Food Science"},signatures:"Darko Velić, Daniela Amidžić Klarić, Natalija Velić, Ilija Klarić, Vlatka\nPetravić Tominac and Ana Mornar",authors:[{id:"147995",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Mornar",slug:"ana-mornar",fullName:"Ana Mornar"},{id:"245704",title:"Prof.",name:"Darko",middleName:null,surname:"Velić",slug:"darko-velic",fullName:"Darko Velić"},{id:"246414",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Amidžić Klarić",slug:"daniela-amidzic-klaric",fullName:"Daniela Amidžić Klarić"},{id:"246415",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalija",middleName:null,surname:"Velić",slug:"natalija-velic",fullName:"Natalija Velić"},{id:"246416",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilija",middleName:null,surname:"Klarić",slug:"ilija-klaric",fullName:"Ilija Klarić"},{id:"246417",title:"Prof.",name:"Vlatka",middleName:null,surname:"Petravić Tominac",slug:"vlatka-petravic-tominac",fullName:"Vlatka Petravić Tominac"}]},{id:"64299",title:"Quality of Reduced-Fat Dairy Coffee Creamer: Affected by Different Fat Replacer and Drying Methods",slug:"quality-of-reduced-fat-dairy-coffee-creamer-affected-by-different-fat-replacer-and-drying-methods",totalDownloads:1447,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This work aims to investigate the effects of inulin (0, 2.5, 5 and 7.5%, w/w) and maltodextrin (0, 15, 20 and 25%, w/w) as wall materials and fat replacers and drying techniques (i.e. spray drying and fluidized-bed drying) on physicochemical properties of regular and instant reduced-fat dairy creamers. The regular reduced-fat dairy creamer was produced by one-stage drying (i.e. spray drying), while the instant reduced-fat dairy creamer was produced by two-stage drying (i.e. spray drying followed by fluidized-bed drying). In this study, control (0% inulin and 0% maltodextrin) and two commercial regular and instant coffee creamers (A and B) were also considered for comparison purposes. The results showed that the regular creamer containing 25% maltodextrin and 7.5% inulin had the largest particle size, highest viscosity and most desirable wettability among all formulated regular creamers. The yield of reduced-fat coffee creamer was significantly increased from 43.55 to 94.60% by increasing the amount of fat replacers to the maximum level (25% maltodextrin and 7.5% inulin). The current study revealed that the application of fluidized-bed drying for agglomeration led to significantly improve the wettability and instant properties of the instant creamer. In this study, the formulated instant creamer containing 25% maltodextrin and 7.5% inulin was the most desirable product as compared to all creamers.",book:{id:"6817",slug:"descriptive-food-science",title:"Descriptive Food Science",fullTitle:"Descriptive Food Science"},signatures:"Simin Hedayatnia and Hamed Mirhosseini",authors:[{id:"245735",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hamed",middleName:null,surname:"Mirhosseini",slug:"hamed-mirhosseini",fullName:"Hamed Mirhosseini"}]},{id:"63188",title:"Effects of Radiation Technologies on Food Nutritional Quality",slug:"effects-of-radiation-technologies-on-food-nutritional-quality",totalDownloads:2249,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Generally, foods are thermally processed to destroy the vegetative microorganisms for food preservation. However, only thermal treatment triggers many unwanted biochemical reactions, which leads to undesirable sensorial and nutritional effects. Therefore, a number of nontraditional preservation techniques are being developed to satisfy consumer demand with regard to nutritional and sensory aspects of foods. Ensuring food safety and at the same time meeting such demands for retention of nutrition and quality attributes has resulted in increased interest in emerging preservation techniques. These emerging food preservation technologies can extend the shelf life of unprocessed or processed foods by inactivating the enzymes, reducing the food spoiling microbial growth rate or viability without altering the food quality attributes including flavor, odor, color, texture, and nutritional value. On the emerging technology, sphere promising results have been attained by the radiation processes. Ionizing radiation has been widely used in industrial processes, especially in the sterilization of medicals, pharmaceuticals, cosmetic products, and in food processing. Nonionizing radiation has been used in surface decontamination, as on the packaging sector. Although radiation techniques, as the other traditional or emerging techniques, can impair alterations that can modify the chemical composition and the nutritional value of foods, these changes depend on the food composition, the irradiation dose and factors such as temperature and presence or absence of oxygen in the irradiating environment. The aim of this chapter is to discuss retention or loss of vitamins and minerals in several food products submitted to a radiation process (gamma irradiation, short wave ultraviolet, microwave, and pulsed electric fields).",book:{id:"6817",slug:"descriptive-food-science",title:"Descriptive Food Science",fullTitle:"Descriptive Food Science"},signatures:"Fabiana Lima, Kássia Vieira, Miriam Santos and Poliana Mendes de\nSouza",authors:[{id:"246696",title:"Dr.",name:"Poliana",middleName:null,surname:"Mendes De Souza",slug:"poliana-mendes-de-souza",fullName:"Poliana Mendes De Souza"},{id:"267120",title:"BSc.",name:"Fabiana Regina",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"fabiana-regina-lima",fullName:"Fabiana Regina Lima"},{id:"267121",title:"BSc.",name:"Kássia Héllen",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",slug:"kassia-hellen-vieira",fullName:"Kássia Héllen Vieira"},{id:"267122",title:"BSc.",name:"Miriam Aparecida",middleName:null,surname:"De Aguilar Santos",slug:"miriam-aparecida-de-aguilar-santos",fullName:"Miriam Aparecida De Aguilar Santos"}]},{id:"63751",title:"Role of Dietary Carotenoids in Different Etiologies of Chronic Liver Diseases",slug:"role-of-dietary-carotenoids-in-different-etiologies-of-chronic-liver-diseases",totalDownloads:1260,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Carotenoids are tetraterpenoid organic pigments synthesized by a variety of plants and microorganisms. Dietary carotenoids, taken by animals through food, play an essential role in cell differentiation, morphogenesis, vision, prevention of cancer, atherosclerosis, and age-related macular degeneration in humans due to their potential to suppress oxidative stress. As reactive oxygen species and oxidative damage to biomolecules have been found to be involved in the causation and progression of chronic liver diseases (CLDs), including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), which is one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Therefore, dietary antioxidants, which inactivate reactive oxygen species and obstruct oxidative damage, are considered as vital prophylactic strategic molecules. Data from various epidemiological studies and clinical trials strongly validate the observation that adequate carotenoid supplementation may significantly reduce the risk of several liver disorders. This chapter, thus, provides a comprehensive account of dietary carotenoids and includes the recent information with respect to their role in prevention of liver diseases.",book:{id:"6817",slug:"descriptive-food-science",title:"Descriptive Food Science",fullTitle:"Descriptive Food Science"},signatures:"Uzma Latief and Riaz Ahmad",authors:[{id:"249801",title:"Dr.",name:"Riaz",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"riaz-ahmad",fullName:"Riaz Ahmad"},{id:"251098",title:"Ms.",name:"Uzma",middleName:null,surname:"Latief",slug:"uzma-latief",fullName:"Uzma Latief"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"325",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",slug:"alexandros-tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. 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