Risk factors for the Development of Community ESBL Infections.
\r\n\tVarious disciplines characterize the constituent components comprising mechatronics, which include physical systems modeling, sensors and actuators, signals and systems, computers and logic systems, and software and data acquisition.
\r\n\tMany new MEMS and Nanotechnology applications will emerge, expanding beyond that which is currently identified or known. Here are a few applications of current interest: new phenomena are addressed nowadays in science and technology.
\r\n\tIn this book, we will deal with physical systems modeling., discuss the physical phenomena involved, the adequate methodology to deal with them, and report a selection of papers recently published for possible applications for MEMS and Nanotechnology.
\r\n\r\n\tIn summary, Nano- and micro-electromechanical systems (NEMS/MEMS) are useful for applications ranging from: The design of MEMS accelerometers, gyroscopes, electrostatic actuators, and microresonators; Interfacial engineering for NEMS/MEMS; Biosensors, magnetic biochips, in vitro diagnostics, cell sorting, magnetic nanoparticles, spin electronic materials and sensors, magnetic inductive heads, and magnetic integrated inductors and transformer’s; Flexible substrates for electronics, sensors, and energy conversion platforms; Nanofabrication and nanopatterning technologies, including self-assembly for device fabrication.
\r\n\t
The first beta- lactamases were identified in a species of
In 1965, the first plasmid mediated beta- lactamases was discovered. This occurred in a strain of
Around the same time a second plasmid mediated beta-lactamases was found in
Unfortunately, resistance to this class soon became evident in 1985 with beta-lactamases showing the ability to hydrolyze these compounds in
Several b-lactamases have continued to be with over 130 TEMS types and over 50 SHV types known to date. These are mainly found in
Shortly after the introduction of new broad-spectrum cephalosporins such as cefotaxime and ceftazidime, non-TEM and non SHV ESBL’s were discovered. This new class of ESBL’s has been called CTX-M in reference to the potent hydrolytic activity of these enzymes against cefotaxime[6]. There are over 40 of these enzymes reported. CTX-M producing ESBL pathogens usually have cefotaxime in the resistant range (MIC>64).
More recently, and of greater concern is the occurrence of carbapenemases which show activity against oxyimino-cephalosporins and cephamycins but also against carbapenems [7]. There are two major groups in this class called metallo-b-lactamases (Verona integron encoded metallo b lactamases) (VIM) and carbapenemases. Structural studies of ESBL indicate that active site expansion and remodeling are responsible for the extended hydrolytic activity [8].These enzymes are globally present and appear to cause clinically significant disease such as urinary tract infections, abscesses and bacteremia.
With the advent of the ESBL pathogens, there has been a significant increase in the morbidity and mortality related to these infections. If the number of carbapenemase- producing organisms continues to increase, the treatment options will be seriously compromised.
In addition, ESBL producing pathogens are not only resistant to penicillin and cephalosporins but also to trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole and fluroquinolones which can compromise the treatment of both nosocomial and community acquired infections caused by
One of the major clinical problems has been the recognition of both nosocomial and community acquired urinary tract infections resulting from ESBL pathogens. The treatment options for these infections are limited, especially in the out patient setting.
This chapter will review the epidemiology, risk factors, clinical features and therapeutics options for ESBL-induced infections of the urinary tract.
ESBL producing organisms have been implicated in nosocomial infections. Over the last decade, there has been a steady increase of these infections in the community.
In fact, a recent study from Spain suggest there was been an increase in ESBL
In contrast, the ESBL
France was one of the first countries to report an outbreak of ESBL infections in 1986. In this study, 30% of
In Central and South America ESBL, rates in
In Africa and the Middle East there has been a number of outbreaks of ESBL producing infections from South Africa to northern Africa. The rates of ESBL were variable depending on the country [18\n\t\t\t\t19].
In North America the first case of an ESBL producer was in 1988and since then a variety of infections produced by TEM strains, SHV type and CTM-X have been reported. In fact, in a recent survey it was noted that non-susceptibility to third generation cephalosporin’s may be as high as 13 %.[20,21]. In the outpatient, setting 1.8% of
In Asia, there seems to be a larger proportion of ESBL pathogens. Studies from several countries, including China, India, Japan, Korea, and Malaysia showed ranges from 30% to 40 % [23,24]. Reports of a possible predominant CTM-X ESBL in countries like India, China Korea, Japan and Taiwan indicate that there may be a dominant ESBL type in Asia [25,26]. More recently, there have been studies showing increasing numbers of carbapenemase producing pathogens, which is of increasing clinical importance due to the lack of effective antimicrobial therapy. [27-31].
Current data suggest that the incidence of ESBL producing infections is on the rise globally resulting in increasing difficulty in the diagnosis and treatment of these infections.
In vitro studies performed in Turkey found that
In Taiwan, Lau and colleagues looked at 201 patients with and without bacteremia in CA-ESBL UTI. They found that
Detection of ESBL’s is based on the fact that ESBL producers should be reported as resistant to all penicillin’s, cephalosporins (except cephamycins) and aztreonam irrespective of routine antimicrobial susceptibility testing. [32]
Both broth dilution and disk diffusion can be used for the screening of ESBL producers. Specific phenotypic confirmatory tests should be done if the E.coli, K.pneumoniae, show MIC’s>8ug/ml for cefpodoxime or MIC’s >2 ug/ml against ceftazidime, cefotaxime or aztreonam. [36,37]
The E-test can also be used in the detection of ESBL. Automated methods for bacterial identification and susceptibility testing are also used in the detection of ESBL producing organisms. These include the BD Phoenix system, Vitek 2 system and the Micoscan Walkway -96 system.
There have been several case controlled studies looking at the risk factors for colonization with or without infection due to ESBL producers. However, the results are conflicting due to study populations, geographical areas, selection of cases and controls and sample size. [38-48].
Despite these statistical differences, some generalizations can be made. (Table 1)
Diabetes mellitus |
Previous antimicrobial exposure (quinolones, third generation cephalosporins, penicillin) |
Previous hospital admissions |
Older age |
Male patients |
Risk factors for the Development of Community ESBL Infections.
Some of these risk factors include seriously ill patients with prolonged hospital stays (11-67 days) who have usually had multiple invasive devices and co-morbidities such as urinary catheters, central lines, nasogastric tubes, jejunostomy tubes, arterial lines, total parental administration, recent surgery, decubitus ulcers, hemodialysis catheters and poor nutritional status.
The use of previous antibiotics such as third generation cephalosporins, quinolones, trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole, aminoglycosides and metronidazole have also been implicated in several studies. [38,42,45,49,44,50,47,48,51].
In a large French study in 1993, looking at
The prevalence of colonization with enterobacteria is unknown. The percentage of ESBL producing
Three case controlled studies looking at risk factors for ESBL
Colodoner et al evaluated 128 cases of UTI caused by ESBL
In community- acquired urinary tract infection (CA-UTI), the rate of ESBL associated UTI’s varied from 1.4% in Spain up to 3.3% in the Gaza strip [60,62,63].
In the last 7 years, there have been an increasing number of publications from several countries showing and increase of community acquired ESBL infections, mainly in urinary tract. [64,65,61,57,30,59,60,31] Most of these patients had urinary tract infections (UTI’s) with genes encoding for CTM-X type of ESBL’s [60]. Recently, there has been an increase in the diagnosis of infections caused by ESBL
Romero et al showed an increase from 0.3% in 1995 to 4.8% in 2002 in community acquired ESBL
In one study in Spain up to 6.5% of community, acquired bacteremia was associated with ESBL
In summary, ESBL infections can range from colonization to carriage to true infections involving sepsis syndromes and bacteremia.
Several studies have described the microbiological features of ESBL producing organisms in the outpatient setting. However, very few studies have correlated the microbiological findings with that of the clinical features and prognosis of these CA-UTI ESBL infections. Therefore, one may only draw some tentative conclusions from these studies.
In urinary tract infections, the majority of ESBL’s isolated, not surprisingly, have been ESBL
In the United States, Chao Qi et al evaluated 193 single patient ESBL isolates in outpatient urine cultures during a 5-year period. 3% of
In another study of 49 patients with ESBL
The most frequent cause of community-acquired bacteremia is
In patients with solid organ transplants and renal transplants, the major site of infection was the urinary tract in 72% of the cases, with ESBL.
Geriatric patients with ESBL UTI’s pose an unusual clinical problem. These patients may be chronically colonized in either the gastrointestinal tract or the skin and reinfection is a possibility. In addition, many of these patients are asymptomatic and do not present with the classic symptoms of dysuria, frequency of urination, fever or leukocytosis. In general, one may not need to treat asymptomatic ESBL infections. If there is a change in the clinical status such as fever, leukocytosis or altered mental status then treatment options should be considered. Numerous outbreaks have been reported of patients with ESBL infections. Much of the spread is plasmid mediated and is therefore through direct and indirect transmission. Contact isolation should be instituted in patients with ESBL infections.
In summary, ESBL infections can present from simple colonization to active UTI’s and to serious bacteremia associated with sepsis syndrome.
Treatment options for ESBL infections are the same for both nosocomial and community acquired infections. The major problem at this time is the lack of effective oral antibiotics for the treatment of outpatient ESBL infections.
ESBL’s hydrolyze aztreonam, penicillin and cephalosporins (with the exception of cephamycins) with varying degrees of hydrolytic activity. Usually the TEM and SHV type ESBL’s have greater hydrolytic activity for ceftazidime than for cefotaxime [74]. Therefore, ESBL producing organisms may appear susceptible to some of the above-mentioned antibiotics in vitro. In addition, there is frequent co –expression of resistance by these organisms to classes of antimicrobial agents other than those hydrolyzed by the ESBL’s. This has been documented for quinolones, aminoglycosides, tetracycline’s (excluding glycylcycline) and trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole [59]
Some of the other antibiotic classes used to treat ESBL infections include beta lactam/beta-lactamases inhibitors. The level of activity for these agents varies by the type of inhibitor and by the class of ESBL. For example, tazobactam appears to be more effective than clavulanic acid against certain types of CTX-M type ESBL’s and both of these agents are more effective than sulbactam in inhibiting TEM and SHV type ESBL. [75,76]. This data is mainly from in-vitro studies. Clinical information is sparse in regards to beta-lactam and inhibitor combinations, but some favorable outcomes have been reported with pipercillin/tazobactam. However, it is important to note that favorable results have not been consistently reported [74,77]. One possible oral option may be amoxicillin/clavulanate, which has shown some activity in CA-ESBL Enterobacteriaceae UTI infections [60,78]
Few studies have evaluated cephalosporins in the treatment of both bacteremic and non-bacteremic ESBL infections. The results have been equivocal when ceftazidime or cefepeme were compared to Imipenem in
Cephamycins have not been well studied in the treatment of ESBL associated infections. In one small retrospective study, there was no obvious difference in the mortality rates between the cephamycins and carbapenems. Recent studies have documented resistance to the cephamycins [49,74].
The glycylcycline class of antibiotics, specifically tigecycline, thus far evaded the common mechanisms of resistance in both gram positive and gram-negative pathogens. It has excellent in vitro activity against ESBL-
Fosfomycin has been used in Europe but is not available in most parts of the world. It is a phosphor derivative of streptomycin and inhibits cell wall synthesis and impairs adherence to urogenital mucosa. A study in Spain found that the resistance rate to fosfomycin of ESBL-EC was 0.3%. [82]. It has been used in cystitis and asymptomatic UTI in pregnancy. [82,83]. In the United States 90% of the isolates in one study were susceptible to fosfomycin and to a combination of cefdinir plus amoxicillin-clavulanate. [84,85]
Pivmecillinam is a beta lactam antibiotic, which binds penicillin-binding protein 2 (PBP-2) and inhibits cell wall synthesis. This drug has been used in the treatment of cystitis due to Enterobacteriaceae. [86].
Nitrofurantoin is a bactericidal drug, which acts by altering bacterial ribosome’s proteins and can be used for UTI as well.
Finally, carbapenems are considered the drug of choice for ESBL infections. All the drugs in the class appear to have the same efficiency in the treatment of ESBL. Ertapenem, is the only drug in this class that can be administered once a day. It can be used in the outpatient setting as long as the in vitro activity is similar to imipenem, doripenem or meropenem.[87,88]. However, recent reports of carbapenem resistance have emerged and the spread of resistance is of concern. One possible option might be to add amikacin to the empiric regimen in community-acquired sepsis originating in the urinary tract since amikacin resistance among CTX-M isolates is relatively low.
The treatment for upper UTI’s may have to be limited to the intravenous antibiotics mentioned above especially as the patients tend to be sicker and may present with systemic inflammatory response syndrome and occasionally bacteremia. These should include carbapenems. Occasionally, ampicillan-sulbactam and tigecycline may be alternate therapies although data on these drugs in the treatment of ESBL UTI infections is sparse.
In lower UTI‘s, some of the oral antibiotics such as nitrofurantoin, fosphomycin, amoxicillin-clavulanate and trimethoprim-sulphamethaxazole may be used if the pathogen is susceptible to them.
Antimicrobial resistance has become a global problem of increasing importance. It is now essential that laboratories be able to rapidly identify and characterize resistant organisms. This is, of even more importance, in ESBL producing organisms that clearly have a higher morbidity and mortality associated with their infections. There is also increasing evidence, that ESBL organisms frequently possess resistance factors to other classes of other antimicrobials, like the aminoglycosides and quinolones. ESBL producing bacteria are being found both in the hospital and in the community, especially the CTX-M beta –lactamases.
The increasing number of community isolates, especially E. coli producing CTX-M-15 have become global and now are being seen in the hospital as well. It is thought that the CTX-M -15 producing
Treatment of ESBL infections requires the use of carbapenems in seriously ill patients. Imipenem, meropenem, doripenem are all viable alternatives. Ertapenem can be used in the out patient setting, in the absence of
In addition to understanding the complex mechanisms involved in ESBL infections, strict antimicrobial stewardship, appropriate infection control measures and aggressive treatment of seriously ill patients is necessary in reducing the mortality and morbidity associated with these infections.
Due to intensification of small ruminant farming, there is increase in the number of disease outbreaks in the recent years. Among the various infectious diseases, diseases caused by bacterial pathogens contribute to severe economic loss to the goat farmers. Various factors like increase in herd size, reduced ventilation in farm and poor husbandry practices can predispose to diseases. Bacterial diseases like anthrax, enterotoxaemia, tetanus, gas gangrene, caseous lymphadenitis, listeriosis, tuberculosis, Johne’s disease, dermatophilosis, pasteurellosis/mannheimiosis, brucellosis, foot rot, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia, colibacillosis, salmonellosis, etc., affect goats and can cause various ailments and some diseases can cause heavy mortality leading to huge economic loss to the farmer [1]. Different bacterial pathogens affect different organs of goat thereby eliciting various clinical signs based on which a tentative diagnosis can be made (Figure 1).
\nDifferent bacterial diseases of goat and the organ/ tissues affected. Brucellosis affects reproductive tract, dermatophilosis affect the skin, johne’s disease causes corrugation of intestine, pasteurellosis/ mannheimiosis, tuberculosis, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia affects the respiratory system, caseous lymphadenitis affects the lymph nodes and tetanus affects the nervous system. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Antibacterial agents can be used to treat various bacterial diseases but these drugs should be used judiciously due to the risk of development of antimicrobial resistance. Vaccination is the best way to prevent infectious diseases and based on the pattern of the disease annual vaccination should be practiced to prevent disease outbreaks. Diseases like anthrax, brucellosis and tuberculosis pose threat to human since these diseases can be transmitted to human through direct or indirect route of transmission [2]. Due care should be taken while handling infected goats or dead goats in farm as the zoonotic diseases can cause severe aliments in human.
\nThis chapter is a comprehensive summary of important bacterial diseases of goats and this can be a guide to veterinary students, field veterinarians and goat farmers regarding the impact of these bacterial diseases. This chapter also highlights the preventive measures and zoonotic potential associated with the bacterial diseases of goats. Important bacterial diseases that are zoonotic and economically important like anthrax, brucellosis, tetanus, enterotoxaemia, Johne’s disease, Pasteurellosis/ Mannheimiosis, caseous lymphadenitis, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia, dermatophilosis and foot rot are discussed. Each disease is delt with various subsections like definition of the diseases, etiology, epizootiology, transmission clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, preventive measures and public health significance, if any.
\nAnthrax is a peracute, acute or subacute, often fatal disease of animals including goats. In goats the disease is mainly characterized by septicaemia, splenomegaly and gelatinous infiltration of subcutaneous or subserosal tissues. The disease is commonly known as woolsorter’s disease, splenic fever, charbon, and milzbrand.
\nThe disease is caused by
The disease is worldwide in distribution and is endemic in some countries, while occurs in defined regions of other countries. It was reported to be associated with heavy mortalities in goats and sheep of sub-saharan region in 1960–70s and in other countries. In recent days, through strict vaccination procedures the incidence reduced in most countries, however, sporadic cases are still being reported.
Goats are infected by ingestion of food, water or soil contaminated with spores. The infection can also occur through inhalation or abraded skin and oral mucosa. Mechanical transmission by biting insects is also reported. Wild animals acting as carriers makes the control programme challenging as it is least possible to vaccinate all wild animals.
\nThe incubation period ranges from hours to days. The disease is usually fatal, especially in sheep and goats, after 1–3 days. The peracute case is characterized by sudden death without any premonitory signs. However, there may be fever, dysponea, congestion of mucous membranes, muscular tremors and terminal convulsions in few animals. In acute cases, fever, anorexia, labored breathing, increased heart rate, ruminal stasis and reduce milk production may be observed. There may be bloody discharges from orifices like mouth, nostrils, anus and/or vulva. Diarrhea or dysentery and oedema and swelling of the tongue, throat, flank and perineum (anus, vulva) may be seen. Pregnant animal abort and blood-tinged milk is produced. Animals then collapse with terminal convulsions and die [4].
\nNecropsy of suspected carcass is not recommended, as the vegetative bacteria may get transformed into spore and hence contaminate the environment. The pathological features such as absence of rigor mortis and rapid putrefaction and bloating of the carcass are common clinical features. Oozing of unclotted dark, tarry colored blood from orifices, soft and enlarged spleen, blood-stained fluid in body cavities and widespread ecchymotic hemorrhages are frequently observed post mortem findings.
\nThough clinical signs are highly suggestive, the diagnosis based on clinical signs alone is difficult. Thin smears of blood from ear tip can be stained with polychrome methylene blue stain to reveal short chains of truncated blue color rods, surrounded by pink capsules (McFadyean reaction). The organism can be cultured on Sheep or Ox blood agar which shows flat, dry grayish colonies with ‘ground glass’ appearance after 24–48 hours of incubation (Figure 2). The selective media for the organism is PLET (Polymyxin-lysozyme-EDTA thallous acetate) medium. The Ascoli’s thermo-precipitation test is also commonly used test to detect antigens of
Ground glass appearance
Ailing animals in early stages of infection can be treated with penicillin or oxytetracycline or other long-acting antibiotics. An anthrax antiserum may result in recovery if used in early stages. Vaccination should follow 7–10 days after the conclusion of antibiotic therapy [4].
\nIn endemic areas, annual vaccination is advisable. The goat should be vaccinated with ‘Sterne strain’ live spore vaccine one month before the anticipated outbreaks. In non-endemic areas, movement of animals and their products should be restricted; feed and bedding materials etc., should not be transferred from affected herds. Disinfection of the premises with 5% formalin, 5% sodium hydroxide or 3% peracetic acid and placing foot-baths containing these sporicidal disinfectants at the entrances of the affected farms will help to control the spread of infection. Contaminated building should be fumigated with formaldehyde before removing the bedding materials [5]. Proper disposal of carcasses and the infected materials should be done either by deep burial or incineration.
\n\n
Caprine brucellosis is an infectious zoonotic disease having substantial economic impact on both livestock and human. Caprine brucellosis is reported since ancient days; Hippocrates II first described the human brucellosis in 400 B.C. which was most likely to be associated with consumption of raw milk or derivatives of infected sheep or goats.
\nThe causative agent is
The disease is prevalent worldwide and it remains a major burden in parts of Mediterranean region, the Middle East, Central and Southeast Asia (including India and China), sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of Latin America [8]. Goat herds from USA, Canada, Colombia, Chile, and Uruguay are reported to be free from
Infection occurs primarily through ingestion of the organisms. Goats acquire infection by licking the aborted fetuses, placentas, newborn kids, vaginal discharges, or by consumption of feed contaminated with these infectious materials [9]. Milkers can also spread the infection through unsanitary milking practices.
\nThe disease is more severe in goats and is protracted than in sheep. Clinical manifestations include high abortion rates particularly during the fourth month of pregnancy and retained placentas, orchitis in bucks, arthritis and hygromas. In goats, mastitis and lameness may also be seen. The abortion rate can be high when this bacterium first enters a naive flock or herd [10]. The abortion rates are usually much lower once
Diagnosis is made based on clinical signs, direct examination of MZN-stained smears of fluids or tissues, isolation and identification of
\n
Test and slaughter policy of the infected herd is generally implemented in countries where the disease is considered exotic. This can also reduce the prevalence of disease in endemic areas. In most countries where
\n
Tetanus (Lockjaw) is an acute, highly fatal intoxication of all domestic animals and humans caused by neurotoxin produced by the bacteria
The etiological agent,
Tetanus is worldwide in distribution and occurs sporadically. The organism is normal inhabitant of intestinal tract of animals and persists as resistant spores in soil, manure [16].
\nThe toxemia in tetanus is caused by a specific neurotoxin produced by
The incubation period is usually of 4 days to 3 weeks. The initial signs include muscle stiffness, tremors and prolapse of the third eyelid. This is followed by rigidity and extension of the limbs leading to a stiff gait and abnormal flexion of the joints. Tetany of masseter muscles causes drooling of saliva (lock jaw) and regurgitation through nostrils [17]. The animals may exhibit bloat, an inability to chew, and hyperthermia. Retracted lips, hypersensitivity to external stimuli, and a ‘saw-horse’ stance are frequent signs. The spasms of alimentary and urinary tract muscle may cause constipation and retention of urine [17]. The abnormal muscular contracture may result in opisthotonus, curvature of the spine and bending of the tail. The disease is highly fatal and death occurs within 3–10 days with mortality nearing 100%, primarily as a result of respiratory failure. Necropsy features usually are nonspecific except for the inflammatory reaction associated with the wound.
\nDiagnosis can be made based on clinical features such as muscular spasms, prolapse of third eyelid and based on history of trauma or surgery. The Gram-positive rods with terminal spores can be demonstrated in the smears prepared from necrotic tissue or wound [18]. Anaerobic culture of the bacteria from necrotic tissue may be attempted but is often unsuccessful. PCR and real-time PCR techniques can be employed for the detection of neurotoxin genes of the organism. Mouse inoculation test can be performed to demonstrate circulating neurotoxin from the serum of affected animals.
\nTreatment mainly aimed at wound management, antibiotic therapy, antitoxin administration and vaccination. Wound management consists of surgical debridement of infected wounds and removal of debris, flushing with hydrogen peroxide to produce aerobic condition that helps to inhibit replication of the bacteria at the site of infection. The antibiotics (large doses of Penicillin) can be given both parenterally and flushed into the cleaned wound to prevent further replication of the bacteria and production of toxin [19]. Affected animals must be kept in a quiet and dark environment. Fluid replacement therapy, sedatives and muscle relaxants can minimize clinical discomfort and maintain vital functions. To neutralize unbound toxin, the tetanus antitoxin must be administered on time, either intravenously or into the subarachnoid space for three consecutive days. Vaccination with tetanus toxoid may be given subcutaneously to promote an active immune response even in those animals that are treated with antitoxin.
\nTetanus can be controlled by following good sanitation measures, aseptic surgical and management procedures and vaccination. Goats in a herd must be vaccinated routinely with tetanus toxoid which is very effective for stimulating long-term immunity. They can be vaccinated 2–3 times during the first year of life followed by booster vaccination before parturition to ensure colostral antibodies [20]. Further, a booster dose may be advisable if a vaccinated animal sustains a deep wound.
\nEnterotoxaemia in goats is caused by
\n
The
The peracute condition is characterized by sudden death of younger and healthy kids. This is occasionally preceded by other signs such as loss of appetite, lack of rumen activity and rumination, bloat, depression and a drunken appearance; the animals may show neurological signs such as incoordination, inability to stand, and convulsions. There may be watery diarrhea and glucosuria. In goat’s acute disease is mainly characterized by dysentery, abdominal discomfort and convulsions.
\nIn acute cases of goats, the necropsy findings include pulmonary edema, necrosis of intestinal walls and scattered hyperaemic areas of intestine. Intestinal contents may be green, blood-stained or mucoid, and fibrinous casts may be present in the lumen of the large intestine [22]. Mesentric lymph nodes may be edematous. Fluid accumulation in the pericardial sac, extremely necrotic, soft kidneys (‘pulpy kidneys’), focal encephalomalacia, and petechiae of serosa of the brain, diaphragm, gastrointestinal tract and heart are common findings.
\nDiagnosis of enterotoxaemia depends on epidemiological features, type of diet, clinical and pathological features. Gram positive rods can be demonstrated in the smears of intestinal contents or in the lesions of intestine. The culture of bacteria from fecal samples in cooked meat media may be suggestive of the disease (Figure 4). Organism on blood agar plates show double zone of hemolysis which is suggestive of
Double zone hemolytic colonies of
Treatment generally is ineffective as most cases are acute in nature. A hyperimmune serum, if available, can be used and a combination of hyperimmune serum along with sulphadimidine has been found useful in goats. Chelating agents can be used to neutralize toxins [21].
\nVaccination before the anticipated outbreaks is the primary method of control. Alum precipitated formalin killed whole culture toxoid vaccines are commercially available. In ruminants, maternal antibodies last about 5–6 weeks postpartum and hence, the young animals must be vaccinated at this time. Kids are usually vaccinated twice at 4 weeks interval and then re-vaccinated at once in 6 months. However, several anaphylactic reactions have been reported in Sannen kids re-vaccinated with toxoids [24]. Sudden dietary changes and other predisposing factors to enterotoxaemias must be managed. Feeding regimens and feeding of concentrates even to adult goats should be monitored carefully.
\nA chronic, contagious, granulomatous disease affecting small intestine of adult ruminants and the affected animals show weight loss and intermittent diarrhea [25].
\nJD is caused by
The organism is present in the environment and animals at young are affected either through ingestion of contaminated milk or direct contact. Infected goats may excrete the bacteria in the feces thereby contaminating the environment [26].
\nThe incubation period is usually months to years. Chronic wasting is a characteristic sign in goat and at times pasty feces or diarrhea (in advanced cases) can be witnessed. In advanced cases the animals may lose weight rapidly and will have a hide and bone condition. During PM examination intestine of the affected animals have a corrugated appearance [27].
\nAffected animals can be identified in the herd by intradermal skin testing using Johnin purified protein derivative (PPD). Alternatively, Interferon gamma assay (IGRA) can also be used to assess the cellular immunity. Lymph nodes (Ileal and ileocecal) aspirates, intestinal scrapping can show acid fast bacilli in staining (Figure 5). Organism my shed intermittently in feces and hence, bacilli can be found by acid fast staining [27]. Organism can be detected intestinal tissues, lymph node and feces by culture and PCR. Detection of antibody in the later or final stages of the disease can also be attempted for diagnosis.
\nAcid fast bacilli in intestinal scrapping. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Treating animals with antimycobacterial agents are not fruitful.
\nDue to its chronic nature, it is difficult to identify the disease early hence, it is advised to test a newly purchased animal before letting into the farm. Test and cull policy is better to break the chain of infection. Suspected animals should be separated from the herd and affected animals milk should not be fed to neonates [25]. The organism may survive longer in the pasture hence, once an animal is found positive it is best to change the pasture land.
\nA similar condition in human named as Crohn’s disease has been suspected to be caused by
Pasteurellosis and Mannheimiosis is an acute fatal disease characterized by pneumonia and septicemia.
\n\n
\n
Acute rhinitis or pharyngitis is the common sign noticed in animals. Animals may have high fever, anorexia, and rapid breathing along with profuse mucopurulent nasal/ ocular discharges. Kids are more susceptible than adult goats and death may occur without any clinical signs [30]. PM changes include marbling of lungs, pleural adhesion, sero-fibrinous fluid in the thorax, frothy exudate in trachea and also in bronchi.
\nBipolar organisms of
Bipolar organism in lung impression smear. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Use of antibiotics based on antimicrobial susceptibility testing can be used to control the bacterial propagation and anti-inflammatory agents can be used to control fever [30].
\n\n
Caseous lymphadenitis (CLA) is contagious, subclinical and chronic suppurative condition of sheep and goats, occasionally in cattle and is characterized by the formation of abscesses in lymph nodes and visceral organs [33].
\nCLA is caused by
CLA is worldwide in distribution and the probable dissemination of the disease throughout the world occurred through importation of infected animal [34]. This disease is found in parts of North and South America, Australia, New Zealand, the Middle East, Asia and Africa and is being reported more often in Britain and other European countries.
\nThe bacteria can survive in the environment for about 6 months or more. Transmission can occur either through direct or indirect contact or through wounds contaminated with pus from the abscesses of infected animals. The organism enters through contamination of skin wounds arising from castration, ear tagging or tattooing, docking or shearing operations. Arthropod bites or contaminated dips can also be the source of infection [34]. Goats having traumatized buccal mucosa have more chances of taking the bacterium from contaminated feed. The organism has also been isolated from the milk of affected goats.
\nThe incubation period varies from weeks to months; usually is about 3 months. CLA may be manifested in two forms: in its superficial form it is characterized by infection of peripheral lymph nodes, such as the submandibular, parotid, pre-scapular and supramammary lymph nodes (Figure 7). These peripheral lymph nodes enlarge, may erode and eventually leads to formation of abscess in chronic cases. Visceral form is characterized by abscessation of internal organs, such as lungs, liver, kidneys, uterus, spleen and internal lymph nodes (mainly mediastinal and bronchial lymph nodes) that may not be detectable antemortem [35]. These two forms can co-exist; however, the visceral form is more common among sheep, while superficial form is more frequent among goats with external abscesses in the lymph nodes particularly of the head and neck regions.
\nLymph node enlargement in goats noted in caseous lymphadenitis. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Eventually, the affected animal become exercise-intolerant, anorectic, ill-thrift and debilitated (often known as thin-ewe syndrome in sheep). Fever, increased respiratory rates, and pneumonia may also be noticed. Morbidity up to 15% is common, and morbid animals will often eventually succumb to the disease. The infection can also lead to abortion in doe and orchitis and/or epididymitis in bucks. Though less common, orchitis can be acute in which the buck develops fever, reduced appetite, lack of walking ability and loss of libido. The infected testes appear swollen, hot and painful to touch.
\nDiagnosis is based on clinical signs and lesions and abscessation of both superficial and visceral lymph nodes is typical. Radiographs may be useful in identifying affected central nodes which also must be confirmed by culture of tracheal washings. Gram and Giemsa staining can be used for identification of the bacteria. Isolation of organism from purulent material from abscessed lymph nodes in case of live animals and /or from abscesses of internal organs from dead animals. ELISA tests which detect antibodies directed against either cell wall antigens or the exotoxin (Phospholipase D - PLD) are available [34]. Further, the detection of INF-γ by ELISA, an indicator of cell-mediated immunity, has also been potentially used for demonstration of CLA in eradication programs. Molecular techniques such as PCRs targeting 16S rDNA,
Though
As CLA is contagious in nature, the animals with draining and punctured lesions should be kept isolated until healed. Reducing the environmental contamination, proper sanitation and biosecurity of facilities and instruments and safety measures to prevent injuries are all important in control. The causative agent is sensitive to common disinfectants such as hypochlorite, formalin and cresol; however, the surfaces should be cleaned before disinfection, as organic matter usually interferes with the action of these agents. The control measures vary with the prevalence of infection. In countries with a high incidence, rigorous sanitary procedures must be implemented, along with vaccination. Disease eradication can be achieved in endemically-infected herds by test and disposal policy [36].
\nMost of the commercially available vaccines contain inactivated PLD of either
Human beings are rarely affected, some cases of human infections have been documented as occupational infection in veterinary doctors and assistant as well as farm experts.
\nContagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) is a highly contagious and rapidly spreading mycoplasmal disease of goat, occasionally sheep and wild ruminants. CCPP is characterized by severe sero-fibrinous pleuropneumonia, very high morbidity (100%), and mortality (80–100%) and results in heavy economic losses.
\nCCPP is caused by
CCPP is becoming a novel emerging and rapidly spreading disease in most parts of the world and at present, goat populations in more than 40 countries are affected with CCPP and sporadic cases of CCPP are also being reported from many more countries [37]. It mostly occurs in countries of Africa, Middle East and Asia.
\nThe disease is highly contagious and main mode of transmission is through inhalation of infected aerosols. The direct contact with affected animals is the main source of transmission. Airborne transmission can result in distant spread of about 50 m distance. However, the shorter survival time (3–14 days) of the organisms in external environment limits transmission of Mccp [38]. Yet under cold, moist and overcrowded environment these bacteria can persists for longer durations and may lead to severe outbreaks mostly in winter.
\nCCPP is strictly a respiratory illness and is characterized by severe dyspnea, nasal discharge, cough, and fever. This can occur in peracute, acute and/or chronic forms in endemic areas. In peracute form, affected goats may die within 1–3 days without premonitory clinical signs. In acute infection, the initial signs are high fever (41–43°C), lethargy and anorexia, followed within 2–3 days by coughing and laboured breathing. The cough is frequent, violent and productive. In the final stages of infection, the goat may not be able to move and stands with its front legs wide apart and its neck stiff and extended [37]. Saliva can drip continuously from the mouth, and the animal may exhibit grunt or bleat in pain. Frothy nasal discharge and stringy saliva may be seen terminally. Pregnant goats may abort. Acutely affected goats generally die within seven to 10 days. In the chronic cases, there is chronic cough, nasal discharge and debilitation. These forms with resembling clinical signs in goats were also reported from captive wild goats.
\nPathological features during necropsy are also limited to respiratory system. Acute form is characterized by unilateral pneumonia and sero-fibrinous pleuritis with straw colored fluid in the thorax. The lung is granular with copious straw-colored exudates oozing out on cut section. Pea-sized, yellow-colored nodules may be noticed in lungs and these nodules are surrounded by areas of congestion. Varying degrees of lung consolidation or necrosis may also be noticed [37]. The regional lymph nodes mainly bronchial lymph nodes are enlarged. Some long-term survivors reveal chronic pleuropneumoniae or chronic pleuritis, with encapsulation of acute lesions and numerous adhesions to the chest wall. The interlobular septa are not usually thickened in domesticated goats.
\nCCPP can be diagnosed based on cultural, biochemical, serological, and molecular methods following a tentative clinical diagnosis. Ultrasonography and X-rays may help in diagnosis and CCPP-associated changes may be evident in lungs, pleura, thorax, and associated structures. Cultural isolation and identification (‘fried egg-like appearance’ of the colonies under microscope), though is conventional but is still considered as standard method for detection of Mccp from lung tissue and/or pleural fluid at necropsy. Due to the difficulty in isolation, PCR is the technique of choice for the diagnosis of CCPP. The agglutination tests, ELISA, FAT, CFT (most widely used), passive or indirect haemagglutination tests (IHT) are the immunological methods employed for diagnosis of CCPP [38]. Latex agglutination test is being increasingly used in diagnostic laboratories as a pen side test. It can used to test whole blood as well as serum.
\nTylosin is considered the drug of choice against Mccp. Further, oxytetracycline is also found effective when administered in early stages of infection. However, some infections are slow to resolve.
\nIn endemic areas, proper care should be taken while introducing new goats into the flock. Flock testing, slaughter, and on-site quarantine may be helpful in controlling the spread of disease. Vaccines available in some areas may help in prevention of the disease. The commercially available CCPP vaccine containing inactivated Mccp suspended in saponin provides protection for over 1 year [37].
\nDermatophilosis is a chronic, exudative and sometimes proliferative dermatitis occurs in domestic ruminants, wild animals and occasionally in human beings. Also known as Cutaneous streptothricosis, Strawberry foot rot or Lumpy wool.
\nDermatophilosis is caused by
The disease occurs worldwide and is more common in tropics and subtropics. The organism is believed to be a saprophyte of soil and persists in dry scabs and crusts, to survive for up to 42 months. It has been reported from many countries, but occurs particularly in humid climates and areas where ticks of the genus
Transmission occurs by direct contact with infected animals. The infection can be transmitted indirectly by mechanical vectors (ectoparasites) and also through intradermal inoculation by contaminated thorny bushes. The pathogenesis may be influenced by factors such as mechanical injury to the skin, rainfall, tick infestation, concurrent diseases and/or stresses that compromise the host’s immune system.
\nThe disease is painful but non-pruritic, and is characterized by exudative, proliferative or hyperkeratotic dermatitis, accompanied by the production of crusts and folliculitis. In sheep, it may be seen in two forms: mycotic dermatitis (lumpy wool) and strawberry foot rot. While in goats and cattle, similar signs of crusty, suppurative dermatitis are seen and are often referred as cutaneous streptothricoses. The skin lesions appear raised, thick, yellow-brown colored discrete or confluents crusts containing matted hair. Sometimes may be seen in nodular form also with discrete encrustation of scab. The whole body may be affected but less hairy parts such as ears, axilla, scrotum, prepuce, ventral abdomen, limbs etc., show severe lesions [40]. Lesions in younger goats are mostly seen along the tips of the ears and under the tail. Most affected animals will recover within 3–4 weeks and lesions have little effect on overall health. In severe generalized infections, the animals often loose condition. If there are lesions at the feet, lips and muzzle, the movement of animals and eating become difficult.
\nDiagnosis of dermatophilosis is mainly based clinical signs particularly based on the appearance of the characteristic skin lesions. The same can be confirmed by the demonstration of the organism from the lesions beneath the scabs. The softened scab materials stained by the Giemsa method, reveal the characteristic branching filaments containing zoospores. The organism can be cultured on blood agar at 37°C under 2.5–10% CO2 for up to 5 days and Haalstra technique based on chemotaxis of the zoospores to CO2 can be employed for efficient recovery of the organism.
\nAnimals can be treated with antibiotics such as high doses of penicillin or long acting tetracyclines. Topical applications alone are ineffective. Antibiotic therapy is augmented by topical treatment with lime sulfur as well as control of ectoparasites and biting flies. Povidone iodine shampoos or chlorhexidine solutions also help in clearing the disease.
\nControl measures are based on minimizing the effects of predisposing factors and prompt treatment of affected goats. Animals with skin lesions must be isolated and treated at the earliest. Minimizing moist conditions (such as providing shelter during rainfall) is helpful in control and prevention. Grazing management especially removal of thorny bushes in pasture land that damages skin will also help. Prophylactic antibiotic therapy can also be given.
\n\n
A contagious, either acute or chronic dermatitis of the hoof and its underlying tissues leading to lameness [41].
\nFoot rot is caused by
The organism
Interdigital region will be moist and will have a foul odor due to necrosis (Figure 8). Lameness is the common sign of foot rot. Based on the severity of the infection animals may lose weight due to anorexia and there will be decrease in production [43].
\nMoist, necrotic interdigital region seen in foot rot condition. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Diagnosis is based on clinical signs and isolation of organism from the foot lesions. Since the organisms are anaerobic isolation is tricky and hence molecular diagnosis like PCR can be used for diagnosis.
\nHooves of the animals should be trimmed so as to remove the necrotic material thereby eliminating the anaerobic environment. Local antibiotics may be applied to the affected hoof after trimming. 10% zinc or copper sulfate or 10% formalin can be used for footbath [44].
\n\n
Goat is called as poor man’s cow but there are various bacterial diseases that cause economic loss to the goat farmers. Serval bacterial diseases cause acute infection hence there will be sudden onset of infection leading to huge mortality. Measures like use of vaccines before onset of disease, good management practices, etc., are essential to prevent the disease outbreaks. Animals with infection or clinical signs should be separated from rest of the animals so that infectious pathogens do not transmit to naïve animals and it is also recommended to quarantine newly purchased animals before admitting them into the farm. These practices can curtail the spread of infectious agents. It is also advisable to screen for diseases before purchasing the animals to the farm. Diseases like TB, JD and brucellosis should be screened before the purchase since these diseases are chronic in nature hence can remain undiagnosed. Animals infected with diseases that can affect human like anthrax, brucellosis, etc., should be handled carefully and better bio-security measures should be followed to prevent spread of disease within herd and also to human beings. Most of the bacterial infection can be treated with antimicrobial agents but these agents should be used judiciously because in the recent times antimicrobial resistance is a major problem.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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',metaTitle:"Terms and Conditions",metaDescription:"These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of IntechOpen Website at https://intechopen.com and all its subdomains owned by Intech Limited located at 7th floor, 10 Lower Thames Street, London, EC3R 6AF, UK.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
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\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
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\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Marquis, Éric Guillaume and Carine Chivas-Joly",authors:[{id:"44307",title:"Dr",name:"Damien",middleName:"Michel",surname:"Marquis",slug:"damien-marquis",fullName:"Damien Marquis"},{id:"44317",title:"Prof.",name:"Carine",middleName:null,surname:"Chivas-Joly",slug:"carine-chivas-joly",fullName:"Carine Chivas-Joly"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71103",title:"Preparation of Nanoparticles",slug:"preparation-of-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:3229,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Innovative developments of science and engineering have progressed very fast toward the synthesis of nanomaterials to achieve unique properties that are not the same as the properties of the bulk materials. The particle reveals interesting properties at the dimension below 100 nm, mostly from two physical effects. The two physical effects are the quantization of electronic states apparent leading to very sensitive size-dependent effects such as optical and magnetic properties and the high surface-to-volume ratio modifies the thermal, mechanical, and chemical properties of materials. The nanoparticles’ unique physical and chemical properties render them most appropriate for a number of specialist applications.",book:{id:"9109",slug:"engineered-nanomaterials-health-and-safety",title:"Engineered Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Engineered Nanomaterials - Health and Safety"},signatures:"Takalani Cele",authors:[{id:"305934",title:"Dr.",name:"Takalani",middleName:null,surname:"Cele",slug:"takalani-cele",fullName:"Takalani Cele"}]},{id:"72636",title:"Nanocomposite Materials",slug:"nanocomposite-materials",totalDownloads:2197,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Nanocomposites are the heterogeneous/hybrid materials that are produced by the mixtures of polymers with inorganic solids (clays to oxides) at the nanometric scale. Their structures are found to be more complicated than that of microcomposites. They are highly influenced by the structure, composition, interfacial interactions, and components of individual property. Most popularly, nanocomposites are prepared by the process within in situ growth and polymerization of biopolymer and inorganic matrix. With the rapid estimated demand of these striking potentially advanced materials, make them very much useful in various industries ranging from small scale to large to very large manufacturing units. With a great deal to mankind with environmental friendly, these offer advanced technologies in addition to the enhanced business opportunities to several industrial sectors like automobile, construction, electronics and electrical, food packaging, and technology transfer.",book:{id:"10072",slug:"nanotechnology-and-the-environment",title:"Nanotechnology and the Environment",fullTitle:"Nanotechnology and the Environment"},signatures:"Mousumi Sen",authors:[{id:"310218",title:"Dr.",name:"Mousumi",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"mousumi-sen",fullName:"Mousumi Sen"}]},{id:"38951",title:"Carbon Nanotube Transparent Electrode",slug:"carbon-nanotube-transparent-electrode",totalDownloads:4028,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"3077",slug:"syntheses-and-applications-of-carbon-nanotubes-and-their-composites",title:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites",fullTitle:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites"},signatures:"Jing Sun and Ranran Wang",authors:[{id:"153508",title:"Prof.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",slug:"jing-sun",fullName:"Jing Sun"},{id:"153596",title:"Ms.",name:"Ranran",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"ranran-wang",fullName:"Ranran Wang"}]},{id:"49413",title:"Electrodeposition of Nanostructure Materials",slug:"electrodeposition-of-nanostructure-materials",totalDownloads:3753,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"We are conducting a multi-disciplinary research work that involves development of nanostructured thin films of semiconductors for different applications. Nanotechnology is widely considered to constitute the basis of the next technological revolution, following on from the first Industrial Revolution, which began around 1750 with the introduction of the steam engine and steelmaking. Nanotechnology is defined as the design, characterization, production, and application of materials, devices and systems by controlling shape and size of the nanoscale. The nanoscale itself is at present considered to cover the range from 1 to 100 nm. All samples prepared in thin film forms and the characterization revealed their nanostructure. The major exploitation of thin films has been in microelectronics, there are numerous and growing applications in communications, optical electronics, coatings of all kinds, and in energy generation. A great many sophisticated analytical instruments and techniques, largely developed to characterize thin films, have already become indispensable in virtually every scientific endeavor irrespective of discipline. Among all these techniques, electrodeposition is the most suitable technique for nanostructured thin films from aqueous solution served as samples under investigation. The electrodeposition of metallic layers from aqueous solution is based on the discharge of metal ions present in the electrolyte at a cathodic surface (the substrate or component.) The metal ions accept an electron from the electrically conducting material at the solid- electrolyte interface and then deposit as metal atoms onto the surface. The electrons necessary for this to occur are either supplied from an externally applied potential source or are surrendered by a reducing agent present in solution (electroless reduction). The metal ions themselves derive either from metal salts added to solution, or by the anodic dissolution of the so-called sacrificial anodes, made of the same metal that is to be deposited at the cathode.",book:{id:"4718",slug:"electroplating-of-nanostructures",title:"Electroplating of Nanostructures",fullTitle:"Electroplating of Nanostructures"},signatures:"Souad A. M. Al-Bat’hi",authors:[{id:"174793",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",middleName:null,surname:"Souad",slug:"mohamad-souad",fullName:"Mohamad Souad"}]},{id:"71346",title:"Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement",slug:"application-of-nanomaterials-in-environmental-improvement",totalDownloads:1756,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"In recent years, researchers used many scientific studies to improve modern technologies in the field of reducing the phenomenon of pollution resulting from them. In this chapter, methods to prepare nanomaterials are described, and the main properties such as mechanical, electrical, and optical properties and their relations are determined. The investigation of nanomaterials needed high technologies that depend on a range of nanomaterials from 1 to 100 nm; these are scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray diffractions (XRD). The applications of nanomaterials in environmental improvement are different from one another depending on the type of devices used, for example, solar cells for producing clean energy, nanotechnologies in coatings for building exterior surfaces, and sonochemical decolorization of dyes by the effect of nanocomposite.",book:{id:"10072",slug:"nanotechnology-and-the-environment",title:"Nanotechnology and the Environment",fullTitle:"Nanotechnology and the Environment"},signatures:"Ali Salman Ali",authors:[{id:"313275",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"ali-salman",fullName:"Ali Salman"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"208",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81438",title:"Research Progress of Ionic Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting",slug:"research-progress-of-ionic-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting",totalDownloads:38,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101771",abstract:"Thermoelectric material is a kind of functional material that can mutually convert heat energy and electric energy. It can convert low-grade heat energy (less than 130°C) into electric energy. Compared with traditional electronic thermoelectric materials, ionic thermoelectric materials have higher performance. The Seebeck coefficient can generate 2–3 orders of magnitude higher ionic thermoelectric potential than electronic thermoelectric materials, so it has good application prospects in small thermoelectric generators and solar power generation. According to the thermoelectric conversion mechanism, ionic thermoelectric materials can be divided into ionic thermoelectric materials based on the Soret effect and thermocouple effect. They are widely used in pyrogen batteries and ionic thermoelectric capacitors. The latest two types of ionic thermoelectric materials are in this article. The research progress is explained, and the problems and challenges of ionic thermoelectric materials and the future development direction are also put forward.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jianwei Zhang, Ying Xiao, Bowei Lei, Gengyuan Liang and Wenshu Zhao"},{id:"79274",title:"Molecular Simulation of Cholesteric Liquid-Crystal Polyesteramides: Conformational and Structure Analysis by Rietveld Refinement",slug:"molecular-simulation-of-cholesteric-liquid-crystal-polyesteramides-conformational-and-structure-anal",totalDownloads:73,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100388",abstract:"Molecular modeling techniques are applied to polyesteramides designed as PNOBDME (C34H38N2O6)n and PNOBEE (C26H22N2O6)n, synthesized and characterized as cholesteric liquid crystals -through the condensation reaction between 4 and 4′-(terephthaloyl- diaminedibenzoic chloride (NOBC) and racemic glycol: DL-1,2 dodecanediol, or DL-1,2-butanediol, respectively, being chemical modifications of precursor multifunctional cholesteric LC polyesters, adding new properties but holding their helical macromolecular structures. Although the starting raw materials were racemic, these cholesteric LC polymers exhibit unexpected optical activity and chiral morphology. For that reason, conformational analysis is studied on the monomer models of PNOBDME and PNOBEE. Four helical conformers models, experimentally observed by NMR, are proposed for each cholesteric polyesteramide: Rgg, Rgt, Sgg, Sgt. Polymerization of the monomeric conformers, with minima energies, have been simulated and used to reproduce the crystalline fraction observed by x-ray diffraction. Three orders of chirality are observed in the structure of the polymer chains: One due to the asymmetric carbon atoms, a second chirality due to the two successive rotations of the benzene groups, along the main chain, within the monomer which implies the formation of helical molecules, for both R and S chirality and still, a third chirality corresponding to the twisting of the rigid/semirigid cholesteric LC polymer chains. All these factors contributing to the net optical activity observed in these materials. Crystal packing is simulated in triclinic primitive P1cells, with molecular chains oriented parallel to the z-axis (c lattice parameter equal to the pitch length of each simulated polymer helix) and parameters a, b, α, β and γ, obtained by Pawley refinement from the known structures of precursor polyesters. The simulated x-ray diffraction patterns of the proposed crystal models fit, after successive Pawley and Rietveld refinement cycles, the experimental WAXS. Powder Quantitative Phase Analysis applied to an ideal mixture with the four possible helical conformers, for each degree of polymerization, allows to refine their relative weight and determine the major phase relative amount. These results would confirm the theory of a preferable recrystallization, among the four possible helical diastereoisomers, depending on the synthetic conditions.",book:{id:"10957",title:"Liquid Crystals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10957.jpg"},signatures:"Mercedes Pérez Méndez, José Fayos Alcañiz and Marc Meunier"},{id:"80636",title:"The LCD Interfacing and Programming",slug:"the-lcd-interfacing-and-programming",totalDownloads:174,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102408",abstract:"This chapter will discuss 10 subchapters that will make it more detailed and easier for the reader to master and implement them in their project. Before discussing the subchapters in detail the author discusses the wide use of LCD in various equipment that needs display and the superiority of it compared to the conventional existing displays especially in the low energy consumption of it compare to the rest of the displays, then the author ended this general discussion by mentioning the type of LCD known in the market right now (passive matrix and active matrix). After discussing the LCD in general, the author starts discussing the detailed 10 subchapters. The 10 subchapters are 1. 2 × 16 LCD; 2. LCD controller; 3. LCD instructions; 4. LCD initialization; 5. More instructions; 6. LCD initialization subroutine; 7. Displaying a character on the LCD; 8. Displaying more than 1 character on the LCD; 9. A 4-bit mode 2 × 16 LCD module. To give the readers with a succinct overview of important details or interesting information, the author provides the summary of this chapter in subchapter 10. The author also provided the glossary to enable the readers to quickly study the general terms used in this chapter. Finally, the author provides some questions to enable the reader to test their own knowledge of this chapter. The references is also provided to enable the readers to refer to some articles as the sources of this subchapter and to enable them to enrich their knowledge of this chapter.",book:{id:"10957",title:"Liquid Crystals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10957.jpg"},signatures:"Dahlan Sitompul and Poltak Sihombing"},{id:"80473",title:"Overview of Liquid Crystal Research: Computational Advancements, Challenges, Future Prospects and Applications",slug:"overview-of-liquid-crystal-research-computational-advancements-challenges-future-prospects-and-appli",totalDownloads:81,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101417",abstract:"Liquid crystal (LC) is a fascinating state of matter that combines order and mobility at multiple hierarchical levels, spanning from nanoscale to the macroscale, or from molecular to the macroscopic, and is composed of molecules and layers as thin as of a few nanometer in size. This unique combination allows such a system to adapt to a wide range of external stimuli, including temperature, magnetic field, electric field, mechanical stress, light, chemical reaction, and electrochemical response, by determining a new lowest energy configuration. Liquid crystalline nanostructures efficiently transmit and amplify information and attributes over macroscopic sizes due to their dynamic nature. The responsiveness and diversity of LCs provide enormous potential and challenges for fundamental scientific insights as well as opening the door to countless applied applications. Recent breakthroughs in nanotechnology have boosted the discipline, both in terms of theoretical simulations and the ability to fabricate nanoscale structures such as sub-wavelength gratings, nanoporous materials, and nanoparticles. Because LC materials are switchable, a new family of active plasmonic and nanophotonic devices is emerging, describing fascinating basic research processes as well as the creation of upgraded devices. This chapter discusses the fundamentals, computational advances, future prospects and challenges, as well as potential applications of LCs.",book:{id:"10957",title:"Liquid Crystals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10957.jpg"},signatures:"Maria Malik, Muhammad Aamir Iqbal, Wajeehah Shahid, Syed Zaheer Ud Din, Mujtaba Ikram, Nadia Anwar, Samiah Shahid and Faryal Idrees"},{id:"80010",title:"Phase Transitions and Structure of Liquid Crystalline Cellulose Ether Solutions in a Magnetic Field and in Its Absence",slug:"phase-transitions-and-structure-of-liquid-crystalline-cellulose-ether-solutions-in-a-magnetic-field-",totalDownloads:87,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101451",abstract:"The results of research studies of a magnetic field effect on structure and phase transitions of liquid crystalline polymer systems are described. Influence of intensity of the magnetic field, molecular weight, and concentration of polymers in solutions on the phase diagrams is analyzed. The dependences of boundary curves on the chemical structure of polymers and solvents are discussed. Results of theoretical researches of the magnetic field effect on the diamagnetic macromolecule orientation in solutions are described. The shift of boundary curves of liquid crystalline cellulose derivative systems is compared with the energy of magnetic field stored by solutions.",book:{id:"10957",title:"Liquid Crystals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10957.jpg"},signatures:"Sergey Vshivkov and Elena Rusinova"},{id:"77670",title:"Thermoelectric Elements with Negative Temperature Factor of Resistance",slug:"thermoelectric-elements-with-negative-temperature-factor-of-resistance",totalDownloads:75,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98860",abstract:"The method of manufacturing of ceramic materials on the basis of ferrites of nickel and cobalt by synthesis and sintering in controllable regenerative atmosphere is presented. As the generator of regenerative atmosphere the method of conversion of carbonic gas is offered. Calculation of regenerative atmosphere for simultaneous sintering of ceramic ferrites of nickel and cobalt is carried out. It is offered, methods of the dilated nonequilibrium thermodynamics to view process of distribution of a charge and heat along a thermoelement branch. The model of a thermoelement taking into account various relaxation times of a charge and warmth is constructed.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Yuri Bokhan"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:11},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"18",type:"subseries",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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