Chemical composition of main raw materials.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2334",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Crystallography",title:"Recent Advances in Crystallography",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The advent of X-ray diffraction in the early twentieth century transformed crystallography from an area of scientific inquiry largely limited to physics, mineralogy, and mathematics, to a highly interdisciplinary field which now includes nearly all life and physical sciences as well as materials science and engineering. This book is a collection of works showcasing some of the most recent developments in the field of crystallography.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0754-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6236-0",doi:"10.5772/2711",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"recent-advances-in-crystallography",numberOfPages:326,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"f6da5efb05552ebb2e13efaa566012a3",bookSignature:"Jason B. Benedict",publishedDate:"September 19th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2334.jpg",numberOfDownloads:26584,numberOfWosCitations:44,numberOfCrossrefCitations:15,numberOfDimensionsCitations:29,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:88,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 16th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 7th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 12th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 11th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 10th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"137214",title:"Dr.",name:"Jason B.",middleName:null,surname:"Benedict",slug:"jason-b.-benedict",fullName:"Jason B. Benedict",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137214/images/system/137214.jpg",biography:"Jason Benedict received his B.S. in Chemistry from Arizona State University in 2001. He completed his Ph.D. in Chemistry at the University of Washington in the laboratory of Professor Bart Kahr in 2007. His graduate work involved the optical characterization of anisotropic media including dyed crystals, spherulites, and poled polymers. He was a postdoctoral researcher with Professor Philip Coppens at the University at Buffalo from 2008-2011 developing time-resolved X-ray diffraction techniques as well as synthesizing and characterizing functionalized semiconductor nanoparticles. In 2011, Dr Benedict joined the Department of Chemistry at the University at Buffalo as an Assistant Professor where he is developing new 'in-house' time-resolved X-ray diffraction, imaging, and spectroscopic techniques and synthesizing novel molecular nanomaterials for a variety of materials science applications.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University at Buffalo, State University of New York",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"700",title:"Inorganic Chemistry",slug:"engineering-chemical-engineering-inorganic-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"39125",title:"Histories of Crystallography by Shafranovskii and Schuh",doi:"10.5772/48789",slug:"histories-of-crystallography-by-shafranovskii-and-schuh",totalDownloads:2278,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Bart Kahr and Alexander G. Shtukenberg",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39125",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39125",authors:[{id:"150265",title:"Prof.",name:"Bart",surname:"Kahr",slug:"bart-kahr",fullName:"Bart Kahr"},{id:"150773",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Shtukenberg",slug:"alexander-shtukenberg",fullName:"Alexander Shtukenberg"}],corrections:null},{id:"39165",title:"Crystallography Under Extreme Conditions: State of the Art and Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/48608",slug:"crystallography-under-extreme-conditions-state-of-the-art-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:2197,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Legrand Vincent",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39165",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39165",authors:[{id:"146542",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent",surname:"Legrand",slug:"vincent-legrand",fullName:"Vincent Legrand"}],corrections:null},{id:"39152",title:"X-Ray N-Beam Takagi-Taupin Dynamical Theory and N-Beam Pinhole Topographs Experimentally Obtained and Computer-Simulated",doi:"10.5772/47846",slug:"x-ray-n-beam-takagi-taupin-dynamical-theory-and-n-beam-pinhole-topographs-experimentally-obtained-an",totalDownloads:1558,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Kouhei Okitsu, Yasuhiko Imai and Yoshitaka Yoda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39152",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39152",authors:[{id:"144279",title:"Dr",name:null,surname:"Okitsu",slug:"okitsu",fullName:"Okitsu"}],corrections:null},{id:"39126",title:"X-CHIP: An Integrated Platform for High-Throughput Protein Crystallography",doi:"10.5772/48581",slug:"x-chip-an-integrated-platform-for-high-throughput-protein-crystallography",totalDownloads:1566,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Nickolay Y. Chirgadze, Gera Kisselman, Wei Qiu, Vladimir Romanov, Christine M. Thompson, Robert Lam, Kevin P. Battaile and Emil F. Pai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39126",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39126",authors:[{id:"146201",title:"Dr.",name:"Nickolay",surname:"Chirgadze",slug:"nickolay-chirgadze",fullName:"Nickolay Chirgadze"}],corrections:null},{id:"39160",title:"Mineralization of Lipid A-Phosphates in Three- and Two-Dimensional Colloidal Dispersions",doi:"10.5772/48493",slug:"mineralization-of-lipid-a-phosphates-in-three-and-two-dimensional-colloidal-dispersions",totalDownloads:1418,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Henrich H. Paradies, Peter Quitschau, Hendrik Reichelt, Chester A. Faunce and Kurt Zimmermann",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39160",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39160",authors:[{id:"144906",title:"Prof.",name:"Henrich",surname:"Paradies",slug:"henrich-paradies",fullName:"Henrich Paradies"}],corrections:null},{id:"39154",title:"Crystals in Materials Science",doi:"10.5772/50791",slug:"crystals-in-materials-science",totalDownloads:2334,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Dinesh G. (Dan) Patel and Jason B. Benedict",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39154",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39154",authors:[{id:"137214",title:"Dr.",name:"Jason B.",surname:"Benedict",slug:"jason-b.-benedict",fullName:"Jason B. Benedict"}],corrections:null},{id:"39150",title:"Halogen Bonding in Crystal Engineering",doi:"10.5772/48592",slug:"halogen-bonding-in-crystal-engineering",totalDownloads:3808,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:20,signatures:"Xin Ding, Matti Tuikka and Matti Haukka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39150",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39150",authors:[{id:"146358",title:"Prof.",name:"Matti",surname:"Haukka",slug:"matti-haukka",fullName:"Matti Haukka"}],corrections:null},{id:"39127",title:"Epitaxial Electrodeposition of Chiral Films Using Chiral Precursors",doi:"10.5772/48389",slug:"epitaxial-electrodeposition-of-chiral-films-using-chiral-precursors",totalDownloads:2259,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Rakesh Gudavarthy and Elizabeth A. Kulp",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39127",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39127",authors:[{id:"143302",title:"Dr.",name:"Rakesh",surname:"Gudavarthy",slug:"rakesh-gudavarthy",fullName:"Rakesh Gudavarthy"},{id:"146171",title:"Dr.",name:"Elizabeth",surname:"Kulp",slug:"elizabeth-kulp",fullName:"Elizabeth Kulp"}],corrections:null},{id:"39128",title:"Crystal Structures of Organic Compounds",doi:"10.5772/48536",slug:"crystal-structures-of-organic-compounds",totalDownloads:3475,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Nader Noroozi Pesyan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39128",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39128",authors:[{id:"145481",title:"Dr.",name:"Nader",surname:"Noroozi Pesyan",slug:"nader-noroozi-pesyan",fullName:"Nader Noroozi Pesyan"}],corrections:null},{id:"39151",title:"Unique and Effective Characterization of Space Groups in Computer Applications",doi:"10.5772/50179",slug:"unique-and-effective-characterization-of-space-groups-in-computer-applications",totalDownloads:2596,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Kazimierz Stróż",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39151",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39151",authors:[{id:"147367",title:"Dr.",name:"Kazimierz",surname:"Stroz",slug:"kazimierz-stroz",fullName:"Kazimierz Stroz"}],corrections:null},{id:"39153",title:"XAO Analysis - AO's and Their Populations in Crystal Fields",doi:"10.5772/50517",slug:"xao-analysis-ao-s-and-their-populations-in-crystal-fields",totalDownloads:1479,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Kiyoaki Tanaka and Yasuyuki Takenaka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39153",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39153",authors:[{id:"142047",title:"Prof.",name:"Kiyoaki",surname:"Tanaka",slug:"kiyoaki-tanaka",fullName:"Kiyoaki Tanaka"},{id:"145619",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasuyuki",surname:"Takenaka",slug:"yasuyuki-takenaka",fullName:"Yasuyuki Takenaka"}],corrections:null},{id:"39124",title:"Computational Potential Energy Minimization Studies on the Prion AGAAAAGA Amyloid Fibril Molecular Structures",doi:"10.5772/47733",slug:"computational-potential-energy-minimization-studies-on-the-prion-agaaaaga-amyloid-fibril-molecular-s",totalDownloads:1617,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Jiapu Zhang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39124",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39124",authors:[{id:"146274",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiapu",surname:"Zhang",slug:"jiapu-zhang",fullName:"Jiapu Zhang"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6186",title:"Carbon Dioxide Chemistry, Capture and Oil Recovery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"720a601cd2b5476cbeb817906a4ab2dd",slug:"carbon-dioxide-chemistry-capture-and-oil-recovery",bookSignature:"Iyad Karamé, Janah Shaya and Hassan Srour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6186.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145512",title:"Prof.",name:"Iyad",surname:"Karamé",slug:"iyad-karame",fullName:"Iyad Karamé"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"64890",slug:"erratum-emergency-operations-of-sudden-water-pollution-accidents",title:"Erratum - Emergency Operations of Sudden Water Pollution Accidents",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64890.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64890",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64890",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64890",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64890",chapter:{id:"64626",slug:"emergency-operations-of-sudden-water-pollution-accidents",signatures:"Jin Quan, Lingzhong Kong, Xiaohui Lei and Mingna Wang",dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"October 15th 2018",datePrePublished:"December 1st 2018",datePublished:"December 19th 2018",book:{id:"8874",title:"Emergency Operation Technologies for Sudden Water Pollution Accidents in the Middle Route of South-to-North Water Diversion Project",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Emergency Operation Technologies for Sudden Water Pollution Accidents in the Middle Route of South-to-North Water Diversion Project",slug:"emergency-operation-technologies-for-sudden-water-pollution-accidents-in-the-middle-route-of-south-to-north-water-diversion-project",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",bookSignature:"Xiaohui Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8874.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC 4.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"282118",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaohui",middleName:null,surname:"Lei",slug:"xiaohui-lei",fullName:"Xiaohui Lei"}],productType:{id:"4",title:"Compact",chapterContentType:"compact",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},authors:[{id:"280923",title:"Dr.",name:"Lingzhong",middleName:null,surname:"Kong",fullName:"Lingzhong Kong",slug:"lingzhong-kong",email:"lzkong@126.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"64626",slug:"emergency-operations-of-sudden-water-pollution-accidents",signatures:"Jin Quan, Lingzhong Kong, Xiaohui Lei and Mingna Wang",dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"October 15th 2018",datePrePublished:"December 1st 2018",datePublished:"December 19th 2018",book:{id:"8874",title:"Emergency Operation Technologies for Sudden Water Pollution Accidents in the Middle Route of South-to-North Water Diversion Project",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Emergency Operation Technologies for Sudden Water Pollution Accidents in the Middle Route of South-to-North Water Diversion Project",slug:"emergency-operation-technologies-for-sudden-water-pollution-accidents-in-the-middle-route-of-south-to-north-water-diversion-project",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",bookSignature:"Xiaohui Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8874.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC 4.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"282118",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaohui",middleName:null,surname:"Lei",slug:"xiaohui-lei",fullName:"Xiaohui Lei"}],productType:{id:"4",title:"Compact",chapterContentType:"compact",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},authors:[{id:"280923",title:"Dr.",name:"Lingzhong",middleName:null,surname:"Kong",fullName:"Lingzhong Kong",slug:"lingzhong-kong",email:"lzkong@126.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"8874",title:"Emergency Operation Technologies for Sudden Water Pollution Accidents in the Middle Route of South-to-North Water Diversion Project",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Emergency Operation Technologies for Sudden Water Pollution Accidents in the Middle Route of South-to-North Water Diversion Project",slug:"emergency-operation-technologies-for-sudden-water-pollution-accidents-in-the-middle-route-of-south-to-north-water-diversion-project",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",bookSignature:"Xiaohui Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8874.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC 4.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"282118",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaohui",middleName:null,surname:"Lei",slug:"xiaohui-lei",fullName:"Xiaohui Lei"}],productType:{id:"4",title:"Compact",chapterContentType:"compact",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"9872",leadTitle:null,title:"Transportation Systems for Smart, Sustainable, Inclusive and Secure Cities",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tThe transportation systems may and should play a significant role in let communities being smart, sustainable, inclusive and secure. Indeed, it is a common opinion that innovative and smart mobility systems for logistics and people may significantly change the traditional mobility paradigms, the traditional transportation planning approaches and may make the transportation system more sustainable and inclusive, and let the whole social and economic system more efficient.
\r\n\tThe overall objective of the book is to propose a methodological/ technological state of play and an operational assessment on the complex issues regarding the management and optimization of the multiple components of a transportation system: users, infrastructures, technologies and services.
\r\n\tThe book welcomes topics such as smart mobility, smart transportation systems, smart vehicle, smart infrastructures, smart people: citizens and users.
",isbn:"978-1-83880-823-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-802-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-824-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef80dab7f0350ea7cb28f40eedea2b35",bookSignature:"Prof. Stefano De Luca, Dr. Roberta Di Pace and Dr. Chiara Fiori",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9872.jpg",keywords:"Transportation, Intelligent Information Systems, Smart Vehicles, Vehicle Management, Driving Assistance Technologies, Smart Infrastructures, Smart Transportation Systems, Sustainable Transportation Systems, Vehicle Routing, Travel Demand Modeling, Life Cycle Assessment, Environmental Impacts Modeling",numberOfDownloads:672,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfTotalCitations:1,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 6th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 27th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 26th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 14th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 13th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Scientific coordinator of the Transportation Planning and Modelling laboratory, a consultant for the Italian Ministry of Transportation, the Transport commission of Campania Region, of Salerno and Avellino Transportation Departments and member of the IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Society.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"271061",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"De Luca",slug:"stefano-de-luca",fullName:"Stefano De Luca",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/271061/images/system/271061.jpeg",biography:"Stefano de Luca, got a Ph.D. in transportation engineering at the University of Rome 'La Sapienza” and is an associate professor at the Department of Civil Engineering of the University of Salerno (Italy). He is a professor of Transportation Planning (BSc, Civil Eng. and Environmental Eng.) and Transportation Systems Theory (MSc, Civil Eng.). Currently, he is vice-coordinator of the Ph.D. course on 'Risk and sustainability”, scientific coordinator of the Transportation Planning and Modelling laboratory. He is a consultant for the Italian Ministry of Transportation, the Transport commission of Campania Region, of Salerno and Avellino Transportation Departments. His main research interest includes transportation planning techniques, travel demand modeling, users’ behavior modeling, signal settings design, traffic assignment models, air transportation. He is member of IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Society.",institutionString:"University of Salerno",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Salerno",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"271713",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberta",middleName:null,surname:"Di Pace",slug:"roberta-di-pace",fullName:"Roberta Di Pace",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/271713/images/system/271713.jpeg",biography:"Roberta Di Pace received both the MSc degree and the Ph.D. degree in transportation engineering from the University of Naples 'Federico II,” Naples, Italy, in 2005 and 2009, respectively. She is an assistant professor in Transportation Engineering at the Department of Civil Engineering of the University of Salerno (Italy). She is an aggregate professor of Technique and Transport Economics (BSc, Civil Eng. and Environmental Eng) and Transportation Systems Design (MSc, Civil Eng). Since 2010 she is a member of the Transportation Planning and Modelling Laboratory. Her main research fields include the development of analytical tools for advanced traveler information systems, the traffic flow modeling, the network signal setting design, the advanced traffic management systems. She is a member of IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Society and IEEE Women in Engineering.",institutionString:"University of Salerno",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Salerno",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"321783",title:"Dr.",name:"Chiara",middleName:null,surname:"Fiori",slug:"chiara-fiori",fullName:"Chiara Fiori",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/321783/images/system/321783.jpg",biography:"Chiara Fiori is assistant professor at the Department of Civil Engineering of the University of Salerno, Italy. She earned the Ph.D. from Sapienza University of Rome, Italy in 2015. From 2016 to 2019 she was post-doc at the Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Italy. She was Visiting Scientist at the European Commission, Joint Research Center, Directorate for Energy, Transport and Climate Change, Ispra, Italy, from 2017 to 2018. Moreover, from 2015 to 2016 she was Visiting Scientist at the Center for Sustainable Mobility of the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute, USA, and, in 2013, Visiting Scholar at the Center for Automotive Research of the Ohio State University, USA. Her research interests include: sustainable mobility; modeling and simulation for the functional and environmental efficiency improvement of container terminals; integration of microscopic energy consumption model for EVs with traffic control systems; energy consumption modeling and simulation of hybrid and electric powertrains; integration of traffic and energy consumption modeling at microscopic scale; impact assessment of emerging powertrain technologies on route choice behaviors and development of eco-routing strategies for personal and freight mobility; impact assessment of emerging powertrain technologies and charging systems on power electric infrastructure; electric freight logistics, electrification of ports and port operations; well-to-wheels analysis of conventional, hybrid and electric vehicles; impact assessment of emerging railway services (e.g. High Speed/High Capacity services); energy systems, alternative fuels, hydrogen and renewable sources.",institutionString:"University of Salerno",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Salerno",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"73624",title:"BIM Approach for Smart Infrastructure Design and Maintenance Operations",slug:"bim-approach-for-smart-infrastructure-design-and-maintenance-operations",totalDownloads:115,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73595",title:"Advanced Vehicles: Challenges for Transportation Systems Engineering",slug:"advanced-vehicles-challenges-for-transportation-systems-engineering",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73941",title:"Towards Shared Mobility Services in Ring Shape",slug:"towards-shared-mobility-services-in-ring-shape",totalDownloads:24,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74201",title:"Attitudes and Behaviours in Relation to New Technology in Transport and the Take-Up amongst Older Travellers",slug:"attitudes-and-behaviours-in-relation-to-new-technology-in-transport-and-the-take-up-amongst-older-tr",totalDownloads:32,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73973",title:"Models and Methods for Intelligent Highway Routing of Human-Driven and Connected-and-Automated Vehicles",slug:"models-and-methods-for-intelligent-highway-routing-of-human-driven-and-connected-and-automated-vehic",totalDownloads:65,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74412",title:"Centralised Traffic Control and Green Light Optimal Speed Advisory Procedure in Mixed Traffic Flow: An Integrated Modelling Framework",slug:"centralised-traffic-control-and-green-light-optimal-speed-advisory-procedure-in-mixed-traffic-flow-a",totalDownloads:55,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74333",title:"Transit Signal Priority in Smart Cities",slug:"transit-signal-priority-in-smart-cities",totalDownloads:92,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73356",title:"Optimal Management of Electrified and Cooperative Bus Systems",slug:"optimal-management-of-electrified-and-cooperative-bus-systems",totalDownloads:64,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73240",title:"Recent Progress in Activity-Based Travel Demand Modeling: Rising Data and Applicability",slug:"recent-progress-in-activity-based-travel-demand-modeling-rising-data-and-applicability",totalDownloads:139,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73821",title:"Driver Assistance Technologies",slug:"driver-assistance-technologies",totalDownloads:68,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7408",title:"Transportation Systems Analysis and Assessment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1a950b01c0e05eda01c6d2364c7af3aa",slug:"transportation-systems-analysis-and-assessment",bookSignature:"Stefano De Luca, Roberta Di Pace and Boban Djordjevic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7408.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"271061",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",surname:"De Luca",slug:"stefano-de-luca",fullName:"Stefano De Luca"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"65012",title:"Insight into the Mechanism of Red Alga Reproduction. What Else Is Beyond Cystocarps Development?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83353",slug:"insight-into-the-mechanism-of-red-alga-reproduction-what-else-is-beyond-cystocarps-development-",body:'Carposporogenesis in red algae requires the disclosure and development of reproductive structures named cystocarps and cell wall weakness and also requires these reproductive structures to mature. Disclosure of cystocarps, in other words, the period in which the first cystocarps become visible, is elicited by external signals such as volatile growth regulators. On the other hand, controlling the elicitation period is essential for the proper development of cystocarps. If this period does not lead to the disclosure of cystocarps, cell wall loosening will not occur, and these structures will not mature either.
Once the elicitation period occurs, cystocarp development begins with the weakening and relaxation of the cell wall. In Floridophyceae, the accepted view is that the cell wall is made of well-organised layers, whilst the intracellular matrix is comprised of less organised material. Some of components of the cell wall and matrix are sulphated galactans, which have a physiological significance that varies according to the different life stages of the macroalgae [1]. Despite the relationship between the loosening and weakening of the cell wall and the different life stages, the biochemical and molecular mechanisms have not been fully discovered. Evidence suggests that reactive oxygen species, under growth regulator control, are able to cleave cell wall polysaccharide, causing the wall to loosen [2, 3] during reproductive events in seaweed.
The maturity stages of reproductive structures in red algae are complex processes (Figure 1), highly co-ordinated and, to a large extent, quite difficult to determine. Unlike some seaweeds where different stages of development of cystocarps are evident and can be recognised [4], in others, the maturity stages are assumed to occur from the beginning of the discloser of the reproductive structures to thalli. In these cases, the maturity process differentiates between two kinds of thalli, the fertilised thalli and fertile thalli. The fertilised thalli are the ones that have both non-visible cystocarps and incipient visible cystocarps. Meanwhile, fertile thalli range from thalli with well-developed cystocarps to those that have fully mature cystocarps (Figure 2A).
Diagram of a tri-genetic life cycle in the red alga Grateloupia imbricata comprising the gametophyes (haploids), called carposporophyte, that develops on the female gametophyte after fertilisation, and the sporophyte (diploid).
(A) Schematic showing the timeline for the periods of disclosure and maturity of cystocarps and the corresponding fertilised thalli within cystocarps, ranging from non-visible to visible incipient and fertile thalli from well-developed to fully developed cystocarps. (B) Timeline of gene expression of ODC for fertilised and fertile thalli of Grateloupia imbricata after ethylene and methyl jasmonate treatment. The sloping lines represent significant increase or decrease in gene expression with respect to absolute values (copies μl−1). Horizontal line indicates no changes in gene expression relative to expression in control thalli. MeJa, methyl jasmonate.
Changes related to the maturing of thalli are favoured by volatile growth regulators, which also lead to both cystocarps dehiscence with a marked reduction of the maturity period, and the presence of different reproductive structures in the same individual [5]. Moreover, other evidence such as sudden losses of seaweed mats and alternating life cycles could also give cues on how volatile compounds act as a signal to trigger the reproductive process. Actually, seaweeds have a defined reproductive period and are able to discern between volatile signals. The latter leads to the presence of ‘putative’ volatile receptors although they are not yet known and only a proposed ethylene receptor in red algae has been reported [6].
With this scenario, advances in gene studies have been made by combining different approaches—based on evidence of in vitro culture in the presence of volatile growth regulators and on algal physiology—and thus to decipher the network of interactions between different metabolic pathways that lead the transition from fertilised to fertile thalli. This path can lead to an understanding of a complex network of interacting genes and signal pathways that occurs. Hence one of the key questions is also to unveil how this process can be co-ordinated to work efficiently.
In recent years, great strides have been taken to gain understanding of molecular events in red seaweeds. These endeavours have allowed for a better understanding of the changes that occur during the transition from disclosure to the maturity of cystocarps in response to growth regulator. In this chapter we present our research output in the carragenophytic red seaweed model Grateloupia imbricata, compiling our current understanding of molecular mechanisms of algal reproduction and how a volatile-mediated signal can affect other developmental processes. This work does not forget to review other articles, but it does focus on what the state of the art is concerning red seaweed reproduction based on (1) candidate genes, (2) genes that encode cell wall weakness and reactive oxygen species and (3) genes that encode biosynthesis of volatile growth regulators such as ethylene and methyl jasmonate.
Growth, development and reproduction of multicellular organisms require precise and multifunctional cell–cell communication events. This is even more necessary in marine seaweed, where changes in irradiation, salinity and temperature, due to the tidal period, affect sporulation and mean that these organisms have to handle and adapt environmental signals in an extremely precise manner to survive. Taking this into consideration, it is easy to understand that algae make quick acclimation—reversible acclimation—and adaptation to the marine environment and that the control of some of these vegetative and reproductive processes is particularly based on short-range signalling.
With this complex net of intervening factors, in order to interpret what is occurring with a particular event, the election of a candidate gene, which represents the manifestation of a trait such as the development and maturity of cystocarps, has provided insights into the carposporogenesis of red seaweeds.
Unlike unspecific genes that are overexpressed under a given condition and are assumed to be responsible for a particular event/trait/action [7, 8, 9], our candidate gene encodes the synthesis of the main protein ornithine decarboxylase (ODC, EC 4.1.1.17) responsible for the synthesis of polyamines and is related to the maturing process of cystocarps in seaweeds [10, 11, 12].
The differential behaviour of this gene (GiODC) and its integration with volatiles contribute to it being chosen as a candidate gene for several reasons. First, the inhibition of ODC enzyme synthesis by the inhibitor DL-α-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO) implies the lowest levels of polyamines. This inhibition also halts the maturity of cystocarps and the eventual release of spores from cystocarps [11]. Second, the enzyme activity of ODC is related to the endogenous levels of polyamines. The reduction in ODC enzyme activity and polyamine levels are also related to the presence of cystocarps [10, 12]. Third, reactive oxygen species are released through polyamine catabolism pathways and are under the control of ODC. During cystocarp development, spermine is accumulated, favouring the process of development and maturity of the reproductive structure. When it exerts an inductive effect, polyamine oxidase enzyme activity increases as the spermine degrades [12]. Fourth, GiODC is expressed differently in both the fertile thalli (with cystocarps), than in infertile thalli (vegetative thalli), and in the apical part of fertile thalli, against the basal part of these thalli, as reported using -time quantitative PCR and in situ hybridisation techniques [13]. Fifth, sequencing the upstream region of GiODC revealed transcription factors involved in regulation by jasmonate (Myc2, Myc3 and Myc4) and ethylene (RAV, SMZ and Abi4). This means that there is a relationship between volatiles and ODC expression [14]. Sixth, monitoring GiODC gene expression after treatment with volatiles during the well-defined periods of elicitation and disclosure of cystocarps reveals differential behaviour of this gene, depending on the development and maturity of the cystocarps [14].
Putting all the data together suggests two important conclusions regarding the candidate gene: Expression is dependent on the existence of cystocarps and the kind of growth regulator used to elicit reproduction. Generally, down-expression of the gene candidate goes hand in hand with the presence of cystocarps and points to a quick transduction signal (Figure 2B) [15, 16]. Nonetheless, it is worth mentioning that there are two different gene expression patterns that occur when methyl jasmonate is used as an elicitor. Hence, in thalli without visible cystocarps, gene expression is upregulated due to methyl jasmonate signalling (fertilised thalli, Figure 2B). Moreover, in thalli containing fully mature cystocarps, other up-expressions are related to the stage of maturity of the cystocarp due to methyl jasmonate (fertile thalli, Figure 2B).
Far from being a mismatch for a candidate gene, it is understood that different signals are executed over the course of cystocarp development, and hence one can infer that thalli are able to discern between volatiles; they sense them in order to provide co-ordinated responses [14, 15, 16].
In most organisms, factors including drastic changes in temperature, irradiation and desiccation are stressful and potentially destructive. Nonetheless reproduction in algae is also highly regulated by temperature and tidal periods, which has an impact on processes such as sporulation. The generation of reactive oxygen species in turn is triggered by these environmental factors, as can be expected. To ameliorate this situation, organisms display various physiological responses which are often being associated with an increase in the production of proteins that scavenge free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROSs) [17, 18]. Unlike what has been well studied in higher plants, where stress proteins can be synthesised as a key survival strategy, we know that similar processes can occur, but it remains unclear whether stress proteins are metabolically biosynthesised or whether free radicals can be eliminated by chemical scavenging. Consideration also has to be given to the fact that certain red algae render methylate halides using methyltransferases that use S-adenosyl methionine (SAM, pivotal compound for the synthesis of ethylene and methyl jasmonate) as the methyl donor. Methylation of halides is a mechanism eliminating halide and sulphide ions, both of which are known to be phototoxic [19, 20].
Beyond this, seaweeds develop strategies to signal events related to growth and development, including the biosynthesis of volatiles. These volatile signals appear to crosstalk with other growth regulators such as polyamines [21]. As an example, polyamines, ethylene and methyl jasmonate share the same precursor—SAM—for these biosynthesis routes. Moreover, ROSs can be also released through metabolic pathways of growth regulators. The contribution of these signal pathways to growth and development is difficult to appraise as volatiles can have synergistic effects on one or more of the other pathways involved in seaweed reproduction, and this combination of all the pathways might give rise to several responses. Ethylene and methyl jasmonate provoke changes in the oxidation state of intermediates during synthesis. These include jasmonates, which are compounds, resulting from lipid oxidation of the cell membrane. In particular, methyl jasmonate is derived from linolenic acid, via lipoxygenase, in which the synthesis of methyl jasmonate activates the oxidative metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids, generating ROSs (in the form of O2, H2O2 or OH−) and oxidised derivatives of polyunsaturated fatty acids [22, 23]. Oxygenated volatile compounds have been shown to not necessarily involve photodamage of cell membranes. Meanwhile the reactivity of the ethylene double bond allows this olefin to be easily converted into a range of intermediates [24].
With this framework, ROSs also have the potential to interact with many cell components and can give rise to several physiological responses, such as when ROS acts as an important signal transduction molecule during growth [18]. Indeed, it has been inferred that ROSs play an important role in softening of thalli and therefore in the development of cystocarps in red seaweed. This is significantly important with the heat shock protein WD40 and cytochrome P450 which are responsible for reducing oxidative damage [25]. WD40 and cytochrome P450 are specifically related to ethylene and methyl jasmonate signalling [15, 16].
Furthermore, what is striking is that genes that encode WD40 and cytochrome P450 mirror their expressions depending on whether they are elicited by ethylene or methyl jasmonate signals [15, 16]. The synchronised behaviour of these genes based on their expressions seems to determine close co-ordination due to the elicitor. Our results with G. imbricata suggest that the expression of one gene can become activated and repressed without the assistance of another one, but expression is also linked to different signals related to both cystocarp disclosure and development. In G. imbricata, this means that WD40 gene expression responds to the ethylene signal when cystocarps are still non-visible, whilst this gene expression increases in the presence of the first cystocarps after methyl jasmonate treatment (disclosure period). Otherwise cytochrome P450 is expressed in the presence of the first cystocarps (developing cystocarps) when they are treated with ethylene. Conversely, after the methyl jasmonate elicitor, cytochrome P450 expression responds when cystocarps are still invisible. In both cases, as the cystocarps mature, expression holds over time without any significant changes between thalli with well-developed cystocarps and fully developed cystocarps [15, 16] (Figure 3).
Timeline of gene expression encoding stress proteins (WD40, cytochrome P450 and amine oxidase) for fertilised and fertile thalli of Grateloupia imbricata after ethylene and methyl jasmonate treatment. The sloping lines represent significant increase or decrease in gene expression with respect to absolute values (copies μl−1). Horizontal line indicates no changes in gene expression relative to expression in control thalli. CytP450, cytochrome P450; AAO, amine oxidase; MeJa, methyl jasmonate.
In addition, the ascorbate peroxidase gene, which encodes a protein involved in the response to oxidative stress [6, 15], is also associated with the disclosure and development of cystocarps rather than with their maturity process [16].
Alternatively, polyamines, which are nonvolatile molecules but do have an important role in the process of maturing of the cystocarps, are synthesised through the candidate gene known as ODC [10, 14, 15, 16]. The synthesis of the polyamine precursor, putrescine, renders downstream spermidine and spermine due to the addition of one or two aminopropyl groups from decarboxylated SAM. Endogenous levels of these three polyamines—that is, putrescine, spermidine and spermine—are balanced by amine oxidase and polyamine oxidase, whilest H2O2 is released as a by-product of this reaction.
Monitoring amine oxidase gene, whose gene expression was seen to depend on the disclosure and development period of cystocarps, but also that once cystocarps have developed, reported that this gene expression would help to maintain polyamines levels (Figure 3) [16].
In short, our results confirm that genes encoding ROS proteins are related to physiological events. If we take the results as a whole, these behaviours of genes enable us to discern two action modes. Initially, WD40, cytochrome P450 and APX point to promoting the disclosure and development period of cystocarps, and they help to soften the thalli as up-expressions occurs. Meanwhile, amine oxidase expression shows a dual response. In other words, it helps cystocarp disclosure but it also balances ROS levels in order to fine-tune polyamine levels and prepare the thalli for the next time.
Despite the commercial importance of red seaweed, we still lack information on reproductive events if ‘our’ interest is to be able to control what happens over the course of the development and maturity processes of the reproductive structures and consequently manage to produce a large number of individuals.
Unlike the amount of information based mainly on next generation sequencing data, little progress has been made on the temporal control of genes, which affect growth and development. These aspects are of critical importance from the point of view of farming them. It is worth to highlight seaweeds that had received little attention worldwide to elucidate gene functions and to delve into the development and progress of functional genomic. Particularly in this section and as a practical goal, it is expected that molecular mechanisms related to volatile biosynthesis during carposporogenesis will provide tools for control and regulation of growth and developmental process in seaweeds. Thus, insight might allow to initiate a genetic programme for macroalgae which is economically valuable, increasing its viability and value.
The molecular nature of the signal(s) that control development and maturity of cystocarps is unknown, although efforts have been made in recent years to accurately describe the elicitation and disclosure periods of cystocarps in the red alga G. imbricata. One of the most striking features is that alterations in gene expressions even start prior to the presence of visible cystocarps, which seems to suggest that communication through signal pathways is essential for the disclosure of cystocarps.
Our research team has focused on gene screening related to proteins specifically involved in biosynthesis pathways of volatile growth regulators instead of profiles of up- and downregulated genes reported in massive sequencing. Although it is obvious that any attempt is appropriate given the lack of molecular information in red seaweeds, we ought to bear in mind the existence of environmental acclimation of algae and the tremendous changes in the levels of expression of a large number of genes during the disclosure, development and maturity of cystocarps. Incidentally, we have to remember that factors such as salinity and sporulation are connected, and our aim is to be able to discern precisely what is happening.
Hence in order to gain a better and more accurate insight into the control mechanisms underlying the reproduction of red seaweeds, the monitoring of specific genes, that in turn are also related to growth regulators and their biosynthesis, has been successful (Figure 4). In particular, gene-encoding enzymes needed for the synthesis of ethylene, such as SAM synthase (SAMS) and ACC synthase (1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase), genes that encode proteins of polyamine metabolism (spermidine synthase (Spd synthase); amine oxidase), genes encoding proteins of methyl jasmonate synthesis, such as jasmonic acid carboxyl methyltransferase (JMT) and putative methyltransferase (MT); and a gene that encodes a transcription factor involved in controlling responses to stress, growth and development (MYB, [26]), have been monitored. These gene expressions have provided valuable information and helped to shed light on the complex process of red seaweed reproduction. As for genes related to ethylene biosynthesis, these are directly involved in cystocarp development, that is, SAMS, Spd synthase and ACC synthase. Otherwise, all genes studied in relation to methyl jasmonate are indiscriminately induced in the absence of cystocarps (Figure 5).
Biosynthetic pathway for polyamines and connections with the pathways for the biosynthesis of ethylene and jasmonate. SAMS, S-adenosyl methionine synthase; d-SAM, decarboxylated SAM; MT, putative methyl transferase; JMT, jasmonic acid carboxyl methyl transferase.
Timeline of gene expression encoding biosynthesis proteins of ethylene (Spd synt, spermidine synthase; SAMS, S-adenosyl methionine synthase; ACCS, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase) and methyl jasmonate (JMT, jasmonic acid carboxyl methyl transferase; MT, methyl transferase) for fertilised and fertile thalli of Grateloupia imbricata after ethylene and methyl jasmonate treatment. The sloping lines represent significant increase or decrease in gene expression with respect to absolute values (copies μl−1). Horizontal line indicates no changes in gene expression relative to expression in control thalli.
In general, we can indicate that methyl jasmonate and ethylene signalling occurs either immediately after the elicitation period or during the disclosure period, respectively (Figure 5). The time course of different gene expressions indicates a temporal regulation of algal reproduction. As part of this temporal regulation, the differential gene expressions represent the ability of seaweeds to sense ethylene and methyl jasmonate separately [15, 16].
Signal transduction—like the presence of cystocarps—brings up the question of whether the sensing of both volatiles could be elicited in accordance with the signal strength. The latter is within the bounds of possibility since (i) ethylene, which is the smallest volatile molecule, can easily cross through cell membranes and (ii) the hypothetical model of ethylene receptor for algae is a simpler structure than the one reported in higher plants. A priori, although both volatiles require membrane receptors, the fact is that the ethylene signal of the candidate gene elicited 12-fold the expression of methyl jasmonate despite the period where gene expression is reported [14]. This could be important for the fine regulation of disclosure and development of cystocarps.
To make this more difficult, something else caught our attention. We have also wondered whether signal strength can be interpreted as a differential response between elicitor signal and signal transduction. Signal transduction is assumed to be the responsibility of a complex and integrated molecular network. The network for one or another volatile could overlap in such a manner that this overlapping simplifies signal channelling. Contrary to what some may think, we do not rule out separate signalling networks. Nevertheless, there could also be a signal output modulation ‘mechanism’ that regulates the disclosure and development of cystocarps [16]. We are a long way from knowing what is happening—in other words, the differential perception of volatiles, the separate and overlapping signal pathways and signal strength. Nonetheless, we realise that gene knockout studies will be advantageous to confirm these issues. Although we have accomplished the primary goal of revealing the molecular mechanisms underlying red seaweed reproduction, further studies are required to identify and explore other factors involved in the regulation of gene expression.
This chapter has summarised our insight into the complexity of gene regulation during red seaweed reproduction. There are grounds to believe that temporal patterns of gene expression are orchestrated under the control of volatile growth regulators signalling during the disclosure and development of cystocarps. Progress is being made in understanding how thalli transduce these volatile signals.
This work has been financed with funding from the Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Funding from Consejería de Economía, Industria, Comercio y Conocimiento del Gobierno de Canarias to PGJ is acknowledged (PROID2017010043 ACIISI; CEI2018-20 ULPGC).
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
It is well known that as the society and economy is developing at a high rate, about 35% of the total energy is consumed by buildings [1, 2, 3, 4]. For the sake of energy saving in buildings, all over the world, there are many different concepts of energy-efficient buildings, such as passive houses, near-zero-energy buildings, and even active houses [5]. According to the requirements of these houses’ design, the energy use in these buildings needs to be strictly reduced to a very certain small range. Therefore, an appropriate thermal insulation material is necessary to realise the energy saving in buildings [6]. As ceramic foam insulation (CFI) is one of the notable methods to reduce the energy use in buildings, it has been widely developed in recent years.
\nAs we all know, the building insulation materials are generally sorted into two groups, organic insulation materials and inorganic insulation materials. Organic insulation materials, such as polystyrene foam, often lead to a series of problems related to combustion, environmental toxicity, and adhesive incompatibility with cement and ceramic structures. In addition, organic insulation materials usually exert short working life, for instance, foam plastic only can ensure the required heat resistance in about 8 years. However, inorganic materials, such as CFI, are excellent building insulation materials, which have many advantages compared with other thermal insulation materials, including chemically inactive, noncombustible, low moisture absorption, chemically stable, long-time stable in physical properties, environmental friendly, and long use life [7]. For the above reasons, this study is motivated to propose a novel FCI for saving energy in buildings.
\nOn the other hand, according to the investigation in literature, it is known to us that the traditional manufacture of ceramic materials often requires massive amount of natural raw materials, such as clay and feldspar [8, 9, 10]. However, recently, taking into consideration the big challenges in environmental protection and energy saving, nontraditional raw materials are needed in the synthesis process of the ceramic materials. Therefore, the development of innovative ceramic materials by using huge amounts of alternative raw materials, especially solid waste, will be important to the environmental protection.
\nHence, in this research, according to our previous work [11, 12, 13], two solid wastes were applied as the main raw materials for the synthesis of FCI. Firstly, fly ash (FA), a by-product of thermal generation in coal power stations, is used as the main raw material in the matrix part of the FCI [14]. According to the statistics, more than 750 million tonnes of FA are generated each year, but only less than 50% of FA is utilised. In China, the annual output of FA reached almost 600 million tonnes, which results in very serious environmental pollution, such as groundwater contamination [15, 16, 17]. Secondly, the reclaimed waste is the ceramic waste (CW). Statistics show that in the ceramic industry about 30% of the daily production will turn into solid waste. As we all know, CW is not recycled in any form at present [18]. Therefore, both solid wastes will cause serious environmental pollution [19, 20]. So it is necessary to develop an effective way to recycle FA and CW.
\nBased on the previous work of our research [11, 12, 13], we are therefore motivated to prepare FCI by using FA and CW as the main raw materials. Moreover, since the study of heat transfer behaviour of FCI and its energy-saving function in buildings was important to guide the synthesis process of FCI, in this study, the foaming behaviour, the thermal conductivity, and its energy-saving function were investigated experimentally and were modelled by simulative method.
\nFor the manufacture of CFI boards the raw materials can be divided into two kinds, matrix raw materials and foam raw materials. Firstly, the matrix raw materials were composed of FA, clay, feldspar, and quartz, which were all driven from the same region in China. Secondly, the foam raw materials included CW and other additives. Here, CW was used as a main raw material and SiC was applied as a foaming agent. The chemical characteristics of the main raw materials were measured by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) scan and are shown in Table 1. It can be seen that for all main raw materials, SiO2 and Al2O3 possess the dominating proportions with the total proportion of 81.87, 71.53, 86.10, 95.77 and 84.01 wt%. It is interesting to note that for feldspar the total contents of K2O and Na2O are high: 11.72 wt%.
\nContent (wt%) | \nSiO2 | \nAl2O3 | \nK2O | \nNa2O | \nCaO | \nFe2O3 | \nMgO | \nTiO2 | \nS | \nLOI | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fly ash | \n41.97 | \n39.90 | \n0.50 | \n0.20 | \n6.41 | \n1.96 | \n0.60 | \n1.20 | \n3.15 | \n3.64 | \n
Clay | \n34.96 | \n36.57 | \n0.39 | \n0.09 | \n0.49 | \n0.82 | \n0.22 | \n1.47 | \n— | \n24.38 | \n
Feldspar | \n68.60 | \n17.50 | \n7.74 | \n3.98 | \n0.53 | \n0.41 | \n0.17 | \n0.04 | \n— | \n0.83 | \n
Quartz | \n91.30 | \n4.47 | \n1.76 | \n1.19 | \n0.42 | \n0.17 | \n0.15 | \n0.01 | \n— | \n0.44 | \n
Ceramic waste | \n65.18 | \n18.83 | \n1.61 | \n4.10 | \n1.61 | \n0.45 | \n3.22 | \n0.21 | \n— | \n4.13 | \n
Chemical composition of main raw materials.
In addition, the crystalline phases of the raw materials are determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD) (D/MAX-PC 2500, Rigaku), and the XRD patterns are presented in Figure 1. It can be seen that FA is a heterogeneous material. Firstly, the major crystalline phases of FA are quartz and mullite with a small amount of gypsum. Secondly, it is interesting to note that parts of FA belong to the amorphous phase due to the observed low and broad diffraction bands in the range of 20–30o. Moreover, for CW, the main structure is quartz.
\nXRD patterns of the main raw materials.
In this research, for the matrix part, 50 wt% FA will be used as the main raw material in all batches. While, for the foam part, only CW will be utilised as the raw material with only 1% SiC. In this study, according to the previous work, the detailed steps of the preparation are shown as follows.
\nFirstly, all raw materials were thoroughly mixed and milled in the proportion as shown in Table 2. Here, quartz content in the batches 1–5 varied from 0 to 20 wt%. Then, mixtures were wet ground in two ball mills for 15 h to obtain the homogeneous slurries. The slurries were sieved to pass through a 200-mesh screen and dried at 110°C for 12 h. Subsequently, the two mixtures were granulated in a moist condition and samples were hydraulically compacted using uniaxial pressing at 10 MPa. Finally, the shaped samples were dried at 105°C for 3 h, followed by calcination in a muffle furnace at the preset sintering temperature, and the sintered samples were cooled naturally.
\n\n | \n | No. 1 | \nNo. 2 | \nNo. 3 | \nNo. 4 | \nNo. 5 | \nNo. 6 | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Matrix part | \nFly ash | \n50 | \n50 | \n50 | \n50 | \n50 | \n— | \n
\n | Clay | \n20 | \n20 | \n20 | \n20 | \n20 | \n— | \n
Feldspar | \n30 | \n25 | \n20 | \n15 | \n10 | \n— | \n|
\n | Quartz | \n— | \n5 | \n10 | \n15 | \n20 | \n— | \n
Foam part | \nCeramic waste | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n100 | \n
SiC | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n1 | \n
Batch compositions of the samples (wt%).
For the matrix part, the obtained samples were measured for moisture absorption (MA) capacity and rupture modulus.
\nThe moisture absorption (MA) capacity was tested according to the following method. Firstly, the dried mass of the sintered sample (Md, kg) was measured. Secondly, the sample was put into boiled water for 5 h and then was soaked for another 24 h. Finally, in water, the mass of the suspended sample (Ms1, kg) was determined, and the saturated mass (Ms2, kg) was measured. So MA (%) can be obtained as follows:
\nThe rupture modulus, R (MPa), is calculated by the following formula:
\nwhere F is the failing load (N); l is the distance between two support bars (mm); b is the width of the specimen (mm); and h is the minimum thickness of the sample (mm).
\nFor the foam part, the sintered samples were tested regarding bulk density and measured thermal conductivity.
\nThe bulk density (ρb) of final sintered sample was determined by referencing the Chinese Standards Specifications. In particular, three parameters were detected. Firstly, the sintered samples were dried at 110°C for 24 h and then restored to room temperature in a balance desiccator. In this status, the specimen’s weight was accurately measured, Ma. Secondly, the samples were immersed in boiled water for 3 h, then removed the heating and made samples to still stay in the water for 1 h. Samples’ weight Mb in the water was measured by hanging on the hook of the precision electronic balance. Thirdly, after the above process, samples were taken out of the water and the redundant water on the surface was wiped using a wet cloth. Then, the weight Mc of the sample was measured. Finally, the bulk density was calculated by using the following formula, in which ρwater was the density of water.
\nFor thermal conductivity measurements, a series of rectangular briquettes were prepared separately. The thermal conductivities of the samples were measured in a vapour-tight envelope by using a guarded hotplate apparatus (IMDRY3001-II). For the experiment, the hotplate of the apparatus was set to 33°C and the cold plate was cooled by water at 17°C. The sample was mounted between the two plates, and then, the thermal conductivity of the sample was tested when the temperatures of the two plates became stable. Here, the measurement uncertainty and repeatability of GHP were controlled within ±3% and ±1%, respectively.
\nFirstly, the effective thermal conductivity (ke) was simulated by a simulation model developed by our research group. In this simulation, ke can be obtained as follows:
\nwhere Qtotal is the total heat flow through the sample, W; Th and Tl were the known temperatures of the two surfaces perpendicular to the direction of heat flow, K; L is the thickness of the sample, m; and A is the area of the sample, m2.
\nIn our simulation, by comparing several grids and the results, the whole sample was finally meshed as a grid of X × Y × Z. For each axis, the grid numbers are X = A0.5, Y = L, and Z = A0.5. In addition, each unit’s dimension is equalled to 0.001 m.
\nThen, by using the thermal conductivity matrix (TCM = ones (X, Y, Z)), each unit’s thermal conductivity value was determined. For the matrix part of the sample, the thermal conductivity value of each unit is set as the thermal conductivity of the matrix board. For the foam part, the unit thermal conductivity value is set randomly. For example, there were two thermal conductivity values in the foam sample, from thermal conductivity value of the solid material and the thermal conductivity value of the air. Firstly, the volume fractions of the solid material and the air were calculated. Secondly, for each unit, a random number (rn) was generated to decide which thermal conductivity value would be endowed. For instance, for one unit,if rn was smaller than the solid material’s volume fraction, the thermal conductivity of the solid material would be endowed. Otherwise, this unit would be endowed with the thermal conductivity of the air (ka = 0.026 W/(m•K) [21]).
\nIn this simulation programme, the steady-state energy equation for three-dimensional heat transfer was established as the control equation. For each unit, the sum of heat flow towards this unit was equal to that away from it. In addition, the solution conditions were defined by using the temperature field matrix: T = ones (X, Y, Z). For the surfaces perpendicular to the heat flow direction, they belonged to the first-class boundary condition and the temperatures of these two surfaces were equalled to 33°C and 17°C. As in the experiment, the sample panel was surrounded by thermal insulation fibre; similarly, the four surfaces that surrounded the panel were insulated perfectly. Finally, ke will be obtained through the iterative calculation.
\nSecondly, the energy-saving effect of FCI was evaluated by EnergyPlus software [22, 23, 24]. In this research, an ideal building is applied as the calculation model for energy consumption. In addition, the energy consumption of buildings with different kinds of external walls was compared systematically.
\nFor the matrix part samples, the sintering temperature will have an important effect on macroscopic properties, including the moisture absorption capacity and rupture modulus, which are shown in Figures 2 and 3, respectively.
\nRupture modulus values of the sample no. 1 versus sintering temperatures.
Moisture absorption capacity values of the sample no. 1 versus sintering temperatures.
First, the characteristic curve in Figure 2 indicates that for the sample no.1 the rupture modulus increases with the increase of the sintering temperature. When the sintering temperature is 1000°C, the rupture modulus is only 2.52 MPa. Moreover, when the sintering temperature is increased to 1100°C, the corresponding rupture modulus increases to 7.82 MPa, indicating that there is the liquid generation in the sample no.1. Furthermore, when the sintering temperature is over 1200°C, the rupture modulus value reaches to 25.38 MPa. Second, it is interesting to note that in the investigated temperature range (1000–1200°C), the moisture absorption capacity dramatically decreases from 26.85% to 0.25% at the sintering temperature of 1000–1200°C.
\nIt can be concluded that when the sintering temperature is 1200°C the samples have excellent properties (moisture absorption capacity and the rupture modulus), which satisfy the requirements of fine stoneware tiles [25].
\nIn addition, the quartz was chosen as an addition to the sample no. 1. Figures 4 and 5 show the effects of quartz addition on the sample’s properties (moisture absorption capacity and rupture modulus). It can be seen that, for the sample no. 2 and no. 3, at 1200°C, the 5% and 10% quartz additions enhance the samples’ strength with a little increase in moisture absorption capacity. For instance, for the sample no. 2, the highest rupture modulus reaches 34.28 MPa at 1200°C, which drastically exceeds the property of the sample no. 1 without quartz (25.38 MPa). According to the literature [26], it may be explained that, for the sample no. 2, 5% quartz addition is a benefit to the increase of mullite formation, which will promote the sample’s rupture modulus. Figure 5 shows that 5% quartz addition increases the moisture absorption capacity from 0.25 to 0.83%, but it still satisfies the standards for stoneware porcelain tiles [25].
\nRupture modulus values of the sample nos. 1–5 with different quartz addition.
Moisture absorption capacity values of the sample nos. 1–5 with different quartz addition.
In order to explain the above phenomenon, the ternary diagram of sample no. 2 was calculated by FactSage. From Figure 6, it can be seen that the new sample’s raw materials belong to SiO2-Al2O3-CaO-K2O system, as shown in red. Therefore, unlike the conventional ternary ceramic system, the new sample broadens the traditional ceramic crystal phase area (blue) to a new phase area. This change of the ceramic system is due to the increase of Al2O3 and CaO obtained from FA.
\nTernary diagram of the traditional ceramic and sample no. 2 (blue indicates the traditional ceramic crystal phase area and red shows the phase area of sample no. 2).
In addition, the powder of both raw materials and sintered sample no. 2 is separately analysed by XRD. Firstly, XRD patterns in Figure 7 depict that there is none or only a small amount of glass phase in the sintered sample no. 2, which is a benefit to the improvement of its mechanical property. The previous research [27] has shown that in the traditional porcelain stoneware tiles, glass is one of the major phases in addition to quartz and mullite. Therefore, compared to the traditional ceramic tile, the matrix part tile prepared by our research has better mechanical property. In addition, it is interesting to note that there is no quartz in sintered sample no. 2; it is replaced by a large amount of mullite, which will further promote its strength.
\nXRD patterns of the sample no. 2.
Moreover, Figure 8 shows the DTA-TG curve of the sample. At 200°C, the mass loss is caused by the dehydroxylation of gypsum with an exothermic peak. At the temperature of 400–600°C, the mass loss is caused by the dehydroxylation process of boehmite (with an endothermic peak at 450°C) and kaolinite (with an endothermic peak at above 550°C). Finally, an exothermic peak at about 1000°C is attributable to mullite crystallisation [28].
\nDTA-TG curve of the green sample no.2.
Secondly, for the foam sample no. 6, the sintering temperature likewise has an important effect on the foam sample’s properties, including the bulk density and volume, which are shown in Figure 9.
\nThe volume results and the bulk density values of the sample no. 6 at different sintering temperature.
Figure 9 indicates the effect of sintering temperature on the volume results and the bulk density values of the sample no. 6 with 1% SiC as a foaming agent. It can be seen that the volume results of the sample no. 6 first shrank and then expanded with the increase in the sintering temperature from 1010–1200°C. Therefore, it is noted that the corresponding bulk density of sample no. 6 shows a consistent trend. At 1010°C, the bulk density is 1.714 g/cm3, and then, it increases up to 1.984 g/cm3 at 1060°C, followed by a rapid decrease with further increasing sintering temperature, and reaches the minimum value of 0.471 g/cm3 at 1200°C, which is decreased by 76%.
\nThis phenomenon is attributed to two typically changing processes in the sintering of foamed ceramics, which are matrix densification and closed-pore generation. Firstly, in the sintering process, with the increase in sintering temperature, liquid phase is generated, which led to the matrix densification [29]. Secondly, there is SiC in CW and so with the sintering temperature increase SiC began to decompose, resulting in the closed-pore generation. In the process of SiC decomposition, the gas (CO2 or CO) is generated in the presence of oxygen, which is shown in Figure 10 [30, 31, 32].
\nThe reaction principle of SiC as a foaming agent.
Moreover, the measured thermal conductivity of the sample no. 6 as a function of the bulk density is demonstrated in Figure 11. It can be seen that the measured thermal conductivity decreases from 0.3876 W/(m•K) to 0.1184 W/(m•K) with the increase in the bulk density of the sample no. 6. It is concluded that the sample no. 6 at high sintering temperature (1200°C) has an excellent heat insulation performance, indicating that it can be utilised as the foam part of FCI.
\nThe measured thermal conductivity of the sample no. 6 as a function of the bulk density.
The relationship between the effective thermal conductivity and the bulk density can be calculated through the present proposed model. The results of the effective thermal conductivity, ke, as a function of the bulk density, are indicated in Figure 12. It can be seen that the effective thermal conductivity decreases with the decrease of the bulk density. It is interesting to note that, when the bulk density continues decreasing to a certain level (1.600 g/cm3), the decrease rate of the effective thermal conductivity becomes small. In addition, it can be seen that the simulated effective thermal conductivities are well in agreement with the measured effective thermal conductivities, with the average deviation of 4%.
\nThe simulation results of the effective thermal conductivity of the sample no. 6 as a function of the bulk density.
From Figure 12, we can also get the following relationship between the effective thermal conductivity and the bulk density for the foam sample at 25°C.
\nIn this part, a building (3 m*3 m*2.8 m) in Beijing is used as the calculation model for energy consumption (Figure 13(a)). In this building model, there are two kinds of external walls, traditional wall and foam ceramic insulation wall. As shown in Figure 13(b), the foam ceramic insulation wall is composed of four layers: the cement mortar (20 mm, 0.97 W/(m•K)), the matrix part of the foam ceramic insulation (200 mm), the foam part of the foam ceramic insulation (50 mm), and the composite mortar (20 mm, 0.65 W/(m•K)). For the traditional wall, the matrix and foam parts of the foam ceramic insulation were removed and were replaced with a 250-mm reinforced concrete with the thermal conductivity of 1.95 W/(m•K).
\nThe ideal calculation building model.
Figure 14 shows the annual energy consumption for the ideal building with different external walls. It can be seen that, compared with the traditional wall, the FCI wall significantly reduces the annual energy consumption by 44–57%. In addition, for the building with FCI wall, the annual average heating and cooling rate decreases with the decrease in the bulk density of the foam part of FCI. For instance, when ρb = 0.471 g/cm3, for the ideal building the annual average heating and cooling rate is only 95 W, and compared with that of the building with a traditional wall, the rate is reduced by 57%. Therefore, the energy conservation of the FCI wall is especially pronounced.
\nHeating and cooling annual loads in ideal building with different external walls.
In this research, solid wastes, such as FA and CW, were effectively utilised for the manufacture of FCI, leading to low-cost and environmental protection. The experiment and simulation methods are applied to study the effects of sintering temperature and the additive agent on properties of the samples.
\nFor the matrix part of FCI, at 1200°C, the sample with 50 wt% FA and 5 wt% quartz addition shows the best complex properties. The rupture modulus is 34.28 MPa, and the corresponding moisture absorption capacity is only 0.83%. In addition, for the foam sample with 1 wt% silicon carbide, the lowest bulk density and thermal conductivity at 1200°C are 0.471 g/cm3 and 0.1184 W/(m•K), respectively.
\nMoreover, the thermal conductivities of CFI and its effect on energy saving in buildings were simulated by a simulation model and EnergyPlus, respectively. Firstly, the proposed simulation model was applied to predict the effective thermal conductivity of the sample no. 6 as a function of bulk density. The simulation results show that the effective thermal conductivity of the sample no. 6 decreases with the decrease in its bulk density, and the simulation values are in good agreement with the measured results, with an average deviation of 4%. These simulation methods are desirable not only for the practical purpose of predicting the thermal properties of CFI, but also for the fundamental knowledge required in developing other new porous ceramics. Furthermore, the EnergyPlus results indicate that FCI can efficiently reduce the thermal load caused by the heat loss of the external construction, so the proposed FCI exhibits excellent energy conservation effect.
\nThis chapter was supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (FRF-TP-15-085A1) and China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2016 M600927). The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support by the Key Projects in the National Science & Technology Pillar Program (2013BAC14B07). Supports by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51708022, 51522401 and 51472007) and National Key R&D Plan of China (2017YFC0702600) are acknowledged.
\nAs an Open Access publisher, IntechOpen is dedicated to maintaining the highest ethical standards and principles in publishing. In addition, IntechOpen promotes the highest standards of integrity and ethical behavior in scientific research and peer-review. To maintain these principles IntechOpen has developed basic guidelines to facilitate the avoidance of Conflicts of Interest.
",metaTitle:"Conflicts of Interest Policy",metaDescription:"As an Open Access publisher, IntechOpen is dedicated to maintaining the highest ethical standards and principles in publishing. In addition, IntechOpen promotes the highest standards of integrity and ethical behavior in scientific research and peer-review.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/conflicts-of-interest-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"In each instance of a possible Conflict of Interest, IntechOpen aims to disclose the situation in as transparent a way as possible in order to allow readers to judge whether a particular potential Conflict of Interest has influenced the Work of any individual Author, Editor, or Reviewer. IntechOpen takes all possible Conflicts of Interest into account during the review process and ensures maximum transparency in implementing its policies.
\\n\\nA Conflict of Interest is a situation in which a person's professional judgment may be influenced by a range of factors, including financial gain, material interest, or some other personal or professional interest. For IntechOpen as a publisher, it is essential that all possible Conflicts of Interest are avoided. Each contributor, whether an Author, Editor, or Reviewer, who suspects they may have a Conflict of Interest, is obliged to declare that concern in order to make the publisher and the readership aware of any potential influence on the work being undertaken.
\\n\\nA Conflict of Interest can be identified at different phases of the publishing process.
\\n\\nIntechOpen requires:
\\n\\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST - AUTHOR
\\n\\nAll Authors are obliged to declare every existing or potential Conflict of Interest, including financial or personal factors, as well as any relationship which could influence their scientific work. Authors must declare Conflicts of Interest at the time of manuscript submission, although they may exceptionally do so at any point during manuscript review. For jointly prepared manuscripts, the corresponding Author is obliged to declare potential Conflicts of Interest of any other Authors who have contributed to the manuscript.
\\n\\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST – ACADEMIC EDITOR
\\n\\nEditors can also have Conflicts of Interest. Editors are expected to maintain the highest standards of conduct, which are outlined in our Best Practice Guidelines (templates for Best Practice Guidelines). Among other obligations, it is essential that Editors make transparent declarations of any possible Conflicts of Interest that they might have.
\\n\\nAvoidance Measures for Academic Editors of Conflicts of Interest:
\\n\\nFor manuscripts submitted by the Academic Editor (or a scientific advisor), an appropriate person will be appointed to handle and evaluate the manuscript. The appointed handling Editor's identity will not be disclosed to the Author in order to maintain impartiality and anonymity of the review.
\\n\\nIf a manuscript is submitted by an Author who is a member of an Academic Editor's family or is personally or professionally related to the Academic Editor in any way, either as a friend, colleague, student or mentor, the work will be handled by a different Academic Editor who is not in any way connected to the Author.
\\n\\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST - REVIEWER
\\n\\nAll Reviewers are required to declare possible Conflicts of Interest at the beginning of the evaluation process. If a Reviewer feels he or she might have any material, financial or any other conflict of interest with regards to the manuscript being reviewed, he or she is required to declare such concern and, if necessary, request exclusion from any further involvement in the evaluation process. A Reviewer's potential Conflicts of Interest are declared in the review report and presented to the Academic Editor, who then assesses whether or not the declared potential or actual Conflicts of Interest had, or could be perceived to have had, any significant impact on the review itself.
\\n\\nEXAMPLES OF CONFLICTS OF INTEREST:
\\n\\nFINANCIAL AND MATERIAL
\\n\\nNON-FINANCIAL
\\n\\nAuthors are required to declare all potentially relevant non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that may have had an influence on their scientific work.
\\n\\nAcademic Editors and Reviewers are required to declare any non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that could influence their fair and balanced evaluation of manuscripts. If such conflict exists with regards to a submitted manuscript, Academic Editors and Reviewers should exclude themselves from handling it.
\\n\\nAll Authors, Academic Editors, and Reviewers are required to declare all possible financial and material Conflicts of Interest in the last five years, although it is advisable to declare less recent Conflicts of Interest as well.
\\n\\nEXAMPLES:
\\n\\nAuthors should declare if they were or they still are Academic Editors of the publications in which they wish to publish their work.
\\n\\nAuthors should declare if they are board members of an organization that could benefit financially or materially from the publication of their work.
\\n\\nAcademic Editors should declare if they were coauthors or they have worked on the research project with the Author who has submitted a manuscript.
\\n\\nAcademic Editors should declare if the Author of a submitted manuscript is affiliated with the same department, faculty, institute, or company as they are.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"In each instance of a possible Conflict of Interest, IntechOpen aims to disclose the situation in as transparent a way as possible in order to allow readers to judge whether a particular potential Conflict of Interest has influenced the Work of any individual Author, Editor, or Reviewer. IntechOpen takes all possible Conflicts of Interest into account during the review process and ensures maximum transparency in implementing its policies.
\n\nA Conflict of Interest is a situation in which a person's professional judgment may be influenced by a range of factors, including financial gain, material interest, or some other personal or professional interest. For IntechOpen as a publisher, it is essential that all possible Conflicts of Interest are avoided. Each contributor, whether an Author, Editor, or Reviewer, who suspects they may have a Conflict of Interest, is obliged to declare that concern in order to make the publisher and the readership aware of any potential influence on the work being undertaken.
\n\nA Conflict of Interest can be identified at different phases of the publishing process.
\n\nIntechOpen requires:
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST - AUTHOR
\n\nAll Authors are obliged to declare every existing or potential Conflict of Interest, including financial or personal factors, as well as any relationship which could influence their scientific work. Authors must declare Conflicts of Interest at the time of manuscript submission, although they may exceptionally do so at any point during manuscript review. For jointly prepared manuscripts, the corresponding Author is obliged to declare potential Conflicts of Interest of any other Authors who have contributed to the manuscript.
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST – ACADEMIC EDITOR
\n\nEditors can also have Conflicts of Interest. Editors are expected to maintain the highest standards of conduct, which are outlined in our Best Practice Guidelines (templates for Best Practice Guidelines). Among other obligations, it is essential that Editors make transparent declarations of any possible Conflicts of Interest that they might have.
\n\nAvoidance Measures for Academic Editors of Conflicts of Interest:
\n\nFor manuscripts submitted by the Academic Editor (or a scientific advisor), an appropriate person will be appointed to handle and evaluate the manuscript. The appointed handling Editor's identity will not be disclosed to the Author in order to maintain impartiality and anonymity of the review.
\n\nIf a manuscript is submitted by an Author who is a member of an Academic Editor's family or is personally or professionally related to the Academic Editor in any way, either as a friend, colleague, student or mentor, the work will be handled by a different Academic Editor who is not in any way connected to the Author.
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST - REVIEWER
\n\nAll Reviewers are required to declare possible Conflicts of Interest at the beginning of the evaluation process. If a Reviewer feels he or she might have any material, financial or any other conflict of interest with regards to the manuscript being reviewed, he or she is required to declare such concern and, if necessary, request exclusion from any further involvement in the evaluation process. A Reviewer's potential Conflicts of Interest are declared in the review report and presented to the Academic Editor, who then assesses whether or not the declared potential or actual Conflicts of Interest had, or could be perceived to have had, any significant impact on the review itself.
\n\nEXAMPLES OF CONFLICTS OF INTEREST:
\n\nFINANCIAL AND MATERIAL
\n\nNON-FINANCIAL
\n\nAuthors are required to declare all potentially relevant non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that may have had an influence on their scientific work.
\n\nAcademic Editors and Reviewers are required to declare any non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that could influence their fair and balanced evaluation of manuscripts. If such conflict exists with regards to a submitted manuscript, Academic Editors and Reviewers should exclude themselves from handling it.
\n\nAll Authors, Academic Editors, and Reviewers are required to declare all possible financial and material Conflicts of Interest in the last five years, although it is advisable to declare less recent Conflicts of Interest as well.
\n\nEXAMPLES:
\n\nAuthors should declare if they were or they still are Academic Editors of the publications in which they wish to publish their work.
\n\nAuthors should declare if they are board members of an organization that could benefit financially or materially from the publication of their work.
\n\nAcademic Editors should declare if they were coauthors or they have worked on the research project with the Author who has submitted a manuscript.
\n\nAcademic Editors should declare if the Author of a submitted manuscript is affiliated with the same department, faculty, institute, or company as they are.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"160349",title:null,name:null,middleName:null,surname:null,slug:"",fullName:null,position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"25887",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Abbasi",slug:"abbasi",fullName:"Abbasi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"161332",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Abu-El Hassan",slug:"abu-el-hassan",fullName:"Abu-El Hassan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"212347",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Abubakar",slug:"abubakar",fullName:"Abubakar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"93806",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Adani",slug:"adani",fullName:"Adani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"158756",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Adler",slug:"adler",fullName:"Adler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"63002",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Agius",slug:"agius",fullName:"Agius",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"34637",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"ahmed",fullName:"Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"118228",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"ahmed",fullName:"Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"89784",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Ai",slug:"ai",fullName:"Ai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"158339",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Akahoshi",slug:"akahoshi",fullName:"Akahoshi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"158540",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Al-Jumaily",slug:"al-jumaily",fullName:"Al-Jumaily",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5698},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5172},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1689},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10243},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:888},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15647}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117315},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateendthirdsteppublish"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:60},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5138},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8063",title:"Food Security in Africa",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cbf3d662b104d19db2efc9d59249efc",slug:"food-security-in-africa",bookSignature:"Barakat Mahmoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8063.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10118",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c68b09d2d2634fc719ae3b9a64a27839",slug:"plant-stress-physiology",bookSignature:"Akbar Hossain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10118.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"925",title:"Chemical Engineering",slug:"materials-science-composite-materials-chemical-engineering",parent:{title:"Composite Materials",slug:"materials-science-composite-materials"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:27,numberOfWosCitations:43,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitations:41,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"materials-science-composite-materials-chemical-engineering",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"2137",title:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science",subtitle:"When Numbers Matter",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"697d16bf008a18326eb5ffe86d13e97a",slug:"stoichiometry-and-materials-science-when-numbers-matter",bookSignature:"Alessio Innocenti and Norlida Kamarulzaman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2137.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109885",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessio",middleName:null,surname:"Innocenti",slug:"alessio-innocenti",fullName:"Alessio Innocenti"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"35388",doi:"10.5772/34459",title:"Clay Mineral Nanotubes: Stability, Structure and Properties",slug:"clay-mineral-nanotubes-stability-structure-and-properties-",totalDownloads:3995,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:13,book:{slug:"stoichiometry-and-materials-science-when-numbers-matter",title:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science",fullTitle:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science - When Numbers Matter"},signatures:"Hélio A. Duarte, Maicon P. Lourenço, Thomas Heine and Luciana Guimarães",authors:[{id:"100221",title:"Prof.",name:"Hélio A.",middleName:null,surname:"Duarte",slug:"helio-a.-duarte",fullName:"Hélio A. Duarte"},{id:"102541",title:"Prof.",name:"Luciana",middleName:null,surname:"Guimaraes",slug:"luciana-guimaraes",fullName:"Luciana Guimaraes"},{id:"102542",title:"MSc.",name:"Maicon Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Lourenço",slug:"maicon-pierre-lourenco",fullName:"Maicon Pierre Lourenço"},{id:"137601",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Heine",slug:"thomas-heine",fullName:"Thomas Heine"}]},{id:"35393",doi:"10.5772/35397",title:"Stoichiometry in Inter-Metallic Compounds for Hydrogen Storage Applications",slug:"stoichiometry-in-intermetallic-compounds-for-hydrogen-storage-applications",totalDownloads:2713,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:12,book:{slug:"stoichiometry-and-materials-science-when-numbers-matter",title:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science",fullTitle:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science - When Numbers Matter"},signatures:"Kwo Young",authors:[{id:"104236",title:"Dr",name:"Kwo",middleName:null,surname:"Young",slug:"kwo-young",fullName:"Kwo Young"}]},{id:"35403",doi:"10.5772/37809",title:"Stoichiometric Approach to the Analysis of Coal Gasification Process",slug:"stoichiometric-approach-to-the-analysis-of-coal-gasification-process-",totalDownloads:4781,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"stoichiometry-and-materials-science-when-numbers-matter",title:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science",fullTitle:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science - When Numbers Matter"},signatures:"Mamoru Kaiho and Osamu Yamada",authors:[{id:"114446",title:"Dr.",name:"Osamu",middleName:null,surname:"Yamada",slug:"osamu-yamada",fullName:"Osamu Yamada"},{id:"114450",title:"Dr.",name:"Mamoru",middleName:null,surname:"Kaiho",slug:"mamoru-kaiho",fullName:"Mamoru Kaiho"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"35397",title:"Synthesis and Stoichiometric Analysis of a Li-Ion Battery Cathode Material",slug:"synthesis-and-stoichiometric-analysis-of-some-li-ion-battery-cathode-materials",totalDownloads:2962,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"stoichiometry-and-materials-science-when-numbers-matter",title:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science",fullTitle:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science - When Numbers Matter"},signatures:"Norlida Kamarulzaman and Mohd Hilmi Jaafar",authors:[{id:"94402",title:"Prof.",name:"Norlida",middleName:null,surname:"Kamarulzaman",slug:"norlida-kamarulzaman",fullName:"Norlida Kamarulzaman"}]},{id:"35391",title:"Structure, Morphology, and Stoichiometry of GaN(0001) Surfaces Through Various Cleaning Procedures",slug:"gan-0001-surface-structure-morphology-and-stoichiometry-through-various-cleaning-procedures",totalDownloads:4722,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"stoichiometry-and-materials-science-when-numbers-matter",title:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science",fullTitle:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science - When Numbers Matter"},signatures:"Azusa N. Hattori and Katsuyoshi Endo",authors:[{id:"98835",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Azusa",middleName:"N",surname:"Hattori",slug:"azusa-hattori",fullName:"Azusa Hattori"}]},{id:"35388",title:"Clay Mineral Nanotubes: Stability, Structure and Properties",slug:"clay-mineral-nanotubes-stability-structure-and-properties-",totalDownloads:3995,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:13,book:{slug:"stoichiometry-and-materials-science-when-numbers-matter",title:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science",fullTitle:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science - When Numbers Matter"},signatures:"Hélio A. Duarte, Maicon P. Lourenço, Thomas Heine and Luciana Guimarães",authors:[{id:"100221",title:"Prof.",name:"Hélio A.",middleName:null,surname:"Duarte",slug:"helio-a.-duarte",fullName:"Hélio A. Duarte"},{id:"102541",title:"Prof.",name:"Luciana",middleName:null,surname:"Guimaraes",slug:"luciana-guimaraes",fullName:"Luciana Guimaraes"},{id:"102542",title:"MSc.",name:"Maicon Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Lourenço",slug:"maicon-pierre-lourenco",fullName:"Maicon Pierre Lourenço"},{id:"137601",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Heine",slug:"thomas-heine",fullName:"Thomas Heine"}]},{id:"35400",title:"The Solid-Phase Synthesis of the Inorganic Non-Stoichiometric Compounds-Fibrous Fluorosilicates",slug:"the-solidphase-synthesis-of-the-inorganic-non-stoichiometric-compounds-fibrous-fluorosilicates",totalDownloads:2310,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"stoichiometry-and-materials-science-when-numbers-matter",title:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science",fullTitle:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science - When Numbers Matter"},signatures:"Naira B. Yeritsyan and Lida A. Khachatryan",authors:[{id:"98296",title:"Dr.",name:"Naira B.",middleName:null,surname:"Yeritsyan",slug:"naira-b.-yeritsyan",fullName:"Naira B. Yeritsyan"},{id:"99441",title:"Dr.",name:"Lida A.",middleName:null,surname:"Khachatryan",slug:"lida-a.-khachatryan",fullName:"Lida A. Khachatryan"}]},{id:"35389",title:"Stoichiometric Boron-Based Nanostructures",slug:"stoichiometric-boron-based-nanostructures",totalDownloads:2171,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"stoichiometry-and-materials-science-when-numbers-matter",title:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science",fullTitle:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science - When Numbers Matter"},signatures:"Limin Cao, Xiangyi Zhang, Wenkui Wang and Min Feng",authors:[{id:"100598",title:"Dr",name:"Limin",middleName:null,surname:"Cao",slug:"limin-cao",fullName:"Limin Cao"},{id:"153111",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiangyi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"xiangyi-zhang",fullName:"Xiangyi Zhang"}]},{id:"35394",title:"Determination of Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Non-Stoichiometric Oxides",slug:"thermodynamic-and-transport-properties-in-non-stoichiometric-oxides",totalDownloads:3232,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"stoichiometry-and-materials-science-when-numbers-matter",title:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science",fullTitle:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science - When Numbers Matter"},signatures:"Mauvy Fabrice and Fouletier Jacques",authors:[{id:"95098",title:"Prof.",name:"Jacques",middleName:null,surname:"Fouletier",slug:"jacques-fouletier",fullName:"Jacques Fouletier"},{id:"97124",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabrice",middleName:null,surname:"MAUVY",slug:"fabrice-mauvy",fullName:"Fabrice MAUVY"}]},{id:"35401",title:"Chemical Transformations in Inhibited Flames over Range of Stoichiometry",slug:"chemical-transformations-in-inhibited-flames-over-range-of-stoichiometry",totalDownloads:1595,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"stoichiometry-and-materials-science-when-numbers-matter",title:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science",fullTitle:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science - When Numbers Matter"},signatures:"O.P. Korobeinichev, A.G. Shmakov and V.M. Shvartsberg",authors:[{id:"97408",title:"Prof.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Korobeinichev",slug:"oleg-korobeinichev",fullName:"Oleg Korobeinichev"}]},{id:"35395",title:"Oxygen Potentials and Defect Chemistry in Nonstoichiometric (U,Pu)O2",slug:"oxygen-potential-and-defect-chemistry-in-nonstoichiometric-u-pu-o2",totalDownloads:2247,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"stoichiometry-and-materials-science-when-numbers-matter",title:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science",fullTitle:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science - When Numbers Matter"},signatures:"Masato Kato",authors:[{id:"96633",title:"Dr.",name:"Masato",middleName:null,surname:"Kato",slug:"masato-kato",fullName:"Masato Kato"}]},{id:"35398",title:"A Study on Hydrogen Reaction Kinetics of Pt/HfO2/SiC Schottky-Diode Hydrogen Sensors",slug:"a-study-on-hydrogen-reaction-kinetics-of-pt-hfo2-sic-schottky-diode-hydrogen-sensors-",totalDownloads:1590,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"stoichiometry-and-materials-science-when-numbers-matter",title:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science",fullTitle:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science - When Numbers Matter"},signatures:"W.M. Tang, C.H. Leung and P.T. Lai",authors:[{id:"94815",title:"Dr.",name:"Wm",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"wm-tang",fullName:"Wm Tang"}]},{id:"35402",title:"Improved Combustion Control in Diesel Engines Through Active Oxygen Concentration Compensation",slug:"improved-combustion-control-in-diesel-engines-through-active-oxygen-concentration-compensation",totalDownloads:3067,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"stoichiometry-and-materials-science-when-numbers-matter",title:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science",fullTitle:"Stoichiometry and Materials Science - When Numbers Matter"},signatures:"Jason Meyer and Stephen Yurkovich",authors:[{id:"14586",title:"Prof.",name:"Stephen",middleName:null,surname:"Yurkovich",slug:"stephen-yurkovich",fullName:"Stephen Yurkovich"},{id:"98897",title:"Dr.",name:"Jason",middleName:null,surname:"Meyer",slug:"jason-meyer",fullName:"Jason Meyer"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"materials-science-composite-materials-chemical-engineering",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/289137/oliver-neoh",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"289137",slug:"oliver-neoh"},fullPath:"/profiles/289137/oliver-neoh",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()